Conservation of Mass, Charge, and Energy

Foundations to Chemistry - adapted from "Chemistry, Matter and the Universe" Page 1 of 1
11. Conservation of Mass, -- Jump to --
Charge, and Energy

Introduction: You Can't Get Something for Nothing...
The first ten chapters of this book have been mainly descriptive. They have
portrayed the material universe as seen by an observer who has the ability to
adjust his field of view to encompass entire galaxies or single atoms. At the
lowest level we have seen how electrons can be arranged around nuclei in
atoms, and how this arrangement limits the different kinds of atoms that can
exist. At a slightly higher level of organization we have seen the way in which
electrons hold groups of atoms together in molecules of definite size and
shape, and how the properties of matter depend on molecular structure. This is
the essence of chemistry: to explain matter in molecular terms.
Like any other branch of science, chemistry eventually becomes trivial if it

remains descriptive. The essence of science is control of matter by means of
successful predictions of behavior; and predictions without measurement are
hazy. Sooner or later we must adopt the viewpoint of William Thomson (Lord
Kelvin), a pioneer in thermodynamics and electricity, who said in 1891:
"When you can measure what you are speaking about, and express it in
numbers, you know something about it; but when you cannot measure it,
when you cannot express it in numbers, your knowledge is of a meagre
and unsatisfactory kind. It may be the beginning of knowledge, but you
have scarcely, in your thoughts, advanced to the stage of science."
Page 1 of 37
http://neon.chem.ox.ac.uk/vrchemistry/Conservation/page01.htm 2006/12/10
Charge, and Energy

Mass and Energy: Nuclear Reactions
In the fusion reaction and should be understood as representing nuclei,
with total mass numbers given by superscripts, and nuclear charge (equal to
the number of protons) given by subscripts. An electron is represented as ,
with a zero mass number (not counted among the nucleons) and a -1 charge.
In the fusion equation four hydrogen nuclei (not atoms) combine with two of the
four electrons around the atoms to form a helium nucleus. The two remaining
original electrons, not shown in the equation, associate with the nucleus to
build a neutral helium atom.
A proton in this representation is p, and a neutron is . The uranium fission

reaction tells us that a uranium nucleus, when bombarded by a neutron, breaks
down into barium and krypton nuclei with the release of three more neutrons.
Therefore this is a chain reaction, with more neutrons released than were used
up. These neutrons can bombard neighboring nuclei and produce even
more fission.
Mass number (superscripts) and charge (subscripts) are conserved in nuclear

reactions of this type, just as the number of each kind of atom is conserved in a
chemical reaction. You should verify that the sum of subscripts, and sum of
superscripts, are constant on the two sides of the equation.
Page 27 of 37
Charge, and Energy

In this region, beyond atomic number 26, energy is released by fission rather
than fusion. At the far left of the curve, hydrogen fusion in stars releases
energy:
and at the far right, uranium fission in atomic reactors also releases energy:
235
(This is only one of many ways in which the U nucleus can break down.)
The maximum stability of the iron nucleus is the reason why the element-
building process by successive fusion reactions, outlined in Chapter 8, stops at
iron. Beyond iron the fusion process is energy-requiring instead of energy-
yielding. The heavier elements are built up by more indirect processes
involving neutron capture.
In spite of the fact that mass is not conserved in nuclear reactions,

conservation principles do apply to the total number of heavy particles (protons
and neutrons) and total charge. This is implicit in the equations for the two
previous nuclear reactions.
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Charge, and Energy

The mass loss or binding energy per nuclear particle (protons and This curve gives us information that was used in the discussion of
neutrons) rises rapidly to a maximum at iron, then falls. Iron is the stellar synthesis of elements in Chapter 8. Iron is the most stable
most stable nucleus of all. The mass losses or binding energies nucleus of all. For elements with smaller atomic numbers than
per nucleon are plotted above for all nuclei from helium through iron, fusion of nuclei to produce heavier elements releases
uranium. After some initial minor irregularities in the first- and energy, because the products are lighter and more stable on a
second-row elements, the values settle down to a smooth curve, per-nucleon basis than the reactants. In contrast, beyond iron,
which rises to a maximum at iron, then begins a long descending fusion absorbs energy because the products are heavier on a per-
slope through uranium and beyond. nucleon basis than the reactants.
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Charge, and Energy

Example.
What is the mass loss per nucleon for the atom, compared with its
component protons, neutrons, and electrons?
Solution.
The atom contains 26 protons, 26 electrons, and 30 neutrons, so the
mass calculation is performed as opposite:
Notice that the mass loss per nucleon, and hence the binding energy per
nucleon, is greater for iron than for helium. This means that the iron nucleus is
more stable relative to protons and neutrons than the helium nucleus is. If
some combination of helium nuclei could be induced to produce an iron
nucleus, energy would be given off, which would correspond to the increased
stability of the product nucleus per nuclear particle.
Page 24 of 37
Charge, and Energy

-1
(Compare this energy with the 83 kcal mole required to break carbon-carbon
bonds in chemical reactions.)
Protons and neutrons collectively are known as nuclear particles or nucleons.

The number of nucleons in the nucleus is the sum of the number of protons and
neutrons and, as was mentioned in Chapter 2, is known as the mass number of
the nucleus.
Every atomic nucleus is lighter than the sum of the masses of the nucleons
from which it is built, and this mass loss corresponds to the binding energy of
the nucleus. The relative stability of two nuclei with different numbers of
nucleons can be assessed by comparing their mass loss per nucleon.
Example:
What is the mass loss per nucleon for the helium atom?
Solution:
The total mass loss is 0.0305 amu, and since the nucleus has four nucleons,
the mass loss per nucleon is 0.00763 amu.
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Charge, and Energy

(We must include electrons in this calculation because 4.0026 Compared to common chemical reactions, this is an enormous
amu is the mass of the helium-4 atom, not the nucleus.) This quantity of energy. Since 1 electron volt per atom is equivalent to
missing mass corresponds to 0.0305 x 931.4 MeV = 28.4 MeV of 23.06 kcal per mole,
energy. If we could put together a helium atom directly from two
neutrons, two protons, and two electrons, then 28.4 MeV of
energy would be given off for every atom formed:
-1
= 655,000,000 kcal mole
Page 22 of 37
Charge, and Energy

With nuclear reactions, the energies involved are so great that the changes in
mass become easily measurable. One no longer can assume that mass and
energy are conserved separately, but must take into account their
interconversion via Einstein's relationship, E = mc . If mass is in grams and the
velocity of light is expressed as c = 3 x 10 cm sec , then the energy is in
units of g cm sec , or ergs. A useful conversion is from mass in amu to
energy in million electron volts (MeV):
1 amu = 931.4 MeV
What holds a nucleus together? If we attempt to bring two protons and two
neutrons together to form a helium nucleus, we might reasonably expect the
positively charged protons to repel one another violently. Then what keeps
them together in the nucleus? The answer, as we mentioned in Chapter 2,
is that a helium atom is lighter than the sum of two protons, two neutrons, and
two electrons. Some of the mass of the separated particles is converted into
energy and dissipated when the nucleus is formed. Before the helium nucleus
can be torn apart into its component particles, this dissipated energy must be
restored and turned back into mass. Unless this energy is provided, the
nucleus cannot be taken apart. This energy is termed the binding energy of the
helium nucleus.
Page 21 of 37
Charge, and Energy

Conservation of Electrons
Exercise.
For practice, balance the following reactions by both the oxidation-number and
half-reaction methods:
Although half-reactions have been introduced here merely as a means of

obtaining a balanced overall reaction, they can have physical meaning of their
own. If the iron oxidation and manganese reduction can be carried out in
separate containers, and if these containers can be given suitable electrical
connections, then we can make use of the energy released by this reaction as
the electrons flow through a wire from the iron container to the manganese.
This is the principle of the electrolytic cell or battery. An ordinary flashlight
battery uses manganese reduction, and oxidation of the zinc battery casing.
We will return to electrolytic cells and energy production in Chapter 17.
Page 20 of 37
Charge, and Energy

The iron half-reaction is simple:
The final step is to add these two individually balanced half-reactions and obtain
an overall reaction in which electrons do not appear explicitly. To accomplish
this, we must add one unit of the manganese reaction to five units of the iron
reaction. The result is the same as before:
This overall equation is now balanced with respect to charge and number of
atoms because the half-reactions were balanced, and with respect to oxidation
number because the proper multiples of the half-reactions were chosen to make
the electrons cancel.
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Charge, and Energy

There is another useful method for balancing redox equations: the half-reaction
method. In this method each substance that changes its oxidation number is
balanced separately in a half-reaction that includes electrons explicitly. The two
balanced half-reactions then are combined in such a way as to cancel electrons
from the final expression.
Example.
Balance the iron and permanganate reaction by the half-reaction method.
Solution.
The unbalanced permanganate half-reaction is
Five electrons were needed because manganese goes from +7 to +2 oxidation

state. Water molecules are added on the right to balance the oxygen atoms in
the permanganate, and protons are added to the left:
This half-reaction is now balanced with respect to both number of atoms and
overall charge, +2 on each side.
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Charge, and Energy

It is obvious that five iron atoms are required for every manganese
atom, in order that the changes in oxidation numbers cancel:
In choosing a 1-to-5 ratio of Mn-to-Fe, we ensured that oxidation
number was conserved. By adding the hydrogen ions we obtained
an equation that balanced the number of each atom. As a final
Eight hydrogen ions are needed to use up the four oxygen atoms check, the net charge on each side of the equation can be tested,
on the left, leading to four water molecules on the right: and found to be the same: +17. This oxidation-reduction equation
now is balanced with respect to electrons, atoms, and charge.
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Charge, and Energy

The corresponding equation for acidic solutions can be obtained by adding
enough hydrogen ions to each side to eliminate the hydroxide ions:
The tetrahedral permanganate ion
Example.
Potassium permanganate, , is a common inorganic oxidizing agent,
which becomes reduced to manganous ion, Mn , in acidic solution. Write a
balanced equation for the reaction in which permanganate oxidizes ferrous iron,
2+ 3+
Fe , to ferric ion, Fe .
Solution.
In the permanganate ion manganese has an oxidation number of +7 which

decreases to +2 in the manganous ion, a change of -5. Iron increases in
oxidation number by one:
Formula MnO4-
Page 16 of 37
Charge, and Energy

For electrons to balance properly, three moles of H must be oxidised for every
mole of NO3- reduced: The planar, delocallised nitrate ion
3 (+1) + (-3) = 0
and the reaction can be written
In any reaction in aqueous solution, one is at liberty to assume as many H O,

2
+ - +
H , or OH as are required to balance the reaction, using H O and H under
- 2
acidic conditions, or and OH if the solution is basic. The redox (oxidation -
reduction) part of the balancing has been done, and what remains is only an
accounting for O and H atoms. One possible answer is
Formula NO3-
This has accounted for the three hydrogen atoms and the negative charge. The
-
equation is correct for basic solutions where OH ions are present.
Page 15 of 37
Charge, and Energy

How can we write a properly balanced equation for the oxidation

of foods with NO as the waste product?
But this leaves an electron on the left side unaccounted for on the
right side. The approach that is most nearly foolproof and at the
same time shows you what is happening is the oxidation-number
It might be tempting to balance by inspection along the following method. In nitrates, N has an oxidation number of +5 ( verify this
lines, making the number of each kind of atom the same on left for yourself ). In NO the oxidation number of N is +2, a decrease
and right: of three. Hydrogen, as before, goes from 0 to +1, an increase of
one:
Page 14 of 37
Charge, and Energy

These oxidation numbers (ON) of H and O in H O arise because O is more
2
electronegative than H, so both the electrons in each O H bond are assigned
to O. If you are unsure of this process, look back at Chapter 6. This is such a
simple chemical reaction that it can be balanced by inspection - by making sure
that the same number of atoms of H and O are on each side of the equation.
The balanced equation is
We also could have balanced the equation by seeing to it that the net change in
oxidation number of all substances was zero. If the oxidation number of one
oxygen atom decreases by two, then two hydrogen atoms each must increase
by one. In physical terms, if one oxygen atom pulls two electrons toward itself,
then two hydrogen atoms are required to donate one electron each. In terms of
changes in oxidation number,
2H O
Changes in ON: 2(+1) + (-2) = 0
This was a trivial example, but the following example is not quite so trivial. If
oxygen is in short supply, some bacteria can respire using nitrates as sources of
oxidizing power instead of O . Rather than reducing oxygen to water, these
2
bacteria reduce nitrates to NO , NO, or N .
2 2
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Charge, and Energy

Mass is not the only property that is conserved in chemical reactions. In
Chapter 6 we saw that, since oxidation and reduction represent only the moving
of electrons away from or toward atoms, whenever something is oxidized
something else must be reduced. Moving an electron away from one atom in a
chemical reaction means moving it toward another one. Thus we can say that,
in any chemical reaction in which oxidation and reduction take place, the net
change in oxidation numbers of all of the atoms taking part is zero. Total
oxidation number is conserved. This is merely an indirect way of saying that
electrons are neither created nor destroyed during the reaction.
As an example, the combustion of foods during respiration in all oxygen-using

forms of life requires the oxidation of carbon and hydrogen compounds. The
hydrogen atoms in these compounds are assigned oxidation number zero,
because each shares electrons equally with the atoms to which they are
bonded. These zero-oxidation-state hydrogen atoms often are represented
symbolically in brackets as , without reference to the particular source
compound. The energy-yielding oxidation reaction taking place during
respiration then can be written in unbalanced form as...
Page 12 of 37
Charge, and Energy

Conservation of Mass in Chemical Reactions
Note that we proceeded in five steps:
1. Write an unbalanced expression with the correct reactants and products.
2. Balance the equation properly, and obtain the ratio of number of moles of
the reactants and products of interest.
3. Calculate molecular weights of the reactants and products of interest.
4. Calculate the number of moles of reactant used, and use the mole ratio
from step 2 to find the number of moles of product.
5. Use the molecular weight of the product to obtain the weight in grams.
Example.
Glucose is a sugar with the chemical formula , and is a common
energy source for living organisms. How many moles of oxygen are required to
burn a mole of glucose, and how many grams of are needed for a kilogram
of glucose?
In passing, observe that burning a kilogram of glucose requires only 1066 g of

oxygen, whereas burning the same weight of propane requires 3627 g of
oxygen. This is because glucose already is partially oxidized. You should not
be surprised later when we calculate that the combustion of glucose produces
only half as much heat per gram as combustion of propane. Glucose is a
poorer fuel than propane on a weight basis. In Chapter 21 we will return to the
question as to why plants selected glucose for energy storage (in plant starch),
whereas animals developed fats as a kind of "solid propane."
Page 11 of 37
Charge, and Energy

A single molecule of propane

The balanced equation indicates that each mole of propane gas burned
requires five moles of oxygen. The problem as stated involved 1000g of
propane, and the number of moles is
Five times this many moles of oxygen are needed:
The quantity of oxygen in grams then is
-1
113.4 moles O x 32.00 g mole = 3629 g O
2 2
The entire calculation could have been set up in one step: Formula C3H8
Page 10 of 37
Charge, and Energy

Solution.
The unbalanced reaction, showing only the reactants and products, is
since we know that the combustion products are carbon dioxide and water.
The balancing process is given in the illustration opposite:
In brief, if three molecules are formed from the three carbon atoms in one
propane molecule, then six oxygen atoms or three molecules will be
required. In addition, the eight hydrogen atoms in propane will lead to four
water molecules, thereby requiring two more molecules of . The balanced
equation is
The molecular weights of reactants and products are
: 3 x 12.01 g + 8 x 1.01 g = 44.11 g

: 2 x 16.00 g = 32.00 g
: 1 x 12.01 g + 2 x 16.00 g = 44.01 g
: 2 x 1.01 g + 1 x 16.00 g = 18.02 g
From the balanced equation and these molecular weights we can verify that
mass is conserved during the reaction:
Page 9 of 37
Charge, and Energy

states that water can be made from hydrogen and oxygen molecules. In
addition, it says that two moles of hydrogen and one mole of oxygen are
required to produce two moles of water. As an expression of the conservation
of atoms, it indicates that for every four atoms of hydrogen and two atoms of
oxygen (in and molecules), only two molecules of water can be obtained,
which contain the same total of four H and two O atoms.
From the balanced equation, one can obtain information about the relative
amounts of reactants and products involved. The molecular weights of ,
and are 2.02 g, 32.00 g, and 18.02 g, respectively. Hence 2 x 2.02 g of
hydrogen react with 1 x 32.00 g of oxygen to form 2 x 18.02 g of water:
2(2.02) g + 32.00 g = 2(18.02) g

36.04 g = 36.04 g
The total weight of reactants before the reaction is the same as the weight of
the products after the reaction; mass has been conserved.
Example.
Propane, , is a low-pollution fuel gas that can be burned in existing
automobile engines with only minor engine adjustments. How many moles of
are required to burn one mole of propane, and how many grams of are
used with a kilogram of propane?
Page 8 of 37
Charge, and Energy

In chemical processes, the most important property to be conserved is the
number of atoms of each kind that are present. Unlike nuclear processes,
chemical reactions do not create or destroy atoms, or change one kind of atom
into another. They only reshuffle the atoms that were originally present into
different molecular combinations. What we would like to be able to do is to
count each kind of atom before and after a reaction and make sure that none
has been gained or lost.
Counting atoms directly is not practical, but because mass-energy conversion

is negligible in chemical reactions, conservation of the number of atoms
effectively means the conservation of mass. From the discussion of moles and
Avogadro's number in Chapter 2, we know that the mass of a substance
divided by its atomic or molecular weight is the quantity of the substance in
moles, and that one mole of any chemical substance contains the same
number of particles. That number is Avogadro's number, N, which is 6.022 x 10
particles per mole. Hence by weighing moles of a substance, we effectively
can count atoms with a laboratory balance.
The symbols in a properly balanced chemical equation tell much more than just
the identity of reactant and product molecules. The equation
Page 7 of 37
Charge, and Energy

Weight and Mass
Strictly speaking, mass is related to the inertia of a moving object and the
effort needed to stop it. Even though two astronauts weigh only one sixth as
much on the moon as on Earth, if they begin fighting the blows land just as
hard and hurt just as much because the mass behind the blows is the same
as on Earth. In contrast, weight is the force with which a planet pulls on a
given mass.
If m is the mass in grams and g is the gravitational acceleration in centimeters

per second per second, the weight of the object, w, in grams cm sec , or
dynes, is given by w = m x g.
We ordinarily do not make the distinction between weight and mass. When we
say that an object "weighs one gram," what we really mean is that it "weighs
what a one-gram mass would weigh on Earth." The gravitational constant, g,
is one sixth as large on the moon, so the same mass will have only one sixth
the weight there that it has on Earth. When we say that a one-gram object
"weighs only one sixth of a gram on the moon," we mean that it is pulled
toward the moon with the same force that the Earth would exert on a one-
sixth-gram mass. As long as we are making only Earth-bound comparisons,
no confusion need arise between weight and mass. We will use the terms
"atomic weights" and "atomic masses" interchangeably.
Page 6 of 37
Charge, and Energy

Conservation Principles
However, in the much more powerful nuclear reactions, these principles of
separate conservation of mass and energy must be combined into the
conservation of the total of mass and energy. Mass can be converted into
energy and energy into mass according to Einstein's relationship E = mc , in
which E is energy, m is mass, and c is the velocity of light. In the last half of this
chapter we will discuss nuclear reactions for which this mass-energy
conversion is important. The conversion of mass into energy is central to both
nuclear fission and nuclear fusion, on this planet and in the sun.
In principle, if a reaction gives off energy, the products formed must have lower
energy and be lighter than the reactants. But a release of 100 kcal by a
typical chemical reaction corresponds (via the Einstein relationship) to a mass
loss of only 5 x 10 amu per molecule, or one hundred thousandth the mass of
an electron. This amounts to only 5 x 10 gram per mole, which is far less than
we can measure. This is why we can say that, for chemical reactions, mass and
energy are conserved independently.
Many properties other than mass are not conserved in chemical reactions:
volume, density, shape, thermal conductivity, hardness, color, and others. It
was Antoine Lavoisier, the brilliant French chemist who revolutionized
chemistry before he went to the guillotine in 1794, who realized that mass was
more fundamental than any of these properties. When you ask "How much?" in
chemistry, you basically are asking "What mass?"
Page 5 of 37
Charge, and Energy

A third, rather subtle quantity also is conserved during propane combustion.
This quantity, the oxidation number, is a measure of the location of the
electrons.
Carbon and hydrogen atoms are oxidized, because they begin by sharing
electrons equally with neighboring atoms, but end by forming C O and H O
bonds in which oxygen exerts the greater pull on the electrons.
Conversely, oxygen atoms are reduced because they begin by sharing

electrons equally in O=O molecules and end by monopolizing electrons in their
bonds with C and H. The sum of changes in oxidation numbers of all the atoms
in propane combustion is zero, because every atom that loses its grip on an
electron must be matched by another atom that pulls the electron toward it. In
this chapter we consider the conservation of mass and oxidation number; the
following chapters are devoted to energy.
If we look at mass and energy closely enough, the principles that they
individually are conserved turn out to be only approximately true. Mass and
energy actually are interconvertible, and are different manifestations of the
same thing. We can uncouple them in thinking about chemical reactions only
because the quantities of energy involved in chemical processes correspond to
infinitesimal amounts of mass.
Page 4 of 37
Charge, and Energy

Science is full of principles of conservation: conservation of mass, conservation
of energy, conservation of charge, conservation of symmetry or "parity," and
others. These principles all are statements that, when physical and chemical
changes take place, certain properties do not change. Throughout the first part
of this book we have been using a conservation principle, although we have not
spelled it out explicitly: In chemical reactions matter is neither created nor
destroyed, within the limits of our ability to measure mass. The amount of
material that comes out of any chemical process is no more and no less than
the amount that went in, although the appearance of the material may be
changed greatly. In the illustration opposite, propane and oxygen gases react
to produce another gas and a liquid. The substances produced look and
behave differently, but the total number of atoms of each type is unchanged in
the course of the reaction.
Energy also is conserved in chemical reactions, within the limits of our ability to
measure it. The amount of energy in the universe at the end of the propane
reaction is the same as at the beginning. If a process gives off energy (the
propane reaction does), then the product molecules must have less energy
than the reactants, by the amount given off.
Page 3 of 37
Charge, and Energy

The next seven chapters will be devoted to using numbers in chemistry and
making it exact. This will lead to an understanding of why substances react,
why they appear to react only so far and no farther, and why they do so rapidly
or slowly. One of the practical triumphs of chemistry is the ability to control the
rates and course of chemical processes, to produce useful substances and
energy. The advantages in industrial synthesis are obvious; but the
advantages in biosynthesis are no less important.
These next seven chapters are an introduction to some aspects of physical

chemistry, although quantum theory normally is included also as a part of
physical chemistry. Chapters 18 through 21 introduce the subject of organic
chemistry, and Chapters 22 through 26 bring us to biochemistry and the
evolution of life. One should not pay too much attention to these categories,
however, because the most active research today is being done in borderline
areas that do not fall easily into any category. It is the overall view of the unity
of chemistry that is important.
Page 2 of 37
Charge, and Energy

The next seven chapters will be devoted to using numbers in chemistry and
making it exact. This will lead to an understanding of why substances react,
why they appear to react only so far and no farther, and why they do so rapidly
or slowly. One of the practical triumphs of chemistry is the ability to control the
rates and course of chemical processes, to produce useful substances and
energy. The advantages in industrial synthesis are obvious; but the
advantages in biosynthesis are no less important.
These next seven chapters are an introduction to some aspects of physical

chemistry, although quantum theory normally is included also as a part of
physical chemistry. Chapters 18 through 21 introduce the subject of organic
chemistry, and Chapters 22 through 26 bring us to biochemistry and the
evolution of life. One should not pay too much attention to these categories,
however, because the most active research today is being done in borderline
areas that do not fall easily into any category. It is the overall view of the unity
of chemistry that is important.
Page 2 of 37

Conservation of Mass, Charge, and Energy

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Foundations to Chemistry - adapted from "Chemistry, Matter and the Universe" Page 1 of 1

11. Conservation of Mass, -- Jump to --

Charge, and Energy

Like any other branch of science, chemistry eventually becomes trivial if it

11. Conservation of Mass, -- Jump to --

Charge, and Energy

A proton in this representation is p, and a neutron is . The uranium fission

Mass number (superscripts) and charge (subscripts) are conserved in nuclear

11. Conservation of Mass, -- Jump to --

Charge, and Energy

In spite of the fact that mass is not conserved in nuclear reactions,

11. Conservation of Mass, -- Jump to --

Charge, and Energy

11. Conservation of Mass, -- Jump to --

Charge, and Energy

11. Conservation of Mass, -- Jump to --

Charge, and Energy

Protons and neutrons collectively are known as nuclear particles or nucleons.

11. Conservation of Mass, -- Jump to --

Charge, and Energy

11. Conservation of Mass, -- Jump to --

Charge, and Energy

1 amu = 931.4 MeV

11. Conservation of Mass, -- Jump to --

Charge, and Energy

Although half-reactions have been introduced here merely as a means of

11. Conservation of Mass, -- Jump to --

Charge, and Energy

11. Conservation of Mass, -- Jump to --

Charge, and Energy

Five electrons were needed because manganese goes from +7 to +2 oxidation

11. Conservation of Mass, -- Jump to --

Charge, and Energy

11. Conservation of Mass, -- Jump to --

Charge, and Energy

The tetrahedral permanganate ion

In the permanganate ion manganese has an oxidation number of +7 which

11. Conservation of Mass, -- Jump to --

Charge, and Energy

and the reaction can be written

In any reaction in aqueous solution, one is at liberty to assume as many H O,

11. Conservation of Mass, -- Jump to --

Charge, and Energy

How can we write a properly balanced equation for the oxidation

11. Conservation of Mass, -- Jump to --

Charge, and Energy

11. Conservation of Mass, -- Jump to --

Charge, and Energy

As an example, the combustion of foods during respiration in all oxygen-using

11. Conservation of Mass, -- Jump to --

Charge, and Energy

In passing, observe that burning a kilogram of glucose requires only 1066 g of

11. Conservation of Mass, -- Jump to --

Charge, and Energy

A single molecule of propane

Five times this many moles of oxygen are needed:

The quantity of oxygen in grams then is

11. Conservation of Mass, -- Jump to --

Charge, and Energy

The molecular weights of reactants and products are

: 3 x 12.01 g + 8 x 1.01 g = 44.11 g

11. Conservation of Mass, -- Jump to --