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Australian professor Dean Forbes “commutes” to the countries of Southeast Asia four
times each year. In this series of questions and answers, Forbes describes some of
the chief attractions of Cambodia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines, and
Thailand. He probes the reasons behind the rapid economic growth of Malaysia,
Singapore, and Thailand, and why the socialist countries of Cambodia, Laos, and
Vietnam have not fared as well. Forbes also provides a sobering assessment of the
legacy of the Vietnam War (1959-1975).

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ABOUT SOUTHEAST ASIA

Q: How have the economies of Southeast Asia fared under Communist

governments?
A: Not very well. Today, in fact, the poorest countries in Southeast Asia are Vietnam,
Laos, and Cambodia, where Communist parties achieved power in the 1970s.
At that time, government attempts to establish rural cooperatives and to develop socialist
industrial economies, with the support of the Soviet Union and China, had limited
success. Policy failure was a key reason, but the high level of war damage that these
countries suffered, and their isolation from the expanding global economy in the 1970s
and 1980s, compounded their woes. During the 1980s, the governments of Vietnam and
Laos began to introduce market reforms in an attempt to stimulate economic activity, but
with mixed results. In Vietnam, for example, the economy initially improved, but during
the late 1990s economic growth slowed.
Q: What were the forces behind the rapid growth and subsequent
volatility of many Southeast Asian economies in the 1980s and 1990s?
A: There is much debate about the causes of the economic miracle that characterized
development in Singapore, Thailand, Malaysia, and, to a certain extent, Indonesia in the
1980s and until the economic crisis of 1997. There are three main theories.
The first theory holds that the cause was primarily strong, strategically astute
governments that promoted particular kinds of industries, especially those with an export
orientation. Singapore is often cited as a good illustration of this theory.
The second theory suggests that deregulation of economies allowed open markets to
flourish, releasing the productive resources within Southeast Asian countries. The best
illustration of this is Hong Kong.
The third theory argues that the key was so-called Asian values, such as the emphasis
given to cooperative family-based work, high levels of family savings, and a readiness to
invest in businesses. This argument is often directed at the economies of China, Taiwan,
and Singapore.
None of these theories is wrong, as each argument has an element of truth. However, I
believe the first theory explains the success of more countries than the second and third
theories do.
During the 1980s and for most of the 1990s, the growing Southeast Asian economies
were remarkably consistent in their growth from year to year, even when global
economic activity dipped. This reflected their focus on competitively priced
manufacturing exports, especially for the United States and European markets, where
demand remained consistent.
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Q: What kinds of cultural challenges have Southeast Asian nations

faced as their economies have developed?
A: During the Southeast Asian “economic miracle” of the late 1980s to mid-1990s, the
primary beneficiaries were the indigenous entrepreneurs, who often became extremely
wealthy, and the urban middle class, which expanded considerably in number and
individual wealth. These classes desire, and can afford, imported products such as motor
vehicles, televisions, cellular phones, and computers. They are also able to travel abroad
more frequently than they did before the economic boom.
These groups have become more exposed to global cultures, in which the American
influence is dominant. The influence of Western culture is apparent in the growth of fast-
food franchises such as McDonald’s and Wendy’s, the significantly greater use of the
English language, and the preference for Hollywood movies.
Some governments fear the impact of global culture on indigenous culture and sense of
identity. They try to slow the spread of Western culture by restricting imports of Western
films and television shows, censoring the use of the Internet, and discouraging the
adoption of Western practices. They also foster local culture. In Indonesia, for example,
schools and universities are required to teach in the national language, Bahasa Indonesia,
and not in English.
Q: What steps have the socialist countries in Southeast Asia taken to
improve their economies in recent years?
A: During the 1980s Vietnam was the first socialist country in Southeast Asia to
introduce market reforms as a way to stimulate economic activity. Laos also began to
introduce market reforms, though to a lesser extent than its neighbor, and with fewer
tangible results.
In Cambodia, on the other hand, fighting between government forces and the Khmer
Rouge guerrillas effectively destroyed any chance for sustained economic development.
With the recent demise of the Khmer Rouge, Cambodia now has a better chance to focus
on economic growth.
In Vietnam, the government began by legalizing private small-scale agricultural
production. It then implemented reforms to facilitate small-scale entrepreneurialism in
urban areas, financing, and foreign trade. The Vietnamese government insisted it was still
a socialist economy, but the removal of subsidies gave it some characteristics of a market
economy.
The economic reforms, called doi moi in Vietnamese, had an immediate impact. Foreign
investment began to flow into Vietnam, and agricultural and industrial production
increased. The country became a net rice exporter after years of failing to provide
sufficient rice for its own population. During the late 1990s, however, economic growth
slowed and foreign investors began to pull out, disillusioned with the government’s
failure to sustain support for a more open economy.
Q: How are Asia’s formerly so-called miracle economies (Indonesia,
Thailand, Malaysia, and South Korea) faring in the aftermath of the
Asian financial crisis of the late 1990s? Are some doing better than
others, and if so, why?
A: Economic growth in Asia Pacific in 2001 seems likely to be lower than it was in 2000
as a result of the slowdown in the North American economy. However, Asian Pacific
countries in general seem to have bounced back after the economic crisis.
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During 2001 commentators forecast increases in gross domestic product (GDP) for Asia
Pacific: 5.8 percent growth for Malaysia, 4.7 percent for South Korea, 4.0 percent for
Indonesia, and 3.9 percent for Thailand. Most would agree that the forecast growth rates
for Malaysia and South Korea are more likely to be achieved than are those for Indonesia
and Thailand.
Q: What are some of the most interesting attractions for visitors to
Cambodia?
A: Cambodia is not a country that is visited by many people. Its history is little known or
understood by those in the West, and in recent times people have been horrified by the
brutality of the Pol Pot regime that ruled the country from 1975 to 1979.
In more recent times the country has not been without danger. Millions of unexploded
landmines and bombs are left over from the war, and continuing political unrest has led to
the kidnapping of a number of people traveling outside recognized tourist centers.
However, Cambodia is a beautiful country whose people are trying to put behind them
the terrors of the past and move into a new more peaceful age. Though the negative side
of Cambodia’s history may dominate, there are many aspects of the country for people to
enjoy.
The most famous attraction is Angkor, a complex of large and small wats (temples) and
other monuments. Wats may be very small, or as at Angkor, more like an entire town. The
size of the complex is one of its most impressive aspects. The whole place is an
impressive monument to the ancient civilization of Khmer people—the oldest parts were
built more than 1,000 years ago.
The Mekong River is the lifeline of Cambodia. It is a transport route, and it supplies
water for most of the rice growing in Cambodia. Besides the river itself, a major lake,
Ton le Sap, is a great attraction. For visitors, the sight of water apparently running the
wrong way is of interest. This occurs when the Mekong is in flood and the water flows
into the lake rather than out of it, as it does the rest of the year.
The Water Festival is held to coincide with this phenomenon. It begins on the last full
moon in October and continues for three days. Visitors come from all over the country to
watch brightly colored boats taking part in daytime races, while in the evenings decorated
floats and fireworks help people celebrate the coming of the fish-laden water.
Q: What elements of the Dutch colonization are still evident in
Indonesia today?
A: The Dutch influence on contemporary Indonesia is not all that obvious compared to,
say, the French impact on Vietnam, but it is nonetheless identifiable. A few older people
remember how to speak Dutch, but the language is rarely used. However, some Dutch
words have been incorporated into Bahasa Indonesia, and Indonesian institutions—such
as universities—are structured similarly to institutions in The Netherlands.
Indonesia’s foreign policy is not particularly oriented to The Netherlands. Dutch scholars
maintain a major interest in Indonesia, and some Indonesian students go to universities in
The Netherlands, although more go to Australia and the United States. Some Indonesian
families have members living in The Netherlands, where there are significant
communities of Indonesians, including many who have opposed recent Indonesian
governments.
The Dutch influence on the architecture and the shape of some cities is still visible. The
planning of Jakarta, known as Batavia under the Dutch, was influenced by the model of
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Amsterdam, and the city is therefore crisscrossed by a series of canals. It also contains
many Dutch colonial buildings such as the Presidential Palace, Istana Merdaka.
Q: Why is the press less restricted in Thailand and the Philippines than
it is in other countries of Southeast Asia?
A: The Philippines and Thailand have media that are much more open to diverse and
dissenting views. Newspapers and television in the Philippines provide outlets for the
views of a large number of columnists and commentators, who write opinion pieces and
editorialize about a wide range of subjects. The greater diversity of opinion reflects the
looser form of democracy in Thailand and the Philippines, where opposition to
government is tolerated.
By contrast, military regimes, or regimes dependent on strong military backing—
including those in Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos, and Myanmar (Burma)—have routinely
sought to muzzle the press. In these countries, newspapers are heavily censored, and
often the military has its own newspapers as well.
The press was muzzled in Suharto’s Indonesia. In an effort to disseminate government
television throughout the country, Indonesia launched several Palapa satellites. However,
many people bought satellite dishes to receive the government stations and discovered
they could receive other satellite television broadcasts, including channels critical of the
government. The current government has relatively little control of the media. Diverse
political opinions are flourishing, and many new newspapers and magazines have started
up since 1998 when Suharto’s presidency ended.
In Singapore and Malaysia there is less overt censorship of the press. However, the
respective governments retain tight control, and the publication of opinions critical of the
government is rare. In order to get more independent news on local politics, Malaysians
are increasingly turning to a Web site called Malaysiakini. The government is intent on
discrediting the site, if not closing it down. Governments throughout the region are
finding it difficult to control access to the Internet.
Q: With Indonesia’s increasing population growth, are there enough
resources to meet the country’s needs? How will the native people be
affected by this growth and development?
A: Indonesia’s population is growing, of course, but at a much slower rate than it once
was. Annual population growth rates of 2.3 percent in the 1970s had declined to about 2.1
percent in the 1980s and 1.5 percent in the 1990s. This decline was due to a well-run
family planning program and the impact of urbanization and economic development.
Population growth rates are expected to drop further to about 1.2 percent over the next
five years. On this basis Indonesia is currently projected to have a population of 217
million in 2003. Although parts of the country such as Java are densely populated,
Indonesia has significant natural resources, and the shift of population to the cities will
ease the pressures in the rural areas. However, Indonesia’s political instability is seriously
undermining the economy and threatening the gains of recent years. This is the most
serious challenge facing the Indonesian government, not the ratio of population to
resources.
Q: What are some of the most interesting attractions for visitors to
Laos?
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A: For many people, Laos remains largely unknown. It is a landlocked country located
between Thailand and Vietnam, and until recent times there has been little awareness of it
in the West.
Many of the most interesting aspects of Laos have to do with its geographical and
political isolation. It is not an easy place to get to and remains one of the few Communist-
led countries. During its history Laos has been dominated by several of its neighbors, and
the Lao inheritance has been influenced by a wide variety of cultures.
Buddhist beliefs are of major importance in Laos, and many of the most significant
buildings are associated with Buddhism. The Buddhist monks live in wats (temples), and
there are many wats to see. They contain images of Buddha, many in either the Calling
for Rain posture or the Contemplating the Bodhi Tree posture, which are distinctively
Laotian. The national monument of greatest significance is Pha That Luang (Lao for
“The Great Stupa”). The design of the building represents the Buddhist search for
perfection.
The traditions of the Laotian people are of great interest. While some of the classical
music and dance are now rarely performed, visitors can readily find performances of
Laotian folk music and dance.
One of the best times to be in Laos is in April, when everyone celebrates Pi Mai, the lunar
New Year. During this weeklong festival, everyone enjoys a ritual cleansing and renewal.
They make special offerings to the newly washed Buddhas in the wats, clean their homes,
and wear new clothes. Water is used liberally to throw at other people, and tourists are not
excluded!
Throughout the year there are other significant festivals. A more serious one takes place
in July. The monks retreat to their wats, and it is a time for the young men to enter the
monastery, even if only for a short time, to learn more about the life of Buddha.
Q: What have been the effects of logging in Southeast Asia?
A: The logging and degradation of Southeast Asia’s primary tropical rain forests is a
growing worry within the region, as well as throughout the world. Since the early 1980s
the rate of deforestation has been among the highest on the planet, amounting to the loss
of about 1 percent of total forest cover each year. Indonesia has experienced the largest
amount of deforestation in absolute terms, but the impact in Vietnam, the Philippines, and
Thailand has also been severe.
Although logging has generated short-term income, Southeast Asia has suffered many
negative consequences of the degradation. It jeopardizes the livelihoods of the estimated
30 million people who still live in the fast-disappearing forests. The extremely rich
biodiversity in the forests is also eroded by logging. Moreover, logging leads to increased
runoff after rains and the likelihood of more frequent flooding downstream. There are
questions about the long-term economic benefits of logging, especially because efforts to
reforest areas or generate timber plantations have been insufficient.
Q: What are some of the cultural attractions in Malaysia?
A: Visiting Malaysia is like going to many different places. Its capital,
Kuala Lumpur (or KL, as everyone calls it), reflects the mixed origins of
the people who now live in the country. Here, many buildings show a
cosmopolitan mix of Malay, Chinese, Indian, and European cultures.
Though Kuala Lumpur is a busy commercial city, it contains some
beautiful and restful places, such as the Tasek Perdana Lake Gardens.
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Nearby is the National Museum, which houses historical exhibits. Not

too far away is the National Mosque in its setting of lawns and
fountains. The colorful Indian temple of Sri Mahamariaman is another
example of the mixed origins of the population.
The multicultural aspects of Malaysia’s history are also evident in
George Town, on the island of Pinang, which is off the west coast of
peninsular Malaysia. Its attractions reflect the variety of peoples who
have lived and traded in the area. Perhaps the most notable of these
are Khoo Kongsi, an old Chinese clan house; Fort Cornwallis, a British
18th-century fortress; and the Pinang Museum and Art Gallery. One of
Pinang’s most unusual attractions is the Snake Temple, which contains
many venomous snakes. Visitors will be relieved to know that the
snakes are heavily drugged with incense and do not pose a danger.
On the northwest coast of the island of Borneo, near the Sarawak state
capital of Kuching, there are traditional villages built on stilts close to
the Sarawak River. The longhouses that have been used by the local
people for centuries still exist in some villages.
Q: What are some attractions for outdoor enthusiasts who visit Malaysia?
A: Most visitors to Malaysia see only the capital city of Kuala Lumpur.
Outside the city, however, are many different landscapes. Malaysia
actually comprises both the peninsula section and also a number of
islands, or parts of islands.
One of the most striking of these is the island of Borneo, where in the
state of Sabah there are dense jungles, and Mount Kinabalu, the
highest mountain peak of the Malay Archipelago. Kinabalu National
Park is famous for its more than 500 species of birds and 800 species
of orchids.
Also on Borneo, the natural environment of the state of Sarawak
abounds with rivers, mountains, and forests. Unusual animals and
vegetation, including carnivorous plants, long-nosed monkeys, and
Sambar deer, inhabit the forests.
Other areas of Malaysia are famous for their limestone caves. Swifts
nest in some of these caves, and their nests are used to make birds’
nest soup. Other caves have been developed as shrines for worship.
The Batu Caves, which are reached by 272 steps, house the Hindu
shrine of Lord Subramaniam, while nearby is the Museum Cave, a
fascinating display of brightly colored statues and murals from Hindu
mythology.
Another attraction for outdoor enthusiasts, especially divers and
swimmers, is the wealth of beaches in Malaysia. The beaches have
their own wildlife attractions, with giant turtles coming ashore to lay
their eggs. The state of Pahang, on the east coast, has beautiful
beaches. It is also a magnet for visitors who want to see village
festivals and the craft of weaving pandanus leaves into mats, hats, and
baskets. The traditional crafts of woodcarving and batik can also be
seen in this area.
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Q: What are some of the most interesting attractions for visitors to

Myanmar?
A: Myanmar, formerly known as Burma, is a fascinating place to visit. There are,
however, government restrictions on which places a visitor can go.
Myanmar is renowned for its festivals. There are far too many to describe here, but most
are related to the lunar cycle of Buddhism. The lunar new year in April is welcomed by
the Thingyan Water Festival, when people pour water over one another in the belief that it
cleanses the body and mind of evil from the previous year. The Kason Festival in early
May has a special place in the Myanmar calendar, as it commemorates the day Buddha
was born, the day he attained enlightenment, and the day of his demise.
The capital of Myanmar is Yangon (Rangoon). The city is full of interesting attractions,
particularly its many pagodas. Visitors ought to remember that pagodas, and indeed all
Buddhist structures, should be walked around clockwise.
No one should miss Yangon’s Shwedagon Pagoda, which towers almost 100 m (328 ft)
above the city. It was built about 2,500 years ago and is surrounded in legend. It is
believed to contain strands of Buddha’s hair, which were put together with other relics
and laid in a chamber. A golden pagoda was built over this, and then a series of pagodas
in silver, tin, copper, lead, marble, and finally iron.
No visit to Myanmar is complete without a few days in Mandalay, one of the old capitals
of the kingdom. The city is famous for traditional arts and crafts, especially the carving of
stone images of the Buddha and the manufacture of gold leaf. Merchants have always
gathered in Mandalay, and the city is a shopper’s paradise.
A unique feature of the Myanmar people, and one that few tourists see, is the tribal group
known as the Padaung. These people maintain a centuries-old custom of using neck rings
to extend the necks of their women. The number and value of the rings confers status and
respect on the wearer’s family. Though many women still have neck rings, the practice is
becoming less common.
Q: With the recent slaughter of the Nepalese king and his family and
the ascendancy of the younger son, Gyanendra, many are concerned that Gyanendra
may allow for cozier relations with China. Is this likely, and what would the
consequences be for Nepal, and India, and the rest of the region?
A: Historically Nepal’s closest links have been with India. Nepal is a predominantly
Hindu country, and India regards Nepal as part of its strategic zone. Relations between
Nepal and China are more fragile. India, China, and Nepal share a border region—the
Kalapani junction—and events such as the Sino-Indian war in 1962 highlight the
underlying tensions in the region. However, China and Nepal have important trade
relations, and China maintains an embassy in Kathmandu.
Relations between Nepal and China have improved over the last few years. One of the
key factors is that Nepal has discouraged Tibetans from crossing the border into Nepal—
a move that has been welcomed by Beijing.
It seems to be in the strategic interest of all three countries for Nepal to continue
providing a buffer between India and China while maintaining cordial relations with both.
If Nepal were to move significantly closer to China, tensions in the region would
probably be heightened, and that is not in anyone’s interest.
Q: Is the idea of “people power” gaining momentum in Southeast Asia?
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A: Not to any appreciable extent. The concept is identified with the overthrow of the
Marcos regime in the Philippines and with Corazon Aquino’s election to the presidency.
There have been recent references to “people power” in the overthrow of Suharto in
Indonesia, and under Presidents Habibie and Wahid Indonesia has certainly shifted
toward greater democratic involvement in politics. Thailand has also embraced greater
levels of democracy.
I would be hard-pressed to find any evidence of “people power” momentum anywhere
else in Southeast Asia.
Q: What are some of the most interesting attractions for visitors to the Philippines?
A: The Philippines are a complex of more than 7,000 islands. Many of these are quite
small; 11 of them comprise more than 90 percent of the country’s total landmass. Luzon
and Mindanao are the largest islands.
The country’s capital, Manila, is on Luzon. The city has a long history, but the European
influence dates from the 16th century. The Spanish influence is most evident in the
Interamuros district, where buildings represent different eras in Filipino-Hispanic
architecture. Fort Santiago, Manila Cathedral, and San Augustin Church are all located
here. Culturally, the Philippines are different from many areas of Asia, as the main
religion is Catholicism, and there is a close relationship between church and state.
On Mindanao is Mount Apo, an active volcano that is the tallest peak in the Philippines.
Mount Apo, meaning “grandfather of all Philippine,” dominates a remarkable natural
landscape that has geysers, sulfur pillars, a steaming blue lake, swift-flowing rivers, and
waterfalls cascading almost 300 feet into a deep gorge. The Philippine Eagle Nature
Center is located at Pag-asa, in the foothills of Mount Apo. It is a breeding center for the
endangered bird known as the monkey-eating eagle.
Mount Pinatubo, on Luzon, is the Philippines’ most famous mountain due to its recent
volcanic eruptions, which have caused thousands of people to be moved from their homes
over the last decade.
The country’s four major rice-terrace sites, which are included in the World Heritage
Sites list, are a living cultural landscape. The rice terraces of Ifugao and their irrigation
systems date from as early as 1000 BC. The rice terraces are an awesome sight, climbing
from the base of the mountains like massive green stairways. It is said that their length,
put end to end, would encircle half the globe.
The Philippines also have many underwater attractions that are of special interest to
divers, including shipwrecks. Tubbataha Reef Marine Park is also a World Heritage Site,
because of its abundant marine life. It consists of two islets with soft corals and small
caves where divers can see white-tip and nurse sharks, turtles, rays (devilfish), and many
other reef fish and sea creatures.
Q: Did the death of Pol Pot in 1998 signal the demise of the Khmer
Rouge?
A: It probably did. Pol Pot, or Saloth Star as he was known in his youth, became the
general secretary of the Communist Party in Cambodia in the early 1960s and
subsequently fled into the jungle to escape Cambodia’s ruler, Prince Norodom Sihanouk.
He led the Khmer Rouge when they took up arms against the government in 1967, and he
was the apparent leader of the Khmer Rouge government that controlled Cambodia from
1975 to 1978. After the Khmer Rouge were thrown out of power, Pol Pot led them to the
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jungles along the Thai border, where they resumed guerrilla warfare against the incoming
government of former Khmer Rouge figure Hun Sen.
Rumors circulated in early 1996 that Pol Pot had died, but these rumors merely masked a
split in the Khmer Rouge movement. By 1997 the Khmer Rouge were seriously
weakened, and Pol Pot was arrested and held by hardline Khmer Rouge general Ta Mok.
A show trial followed, parts of which were recorded and shown on Western television.
Pol Pot died of heart failure in April 1998. By that time the Khmer Rouge were split and
further weakened. The death of their long-time leader symbolized the death of the Khmer
Rouge, although remnants of the guerrilla force remain scattered through Cambodia.
Q: How is the period of colonial rule remembered by the people of
Southeast Asia?
A: Memories of the colonial period are fast disappearing—the people with direct
experience and memories of colonialism are now in their 60s. Subtle reminders of the
colonial presence remain, such as in language, food, and religion, and sometimes through
family connections, or diffuse government-to-government links. Many students from
Southeast Asia travel outside the region to attend university, but their destinations tend to
be the United States, Australia, and Britain rather than the former colonial powers.
The French are trying to rebuild their connections with Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia;
The Netherlands maintains a special contact with Indonesia; and Britain maintains
contact with Malaysia and Singapore. However, political decolonization has been in
progress for nearly 50 years, and postcolonial identities in Southeast Asia have evolved
significantly, in parallel with nationalist sentiments. Yet a broader sense of being part of
Southeast Asia, or a pan-Asian sense of identity, has been slower to evolve, despite high
levels of economic integration within the Asia Pacific region.
Q: Why did so many farmers support billionaire Thaksin Shinawatra in
the January 2001 election in Thailand?
A: Good question. Thaksin Shinawatra is the wealthiest man in Thailand, yet he and his
Thai Rak Thai Party were swept to victory in the election on the back of widespread
popular support. His success in gaining votes from the farmers was in part because of his
image as a man of the people. Indeed, the name of his party literally means “Thai Love
Thai.” In addition, Thaksin advocated populist policies, with a heavy emphasis on
government spending. For instance, he promised farmers a development fund of 1 billion
baht ($23,000) for each of Thailand’s 70,000 villages. Thus Thaksin successfully
differentiated himself from his predecessor, Prime Minister Chuan Leekpai, whose
approach to solving Thailand’s economic problems focused on reform and austerity, not
big spending.
Q: What are some of the most interesting attractions for a visitor to
Thailand?
A: The Thai capital, Bangkok, has enough to keep visitors busy for some time. Thailand
also offers beach resorts, coral islands, jungle areas, orchid farms, and wonderful Thai
culture.
The Grand Palace and Wat Phra Kaeo, probably Thailand’s most famous landmark, is a
huge compound in Bangkok that occupies an area of about 3 sq km (about 1 sq mi). The
palace is more than 200 years old and has richly decorated buildings. The compound’s
Royal Chapel houses the most sacred Emerald Buddha. Another special attraction is
Vimanmek Palace, the world’s largest building made entirely of golden teak.
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Outside Bangkok are two centers where visitors can see elephants perform. Elephants in
Thailand have long been trained to undertake many tasks, though now they are less
frequently used to help with forest work than they once were.
The beaches and coral reefs of Thailand are some of the best in the world. Near Pattaya, a
significant resort that developed after a United States naval base was established in the
area in the 1950s, the beaches offer facilities for water-skiing, parasailing, swimming,
snorkeling, and sailing. Visitors can go out to the reefs to dive or view them through
glass-bottomed boats.
No visit to Thailand would be complete without viewing the orchids for which Thailand
is renowned. The Nong Nooch Orchid Wonderland is one of many orchid farms, with
hundreds of varieties of orchids, ferns, and other blooms all displayed in a lavish garden.
Visitors can watch cultural performances set among the orchids.
The rituals and traditions of Thai classical dance are beautiful and different. One of the
most important dances is the khon. The formalized movements of khon performances
make the acting and dancing inseparable. Each step has a meaning, emphasized by the
appropriate music, narration, and song, and each part of a khon costume, including ornate
headdresses and masks, has its own significance.
Music is as important as dance. There are about 50 types of Thai musical instruments,
including flutes, stringed instruments, and gongs. They are used for all kinds of
occasions: festivals, folk theater, marriages, funerals, and social evenings after
harvesting.
Q: How did Thailand avert colonialism, making it the only country in
Southeast Asia that has never been under foreign control?
A: Astute management was the key. The Chakri kings who assumed power in 1782
recognized potential threats from Burma and Europe. They therefore expanded Siamese
territory into Laos, western Cambodia, and the northern Malay Peninsula, creating buffer
zones. They also improved administration and tax collection.
Later kings, such as Chulalongkorn, further improved the administration and learned
from Western ideas and technology. Thai rulers later conceded parts of Laos and
Cambodia to France and several Malay states to Britain, and they negotiated trade
arrangements favorable to the increasingly powerful Europeans. Although Thailand
succeeded in preventing colonization, it effectively became part of Britain’s sphere of
influence.
Q: Are there clear differences between the culture of Thailand, which
was not subject to colonialism, and the cultures of other countries in
Southeast Asia?
A: There are differences between the cultures of Thailand and the rest of Southeast Asia,
but this is not because the other countries avoided colonial control. The differences are a
product of the history of the peoples of Thailand. Doubtless there are aspects of Thai
beliefs and behavior that might have been different if Thailand had been colonized, but
not significantly so. As an illustration, most Thai are Buddhist, and fewer than 1 percent
are Christian. By contrast, nearby Vietnam is also a Buddhist country, but Christians
constitute 7 percent of Vietnam’s population, largely due to the impact of the French
colonizers.
In general, cultural beliefs and practices in most of Southeast Asia have been built up
over centuries. The cultures of Southeast Asia have been influenced by those of India,
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China, and a variety of others. In the last half century, the powerful influence of
American culture has provided another cultural layer across the entire region.
Q: Why did Vietnam invade Cambodia in 1978?
A: Although Vietnam and Cambodia (or Kampuchea, as it was known from 1976 to
1989) both established socialist regimes after 1975, relations between the two
deteriorated to the point that Vietnam invaded Cambodia in December 1978. Cambodia
was closely aligned with China, and China had been a threat to Vietnam for centuries. At
the same time, the Vietnamese worried about possible encroachment into Vietnamese
territory by the aggressive Cambodian regime.
When the Vietnamese invaded, they cited support for the Khmer National United Front
for National Salvation as their reason. The Khmer Rouge regime that ran Cambodia had
been exposed as murderous thugs, and there was international support for Vietnam’s
actions, although many people suspected that the Vietnamese were not driven by
altruism. A government friendly to Vietnam, led by Heng Samrin, took power in
Cambodia after the invasion.
Q: What was the feared domino effect that helped spur the Vietnam
War, and why didn’t it actually occur?
A: The domino effect was the concern that if Vietnam fell to Communist forces, then all
of the Southeast Asian countries to the south—including Thailand, Malaysia, and
Indonesia—would also become Communist. The theory provided a justification for the
deployment of American troops to Vietnam in 1965. It was argued that such a step would
prevent the anti-Communist government of South Vietnam from collapsing and therefore
prevent the spread of Communism from China through Vietnam and to the rest of
Southeast Asia.
Anti-Communist forces eventually lost the Vietnam War, and Vietnam became the unified
Socialist Republic of Vietnam in 1976. However, Communists did not win power in any
other Southeast Asian countries except Cambodia and Laos, which were inevitably drawn
into the Vietnam conflict. The domino theory was thus proved false.
Why did the domino effect never materialize? Because to be successful, Communist
insurgents needed to have a strong platform within their own countries and successfully
woo grassroots support. Communist revolutionaries were active in most Southeast Asian
countries in the 1960s and 1970s, but their major activities were confined to specific rural
regions. They struggled to have much impact in the larger urban areas, where economic
development had begun to accelerate by the 1980s. By the 1990s Communist insurgents
existed only in small, isolated clusters in countries such as the Philippines, and today they
lack any real influence in Southeast Asia.
Q: How does the history of the Vietnam War affect the Vietnamese
people’s views about the West?
A: The Vietnamese people are friendly and welcome visitors to their country. I have
never encountered any hostility at all, and I have been visiting the country regularly since
1982.
However, it is important to remember that the Vietnamese people and their environment
were seriously damaged by the war. Chemical defoliants, such as Agent Orange, were
spread over large tracts of forest in the south to destroy the protective cover that helped
hide the guerrilla fighters of the National Liberation Front, or Viet Cong (as they were
called in the West). The chemical residues remain in the soil, causing birth deformities
 12

and illnesses. Unexploded bombs still pose a danger to farmers plowing their fields. Also,
the Vietnamese feel that the war prevented their country from developing economically
like their neighbors Thailand and Malaysia.
Vietnam struggled to find its place in the world after the Soviet Union crumbled in the
early 1990s. Since the thaw in relations between the United States and Vietnam in the
mid-1990s, however, Vietnam has joined in more activities with neighboring countries
and is making its way on the world stage. There still seems to be some lingering
suspicions about the West in senior government circles, but the Vietnamese in general
appear to hold no grudges about wartime events.
A huge amount has been written about the impact of the Vietnam War in the United States
and other countries, such as Australia, but relatively little about the long-term impact on
Vietnam.

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