VIEW OF AN INTEGRATED CIRCUIT

• Scanning electron microscope images of an IC:

Al (d) (a)

Si
Lecture 12 (doped)
45 µm 0.5 mm
• A dot map showing location of Si (a semiconductor):
--Si shows up as light regions.
ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES (b)

• A dot map showing location of Al (a conductor):

--Al shows up as light regions. (c)

ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES What is Electrical Current?

Transport, or flow, of electrical charge (charged species) in the
material
• How are electrical conductance and resistance
V
characterized?
= Usually Electrons
• What are the physical phenomena that distinguish
conductors, semiconductors, and insulators?
• For metals, how is conductivity affected by I
imperfections, T, and deformation? Define Electrical Current:
• For semiconductors, how is conductivity affected I = J*Area
(Amount of Charge per second, or C/s = A = Amps = Amperes)
by impurities (doping) and T?

Flux of Charge = Current Density

J=
Charge  C  A
=  2 = 2
Time * Area s*m  m
2 4
 ELECTRICAL CONDUCTION ELECTRICAL CONDUCTION
§ Where E is the electric
?=
V
field created by a • Resistivity, r and Conductivity, s :
L V
potential V is applied to a --geometry-independent forms of Ohm's Law
material of length L:
I A
E: electric ∆V I resistivity
= ρ
I § J is the current density or
J= field (Ohm -m)
A flux, flow of charge per L L A
intensity
unit area A. J: current density
V
• Resistance:
ρ=R
A § And ? is the resistivity or =
I
L resistance per unit V
distance (?·m).
= L
L
V  ρL L
1 E  m V  = = R= =
ρ= = = m = Ωm A Aσ
σ J  A 2 A 

 m  Property of a Specific Resistive Properties of Dimensions of the
= x
Piece of Material t he Material Specific Piece
5 7

ELECTRICAL CONDUCTION What Determines the Resistivity?

§ When a potential V is applied across a material, it induces a flow of § The quantity R depends on the shape and size of a material that is
charge: the current I (number of charge per second) that depends on experimentally measured
the resistance R. § The physical property of the material r is define for a certain type of
• Ohm's Law: ∆V = I R material regardless of its size and shape.
voltage drop (volts) resistance (Ohms)
§ The conductivity s is the inverse of the resistivity and how many charges
current (amps) will flow through an area A per unit time under an applied electric field E
and has units of (?·m)-1.

I
conductivity σ=
ρ
current density J= σ E
e-
I
§Charged Particles (usually electrons) Moving Through the Material
§Can be: Ions or “holes” V

Charge
J=  C  A
Time * Area
=  s m2  = m2
 * 
I
∆V
6 8
 What Determines the Resistivity? Band structure: metallic conductors
Then, the current density in the material is given by: § Due to the delocalized nature of valence electrons in the metallic bond, all

{
metals are conductors.
n = Number of charged particles (“carriers” per unit § This implies that all metals must have a partially filled energy band.
J=nev volume
v = Average (“drift”) velocity of the electrons
e = Charge of one electron
§ There are two types of band
structures for metallic
conductors.
A # of carriers C m C § Metals with a partially filled s,
= * * s = m 2s p, or d band.
m2 m3 carrier
§ Metals with overlapping full
and empty bands which
And the conductivity is then generate an overall partially
filled energy band.
v  m2 

{
J v µ= Carriermobility,  
σ = =ne E Vs
E E n=Carrierdensity, (m ) -3

9 11

BAND STRUCTURE AND CONDUCTIVITY IN SOLIDS Band structure: metallic conductors

§ Metallic elements with a full s or d orbital such as
§ The band structure describes the energy bands of a solids material. Mg12 : [Ne 10] 1s2 or
§ The structure of the energy bands determine the properties of electrical Zn30 : [Ar 18]4s2 3d 10
conductivity of a solids material.
can still form a partially filled energy band by overlapping s, p and d bands.
§ The band structure is defined by the type of bonding in the solid. § Metallic elements with a ½ filled s orbital such as
§ There are three types of band structures. alkali or with a partially filled p or d orbital such as
§ Conductors have
one partially filled Al13 : [Ne 10]3s2 p1 or
band. Ti22 : [Ar 18]3d2 4s2 will generate a partially filled s, p or d band.
§ Insulator have two
bands separated
by a large band
gap that electrons
can not cross.
§ Semiconductors
have two bands
separated by a
small band gap
that some
electrons can
cross.
10 12
 Band structure: ionic solids
§ Ionic solids by definition are composed of atoms of very different
electronegativity. This induces charge transfer and ions formation.
§ To obtain the band structure we can
describe the ionic bond in terms of
molecular orbitals.
§ We combine the valence electrons of
Na:[Ne]3s1with the valence electron of
Cl:[Ne]3s2p5.
§ Because of the large difference in
electronegativity, the energy of the Na 3s
orbitals are much higher in energy than
the Cl 3p orbitals which are tightly bound
to the nucleus and stabilized in energy.
§ The result is that the two orbitals do not
interact significantly and the antibonding
has mostly the Na character while the
bonding has mostly the Cl character.
§ This is why the e- from Na is transferred to
Cl
13
Band structure: ionic solids
§ We can extend that MO diagram to the solid by combining many atomic
orbitals and obtain the energy band structure.
§ Due to the difference in energy the Na and Cl form two separate bands
§ The high energy band formed by the Na 3s is empty as the Na e- are
transferred to the Cl. It is called the conduction band.
§ The low energy band is formed from the Cl 3p orbitals which are filled with
the Na e- (Cl-: 3p6). It is called the valence band.
§ Na 3s band
(empty)
Conduction
band
§ Cl 3p band
(full) Valence
band
14
Band structure: ionic solids
§ The large difference in energy between the two bands result in a large band
gap Eg.
§ Hence ionic solids are insulators.
§ The valence band is full and can not contribute to the conductivity.
§ The band gap Eg is too big for electrons to
access the conduction band which stays
empty and cannot contribute to the
Conduction conductivity either.
band empty
Valence
band full
15
Band structure: covalent solids
§ Semiconductors are covalent solids and form directional bonds in
tetrahedral lattices.
§ Elements from group IV (Si, Ge) are well known semiconductors. They have
4 valence electrons and form 4 covalent bonds in a tetrahedral
configuration (diamond lattice).
§ Compound semiconductors also have a total average of 4 valence electrons
and form a similar tetrahedral structure (Zinc Blend)
§ Binary semiconductors such as ZnS (2e- provided by Zn and 6e- by S) and
GaAs (3e- provided by Ga and 5e- by As) have an average of 4 valence
electrons per atom.
§ There are also ternary semiconductors such as CuAlSe2 and AgGaTe 2.
16
 Band structure: covalent solids Band structure: covalent solids
§ Elements forming semiconductors combine the s and px, py, pz orbitals to § The antibonding is then empty and correspond to the conduction band of
form 4 equivalent sp3 hybrid orbitals. the semiconductor.

Þ
§ The energy gap between the bands is narrow and a few electrons can be
promoted into the conduction band and contribute to conductivity.
§ A material with a band gap below 4 eV is consider a semiconductor.
§ The bonding band correspond to the valence band and is therefore full
since each atom provide two electrons to the covalent bond.
§ The four sp3 hybrid orbitals have the same shape and energy and adopt a
tetrahedral configuration.
§ Semiconductors have intermediary
conduction between metals and insulators
§ The tetrahedral geometry of the sp3 hybrids give rise to the diamond
structure of semiconductors. Antibonding
Conduction

Bonding
Valence

17 19

Band structure: covalent solids Band structure: The case of semimetals:

§ We can build the MO diagram for the interaction of these sp3 orbitals and § In some solids such as graphite and bismuth, the two bands that are barely
extend that concept to the solid by combining many sp3 orbitals and obtain overlapping. At T=0 K a few electrons are in the upper band and the lower
the band structure. band is not entirely filled. This generates conductivity intermediary between
§ Hybridization metals and semiconductors.
gives 4 equivalent
orbitals
§ Initially there are s
and p orbitals.
§ Two sp3 combine
into a bonding and
antibonding
orbitals
§ Combining many
sp3 generate a
antibonding band
and a bonding
band.
§ These two bands Electronic levels at T=0 K
are separated by a
small gap Eg..
18 20
 CONDUCTIVITY IN SOLIDS
σ=neµ
§ n is the number of charge carriers (electrons) per unit volume (m-3).
§ e is the charge of the electron (1.6x10-19C).
§ µ is the mobility of the electron.
§ µ is the proportionality constant between the electric field and the
velocityacquired by the electron in that field: v= µ·E. (µ has unit of
m2V-1s-1)
§ s then has units of m -3Cm2V-1s-1=(VsC-1)-1m-1or W -1m-1.
Mobility: m
§ The path of the electron throughout the crystalline lattice is limited by
collisions with impurities lattice imperfections and lattice vibration
(phonon) induced by thermal energy.
§ At low temperature vibrations have small amplitude and the mobility is
dominated by the lattice defects.
§ At higher temperature the decrease in mobility is dominated by increasing
lattice vibrations which scatters the moving electrons.
§ Since thermal vibrations increase with temperature the conductivity of
metals decrease with increasing temperature.

Typically:
§ Metals: large n, low µ
§ Semiconductors: large µ, low n
§ Insulators: n=0

21 23

Mobility: m Mobility: m
§ An electron under an electric field E should § In metals: the mobility of electrons in metals is fairly low due to the large
keep gaining energy and accelerating. quantity of lattice defects. However n is very large and sis high.
§ An electron under an electric field E
§ Plastic deformation of metals increases the density of defects and
should keep gaining energy and therefore decreases the mobility and conductivity.
accelerating. § Similarly, alloying increase the number of impurities scattering center and
also decreases the mobility and conductivity.
§ This scattering phenomenon is
manifested as a resistance to the § In semiconductors: the strong and
passage of an electric current and rigid covalent network limits
electrons moving through solids vibrations, the electron mobility is
therefore reach an average constant therefore higher, however the carrier
mobility µ. concentrations n are very low and the
§ An electron moving through a solid overall conductivity is lower.
constantly collides with defects in § In general: Heavier atoms vibrate
the crystalline structure as well as more slowly with lower amplitude
vibrating atoms. and therefore induce less scattering
§ The electrons are randomly scattered events.
in any direction. § Hence, compounds with higher
§ This is why materials have a finite atomic weigh typically exhibit higher
resistance R. mobility.
22 24
 Carrier concentration: n Carrier distribution in semiconductors
§ In metals, n is essentially the total number of valence electrons, hence the § The electron gaining enough energy to
conductivity of metals is larger by many orders of magnitude. jump over the band gap are called
§ The charge carriers are the free electrons that can be promoted to a intrinsic carriers.
higher energy level under application of an electric field and can therefore
contribute to the electrical conductivity.
§ In insulator n=0 as there are no free electrons.
§ According to Fermi statistics, the
number of intrinsic carriers at
temperature T is given by:

§ Nc is considered constant at Nc=5x1025m-3. It is the maximum value of n

when the exponential term tend to 1 at high T.
§ In semiconductors, n correspond to the number of electrons thermally § Nc is the density of electrons at the top of the valence band from which
promoted in the conduction band and therefore n increase with the electrons are promoted into the conduction band.
temperature. 25 27

Carrier distribution in semiconductors Conductivity in semiconductors

§ In semiconductors at temperature T=0°K no electron have enough energy § These electron can jump into a empty state, leaving their own state empty
to cross the band gap. Hence at T=0°K, n=0 and the conductivity is zero. which will be filled by another electron. The net results of this motion is
much easier to describe in term of an empty state or hole moving in the
§ As the material gets hotter the opposite directions of the electrons. These holes correspond to a missing
thermal energy E=kT becomes electron hence have positive charge.
sufficient to promote electrons in the § In semiconductors the electrons excited in the conduction band leave
conduction band. empty levels or holes in the valence band. Hence some electron from the
valence band can also contribute to the conductivity by changing their
energy in response to the electric field.

§ As T and E=kT increases, more and more electrons are excited in the
upper band and can contribute to the electrical conductivity, the number
of charge carrier n increase with increasing temperature.
§ Hence the conductivity of semiconductors increases with increasing
temperature.
§ At very high temperature, n reaches a maximum and eventually the § The total conductivity of a semiconductor must then be expressed as the
vibration amplitudes start to dominate the mobility just as in metals and contribution of both charge carriers, electrons and holes. The mobility of
the conductivity ultimately decreases holes is always lower than electrons and their contribution can be
26 minimal but must be accounted for. 28
 Conductivity in semiconductors EX: CONDUCTIVITY PROBLEM
§ In pure semiconductors ne=nh however µe> µh.
§ Note the hole mobility is always lower than electrons mobility and that
• Problem 12.2, p. 524, Callister 2e:
mobility generally increase with atomic weigh.
100m
§ Compounds such as GaAs which have much higher mobility than silicon
Cu wire - e- I = 2.5A +
gain importance for semiconductor device application as they can
increase device speed and minimize device heating from electron friction
∆V
during scattering events.

What is the minimum diameter (D) of the wire so that

∆V < 1.5V?
100m
< 1.5V
L ∆V
R= = 2.5A
Aσ I
πD2 7 -1
6.07 x 10 (Ohm-m)
4
Solve to get D > 1.88 mm
29 31

CONDUCTIVITY: COMPARISON CONDUCTION & ELECTRON TRANSPORT

-1 • Metals:
• Room T values (Ohm-m)
METALS CERAMICS -- Thermal energy puts - +
conductors
many electrons into
Silver 6.8 x 10 7 Soda-lime glass 10 -10
a higher energy state. net e - flow
Copper 6.0 x 10 7 Concrete 10 -9
• Energy States: Energy Energy
Iron 1.0 x 10 7 Aluminum oxide <10 -13 -- the cases below empty
for metals show band
that nearby GAP empty
band
SEMICONDUCTORS POLYMERS energy states partly
are accessible filled filled
Silicon 4 x 10 -4 Polystyrene <10 -14
by thermal valence valence

filled states
2 x 10 0 Polyethylene 10 -15 -10 -17 band

filled states
Germanium fluctuations. band
GaAs 10 -6
semiconductors insulators filled filled
band band
30 32
ENERGY STATES: INSULATORS AND EX: ESTIMATING CONDUCTIVITY
SEMICONDUCTORS • Question:
• Insulators: • Semiconductors: --Estimate the electrical conductivity of a Cu-Ni alloy
that has a yield strength of 125MPa.
--Higher energy states not --Higher energy states 180

Yield strength (MPa)

accessible due to gap. separated by a smaller gap. 50

(10 -8 Ohm-m)
Resistivity, ρ
160
Energy Energy 140 40
empty
empty 120 30
band
band 10 0 20
GAP ? 21 wt%Ni
GAP 80 10
60 0
filled filled 0 10 20 3 0 4 0 5 0 0 10 20 30 4 0 50
valence valence wt. %Ni, (Concentration C) wt. %Ni, (Concentration C)
filled states

filled states
ρ = 30x10 −8 Ohm − m
band band

1
filled filled σ= = 3.3x10 6 (Ohm − m) −1
band band ρ
33 35

METALS: RESISTIVITY VS T, IMPURITIES SEMICONDUCTORS

§ Pure semiconductors are elements from group IV:
• Imperfections increase resistivity Ge, Si with 4 electrons on the outer shell
--grain boundaries Si14 :[Ne10]2s2 2p 2.
These act to scatter
--dislocations § They form tetrahedral sp3 hybrid orbitals each
electrons so that they
--impurity atoms take a less direct path.
populated with one electron.
--vacancies § Following the octet rule each sp3 will share an
electron with an adjacent atom and form 4 covalent
6 bonds in tetrahedral configuration.
Ni
ρ

at% • Resistivity § Si and Ge semiconductor crystals therefore adopt

5 3.32
(10 -8 Ohm-m)

Cu + i the tetrahedral structure of diamond.

Resistivity,

t%N i increases with:

4
+ 2.16 a 2 at%N --temperature § This covalent network generates a full bonding
Cu + 1.1
band (valence) and a empty antibonding band
3 d Cu --wt% impurity
rme i (conduction) separated by a small energy gap (Eg)
defo at%N --%CW
2 1.12 which produce semiconducting properties.
Cu + u
1
“Pur
e” C ρ = ρthermal
0 -200 -100 0 T (°C) +ρ thermal
+ρdef
34 36
 Semiconductivity
§ Some electrons get thermally excited across the band gap into the
conduction band. The population of conducting electrons therefore
increase with temperature.
§ Excited electrons leave empty levels (holes) in the valence band which
also contribute to the conductivity .
§ The total conductivity must be expressed as the contribution of both
charge carriers.
37
SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES:
DEVICES: N-type doping
§ Doping of semiconductors consist in introducing a small amount of
substitutional impurities in the materials. Usually one in 1012 atoms.
§ N-type doping correspond to introduction of impurities from Group V
such as P and As.
§ Group V elements have 5 valence electrons, 4 of which are involved in the
covalent bonds and one extra bound around the dopant atoms Hence
group V elements are called donor impurities.
§ With a small amount of energy the impurity is ionized and the electron
become free to contribute to the conductivity.
38
SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES:
DEVICES: N-type doping
§ Addition of group V element is therefore termed N-type doping because it
donate negatively charged mobile carriers (electrons).
§ In terms of band structure, the additional electron generates a donor state
within the band gap at about 0.05 eVbelow the conduction band.
§ This electron can then be easily excited in the conduction band
(ionization of dopant) and contribute to the conductivity of silicon.
§ Essentially all donor levels are ionized at ambient temperature.
39
SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES:
DEVICES: P-type doping
§ In contrast, P-type doping corresponds to the substitution of minute
amount of group III elements such as B and Al into the Silattice.
§ The migration of the holes generates a net charge movement which also
contribute to the conductivity. Holes migrate in the direction opposite to
electrons.
§ This generates a hole in the electronic structure which can be filled with a
neighboring electron, hence group III elements are called
§ Group III elements have only three valence electrons hence one electron
is missing in the covalent bond structure. acceptor impurities.
40
 SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES:
DEVICES: P-type doping CONDUCTION IN TERMS OF ELECTRON
§ Addition of group III elements is therefore termed P-type doping because
AND HOLE MIGRATION
it contribute positively charged mobile carriers (holes).
§ In the band structure model the missing electron generates an acceptor
state within the band gap at about 0.1 eV above the valence band. • Concept of electrons and holes:
§ However electrons from the valence band can get thermally excited into valence electron hole electron hole
Si atom
electron pair creation pair migration
the acceptor state and the hole thus created in the valence band are
mobile and can contribute to the conductivity.
§ The hole on the acceptor state is not mobile (lightly bound to dopant).
+ - + -

no applied applied applied

electric field electric field electric field

• Electrical Conductivity given by:

# holes/m 3
σ = ne µ e + p e µ h
hole mobility
# electrons/m 3 electron mobility
41 43

PURE SEMICONDUCTORS: CONDUCTIVITY VS T INTRINSIC VS EXTRINSIC CONDUCTION

• Intrinsic
Intrinsic:
• Data for Pure Silicon: −Egap / kT # electrons = # holes (n = p)
--σ increases with T σundoped ∝ e --case for pure Si
--opposite to metals Energy
§ In a intrinsic semiconductor there is no dopant and the conductivity is
electrical conductivity, σ empty due to the electron excited across the band gap and the holes created in
(Ohm-m) -1 ? band the valence band:
10 4 GAP
electrons § At ambient T the number of holes and electrons is 1.5×1016m-3 for Si.
10 3 filled can cross
valence gap at
filled states

10 2 band
higher T
10 1
filled
10 0 pure band
(undoped)
10 -1
material band gap (eV)
10 -2 Si 1.11
50 10 0 1000
T(K) Ge 0.67
GaP 2.25
CdS 2.40
42 44
 INTRINSIC VS EXTRINSIC CONDUCTION INTRINSIC VS EXTRINSIC CONDUCTION
§ The number of extrinsic carrier is:
• Extrinsic
Extrinsic:: Where Eb is the gap between the band and the
--n ? p defect state and ND is the number of dopant
--occurs when impurities are added with a different atom.
# valence electrons than the host (e.g., Si atoms) § The number of intrinsic carrier is:
where Eg is the band gap.
§ In an extrinsic semiconductor the number of charge carriers depends
primarily on dopant concentration since essentially all dopants are
ionized at room temperature. A typical level of dopant is 1022m-3.
§ Hence for N-type semiconductors (major carriers: electrons).
§ And for P-type semiconductors (major carriers: holes).

§ At low T, kT>Eb and nex @ ND.

§ Eg>Eb hence at moderate T: n ex @ ND and n ex>>n in
§ At high T, kT>Eg and nin>> nex
45 47

INTRINSIC VS EXTRINSIC CONDUCTION DOPED SEMICON: CONDUCTIVITY VS T

• Extrinsic:
Extrinsic : • Data for Doped Silicon: • Comparison: intrinsic vs
• N-type Extrinsic: (n >> p) • P-type Extrinsic: (p >> n) -- s increases doping extrinsic conduction...
--reason: imperfection sites --extrinsic doping level:1021/m 3 of a n-
Phosphorus atom Boron atom type donor impurity (such as P).
lower the activation energy to
hole produce mobile electrons. --for T < 100K: "freeze-out“ thermal
4+ 4+ 4+ 4+ conduction 4+ 4+ 4+ 4+ energy insufficient to excite
σ ≈ n e µe electron
σ ≈ p e µh 10 4
electrons.

σ
4+ 5+ 4+ 4+ 4+ 3+ 4+ 4+
0.0052at%B --for 150K < T < 450K: "extrinsic"
valence
4+ 4+ 4+ 4+ electron 4+ 4+ 4+ 4+ 10 3 --for T >> 450K: "intrinsic"

electrical conductivity,

concentration (10 21 /m 3 )
no applied Si atom no applied doped

(Ohm-m) -1
electric field electric field
10 2 0.0013at%B doped
undoped
10 1 3

conduction electron

freeze-out

extrinsic

in trinsic
10 0 pure
(undoped) 2
10 -1
1
10 -2
50 10 0 1 000 0
46 T(K) 0 2 00 4 00 600 T(K)48
 DOPED SEMICON: CONDUCTIVITY VS T P- N RECTIFYING JUNCTION
§ In intrinsic semiconductors, charge carriers are thermally excited across • Allows flow of electrons in one direction only (e.g., useful
the band gap and are generated according to Boltzman statistics. to convert alternating current to direct current.
§ In extrinsic semiconductors most carriers are free at room temperature and • Processing: diffuse P into one side of a B-doped crystal.
the number of carriers is constant in the intrinsic region. • Results:
§ In the upper T limit, electrons get thermally promoted across the band gap + p -type+ n -type
- -
and the semiconductor reverts to intrinsic behavior. --No applied potential:
+
§ In the freeze out region, T is too low to ionize the defects. no net current flow.
+ + - - -
--Forward bias: carrier
flow through p-type and p -type + - n-type
+ + -
n-type regions; holes and
electrons recombine at
++- - -
+-
p-n junction; current flows.

--Reverse bias: carrier

+p -type+ n -type -
flow away from p-n junction; - + - - +
carrier conc. greatly reduced
at junction; little current flow.
+ + - -
49 51

DOPED SEMICON: CONDUCTIVITY VS T SUMMARY

§ The conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor changes with T and the • Electrical conductivity and resistivity are:
slope of lns vs 1/T give Eg.
§ In contrast the conductivity of an extrinsic semiconductor stabilizes at the
--material parameters.
temperature where nin @ nex=ND. --geometry independent.
§ For higher concentration of dopant, ND is higher and the switch from • Electrical resistance is:
intrinsic to extrinsic takes place at higher T. --a geometry and material dependent parameter.
• Conductors, semiconductors, and insulators...
--different in whether there are accessible energy
states for conductance electrons.
• For metals, conductivity is increased by
--reducing deformation
--reducing imperfections
--decreasing temperature.
• For pure semiconductors, conductivity is increased by
--increasing temperature
--doping (e.g., adding B to Si (p-type) or P to Si (n-type).
50 52