Engine Classifications and Constructions Note Book for Marine Engineers

INTRODUCTION
ENGINE: It is device by which the heat energy is converted into mechanical energy. The heat engine is divided into two major types:a) External Combustion Engine e.g. Steam Engine. b) Internal Combustion Engine e.g. Piston Engine, Jet Engine etc. Internal Combustion Engine: (Piston Engine) The internal combustion engine is divided into various types based on number of strokes to complete a cycle and type of fuel used to produce power. a) Based on Stroke: 1) Two Stroke Engine 2) Four Stroke Engine b) Based on Fuel: 1) Spark Ignition Engine (S.I.E.) or Petrol Engine. This type of engine may be of two or four stroke type. 2) Compression Ignition Engine (C.I.E.) or Diesel Engine. Two and Four Stroke Engine falls under this category. Four Stroke Spark Ignition Engine (S.I.E.): The most internal combustion engine have the reciprocating piston principle, wherein a piston slide back and fourth in a cylinder and transmit power through, usually, a simple connecting rod and a crank mechanism to drive shaft. Four Stroke Cycle: The sequence of operations by which the engine converts heat energy into mechanical energy is known as the four stroke cycle. It is completed in two revolutions of shaft. 1 st, 2nd and 4th stroke of the four stroke cycle are called idle stroke. The sequence of the operation is as follows:a) Intake Stroke or Induction Stroke: In an inlet stroke the inlet valve is opened and outlet valve remains closed. The piston moves from Top Dead Centre (TDC) to Bottom Dead Centre (BDC) and draws the mixture of air and petrol into the cylinder of the engine. b) Compression Stroke: In this stroke both inlet and exhaust valve remain closed and the piston moves from BDC to TDC to raise the temperature of the mixture which is also compressed inside the cylinder and ignited by the electric spark. c) Ignition Stroke or Power stroke: In this stroke both the inlet and outlet valves remain closed. Spark takes place at the end of the compression stroke and burns the mixture inside the cylinder. The tremendous pressure is created due to the burning of the mixture inside the cylinder as the gases expand. This expansion of gas pushes the piston from TDC to BDC.

d) Exhaust Stroke: This is the last stroke of four stroke cycle. In exhaust stroke the inlet valve remains closed and outlet valve is open to expel the burn gases from the cylinder to the atmosphere Four Stroke Compression Ignition Engine (C.I.E.): The four strokes are completed in two revolutions of the crankshaft and are similar in principle to those of the gasoline engine (S.I.E.) with similar valve action and timing. On the induction stroke, air only is drawn into the cylinder for compression and the absence of fuel permits high compression ratios between12:1 and 20:1, those are needed for high compression ignition. The compressed air reaches temperatures of around 600 0C which are sufficient to ignite the fuel when it is sprayed into the combustion chamber. Starting conditions are less favorable, particularly in cold weather; the heat of compression may not ensure a quick start. To overcome this, some manufacturers fit heating element for use when making an ignition start from cold. The compression ignition engine is a robust engine and is, therefore a large & heavy power output. Because it is designed with a high compression ratio, the compression pressure generates sufficient heat to light the fuel and no electrical spark system is needed. Electrical heaters may be fitted to aid cold starting but this is not spark ignition and such heaters are not in use when the engine is running. A rather expensive and complex fuel system is required because it performs the following functions: a) Pressurized the fuel system. b) Provides a means of supply fuel to cylinder on the correct stroke for combustion. c) Calibrates the amount of fuel necessary normal throttle setting. d) Provides variable timing (advance & retard). e) Injects fuel into the combustion space as an atomized spray. Therefore, the compression ignition engines fuel system requires a high pressure pump, a fuel distributor and fuel injectors to atomize the fuel when it is sprayed into the combustion chamber. Engineer M. A. Hamid 1

Engine Classifications and Constructions Note Book for Marine Engineers Internal Combustion Engine: In an internal combustion engine, the combustion of fuel takes place internally within the cylinder. The ignition of fuel depends largely on efficient compression of air among other factors. The air pressure reaches as high as 80 ~ 95 bar at the end of compression with a temperature of 550oC. Fuel is injected in the hot and turbulent air, pressure and temperature rise during combustion and the pressure at the end of combustion reaches as high as 140 bar and above. The high-pressure energy is imparted on the piston and the reciprocating motion of the piston is converted into rotary motion at the crankshaft. Meaning of a Cycle: A cycle is full separate steps or events essential for efficient engine operation. These steps or events as follows: 1. Suction of air 2. Compression of air 3. Injection of fuel 4. Expansion of gases 5. Exhausting of gases. The engine will not run if one of the above mentioned steps is missing. The engine performance will significantly deteriorate if there is problem related to any one of the above events or steps. If above mentioned steps or events are completed in 4 strokes of piston or two revolutions of the crankshaft, the engine is called 4-stroke cycle engine. If above mentioned steps or events are completed in 2 strokes of piston one revolution of the crankshaft, the engine is called 2-stroke cycle engine. Stroke of a Piston: Stroke of a piston is the distance traveled by the piston from the TDC to BDC or vice versa. Stroke is determined by the length of the crank. If the crank length is increased, the length of the stroke is increased and the engine is called super stroke engine. Clearance Volume: The clearance volume is the volume on top of the cylinder when the piston is at TDC. The clearance volume space forms the combustion chamber. Swept Volume: Swept volume is the volume swept by the piston during one stroke. Swept volume is the product of Piston Area and Stroke. Power Measurement: There is two possible measurement of engine power: a) Indicated power b) Shaft power The indicated power is the power developed within the engine cylinder & is measured by an engine indicator. The shaft power is the power available at the out put shaft of the engine and can be measured using a torsion meter or with a brake. The Function of Crosshead and Piston Trunk: The function of the crosshead and piston trunk is the play a part in the conversion of the reciprocating movement of the piston to the rotary motion of the crankshaft. They also transmit the transverse load on to the fixed parts of the engine designed to take these loads. Difference between Crosshead and Trunk Type Engines: The main difference between crosshead and trunk piston type engines is the manner in which the transverse thrust from the piston and connecting rod is taken up, and the nature of bearing assembly at the upper part of the connecting rod. Crosshead engines have piston rod and trunk engines do not. The transverse thrust of the connecting rod engine is transmitted to the engine or cylinder guide by the guide slippers and the transverse thrust of the trunk engine is transmitted by the piston trunk or skirt to the cylinder. Advantage of Crosshead Type Engines: Crosshead engines are able to develop much higher power at lower rotational speed, because the space available for the crosshead bearings is greater than the space within the piston for gudgeon pin bearing. Cheaper quality of fuels may be burnt in crosshead engines as it is possible to isolate the cylinder space from the crankcase, this preventing acidic residues entering the crankcase. The total cost of lubrication is less with crosshead engines than with trunk piston engines of equivalent power. Advantage of Trunk Type Engines: Trunk piston engines have the advantage of requiring less head-room than crosshead engines. Engineer M. A. Hamid 2

Engine Classifications and Constructions Note Book for Marine Engineers Their working parts are fewer in number and much less costly to produce.

BEDPLATE:
Bedplate provides the rigid seating of the crankshaft, which is absolutely essential for satisfactory engine operation. Modern engine bedplate is box shape or 'H' shape construction. Design feature: The bedplate is constructed of deep longitudinal girder [running along the length of the engine] and transverse or cross-girder [across the engine]. Transverse and longitudinal girders are joined together by welding: (1) Cross girder: Cast construction and made of Cast Steel The central portion of the transverse girder is called the bearing saddle, which form the main bearing seating. The transverse girders particularly the bearing saddles are the most heavily loaded part of the engine structure. The static load of the running gear and dynamic load down the piston and connecting rod are transmitted through the crank journal to the bearing saddle of the cross-girder. There is no support at the centre of the cross girder The support is only at the two sides with the aid of chocks. Tie rods are fitted near to the centre of cross girder. Each main bearing of the engine is fitted at the centre of the cross girder. (2) Longitudinal girder: Fabricated construction and made of Mild Steel The longitudinal girder plays an important role in maintaining the longitudinal rigidity and strength of the bedplate. This in turn keeps the crankshaft aligned in longitudinal direction. Tie bolt Main bearing Keeps/ Saddle Lightening hole Cross girder Longitudinal girder

Modern Slow Speed Engine Bedplate

Older Type Slow Speed Engine Bedplate

Areas of bedplate which require special attention during inspection: 1. Bearing saddle: The bearing saddle is the most heavily loaded part of the engine structure. The static load of the running gears and the dynamic load down the piston and connecting rod are transmitted through the crank journal to the bearing saddle of the cross girder. There is no support at the centre of the cross-girder, the maximum bending moment is at the centre. So cracks may takes place at the centre portion of the cross-girder and round the saddle. 2. Junction weld: It is extremely important to pay close attention to the junction welds between transverse and longitudinal girder during inspection. The cross girder has no support at the centre. So, during firing of the engine the transverse girders are subjected to bending moment, which is transmitted to the longitudinal girder as it is welded to the transverse girder. So, the junction welds are subjected to high load, where cracks may take place at the weak points. Tie bolt holes: Tie bolts are fitted to keep the engine structure under compression. They are subjected to a high cyclic stress due to the firing force. So, there is possibility of cracking to takes place in the way of tie bolt holes and round the holes. Lightening holes: Special attention should be given the areas of lightening holes for crack distribution due to stress concentration. Base of main bearing keeps: During the bedplate inspection, the base of the main bearing keeps should be checked for cracks. Chocks: The chocks are used to compensate for the natural unevenness of the tank top. The whole bedplate sits on number of chocks, so, incase of loose or if fretting occurs in number of adjacent chocks, severe crankshaft damage can take place due to misalignment.

3.

4. 5. 6.

Holding down bolts: Holding down bolts is always under tensile stress. During the running of the engine, they are subjected to a high fluctuation of stress. So, they may run loose and consequences of running an engine with slack bolts are disastrous. So, during inspection, maximum attention should be given to loose bolts. Engineer M. A. Hamid 3

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Engine Classifications and Constructions Note Book for Marine Engineers Likely Areas of Cracks on Bedplate: Central portion of transverse girder [main bearing saddle] and around the saddle. Junction welds between transverse and longitudinal and all the welded points. Tie bolt holes and around the holes [top of the transverse girder]. Lightening holes. Base of main bearing keeps. Force on Main Engine Bedplate: Fluctuating gas pressure from the engine cylinder and through the connecting rod, crankshaft to the bedplate. Inertia forces from the reciprocating masses [piston]. Static weight of all engine parts side thrust from guide faces. Reasons for Failure and Cracks: Excessive vibration. Torque reaction from propeller. Slack tie bolts. Hull deflection. Overloading of main bearings due to Vibration forces due to torque fluctuations and shock loading. wear. Thermal stresses. Poor welding. Loose chocks. Describe how the Cross-girder is connected to the Longitudinal girder? Cross girder is connected to longitudinal girder by welding, casting or bolt. Modern engines use welding for this connection to avoid repair difficulties and to reduce risk of distortion. Welding results a lot of defects in the welded structure. Therefore, precautions should be taken to minimize defects before welding: a) The welding must be of a very high standard, carefully controlled and inspected. b) Number of joints should be minimum to avoid stress concentration at the joint points. c) Joints should be double welded butt joint. d) One plate or slab to reduce joining point or welding. e) No intricate shape, if then casting is recommended. f) Continuous full strength welding should be carried out without difficulties. g) Minimum intersection. h) No abrupt change of plate section. If there is a change it should be done gradually, sudden section change causes high stress concentration. i) Single plate transverse girder - plate extension is necessary at joining points. A non-destructive test to be carried out after welding has been done to detect the defects. This can be done by using ultrasonic or magnetic method. Then it should be taken for stress relieving heat treatment i.e. annealing, normalizing, hardening and tempering. HOLDING DOWN ARRANGEMENTS: The engine bedplate is supported on a series of chocks. Chocks are made of either mild steel or epoxy resin. Chocks are fitted at particular interval along the periphery of the base of the bedplate after the engine is aligned with the intermediate shafting. The chocks sit on the inner bottom plating of the hull structure, which forms the part of the engine seating. The chocks are fitted more closely to the cross-girder as there is no support at the centre of the cross girder. Modern main propulsion engines are fitted with side and end chocks in addition to main supporting chocks. Holding-down studs pass through the bedplate, chock and tank top plating. The studs in most of the modern propulsion engines are free through the bedplate, chocks and tank top plating. Holding-down bolts are made of High UTS steel. Bedplate End Chock Spherical washer Nut Stud Side Chock Holding down Stud

Main Supporting Chock

Engineer M. A. Hamid

Engine Classifications and Constructions Note Book for Marine Engineers Tank top Holding down Arrangement for Large Engine Design Feature of Holding down Bolts: a) UTS Steel: The bolts are made of high UTS steel. So they are having high fatigue strength. b) Long Studs: The bolts are longer; therefore they can be stretched without failure (higher tensile strength). c) Thin Elastic Bolts: Percentage of elongation is more, which increase fatigue strength. d) Free Studs: The bolts are free through the matting surfaces, so there is no stress concentration. e) f) Spacers: The bolts are fitted with long spacer tubes, which give vibration-damping effect. Naked Section: The holding down bolts invariably carry a naked section with outside diameter smaller than the diameter at the root of the threaded section. The potential for failure at the root of a thread is thus alleviated. g) High Degree of Surface Finish: The matting surfaces of bedplate, chocks and tanktop are given a high degree of surface finish. This reduces the bending stress in the holding down bolts. h) Side and End Chocks: Modern engines are fitted with side and end chocks addition to main supporting chocks. This reduces shear stress in holding down bolts. Factors result in fatigue failure of holding down bolts: The holdings down bolts are subjected to fatigue failure, because of fluctuation of stresses. The main factors, which result in fatigue failure of holding down bolts, are: a) Under tightened bolts: If the bolts are subjected to less stress or less pretension during initial tightening, the stress fluctuation will increase, which will lead to fatigue failure of holding down bolts. b) Slack studs: The studs may get slack due to over loading of the engine, which will increase the fluctuation of stress. c) Damaged studs: Any scratch, pop marks or surface flaw of the naked section of the stud can lead to the localizing of stress that can cause fatigue failure. d) Slack chocks: Slack chocks will also cause the bolts to be slack. Slackness of bolts increases stress fluctuation. e) Fretting of mating surfaces: Severe fretting on mating surfaces of bedplate, chocks and foundation plate will cause the bolts to run loose, which will lead to fatigue failure.

Explain why holding down bolts often run loose? Holding down bolts often run loose due to vibration. Vibration is due to torque fluctuation and shock loading. When the ship is subjected to severe load the deformation occurs. When that load is removed the ship tends to go into its original position. This action continues and the ship is called vibrating. Due to this vibration the bedplate will be under severe stress and fretting will occur between the mating surfaces of bedplate and chocks and in long run bolts will get loose. Main causes are Vibration, Overloading of engine, Slack chocks and Hull deflection. Explain the effect of running a main propulsion engine with slack holding down bolts for a prolonged period. The holding down bolts passes through the holes in the bedplate, chocks and foundation plate. They are subjected to fluctuation of stress. So they may often run loose and the consequences of running engine with slack bolts are disastrous. The effects are: (a) Vibration: Excessive vibration and abnormal movement of the upper part of the engine occur if the bolts run loose. (b) Fretting: Continuous operations with slack bolts allow severe fretting on the matting surfaces of bedplate, chocks and foundation plate. (c) Damage to engine seating: Fretting results in severe and permanent damage to engine seating. (d) Crankshaft misalignment: If fretting occurs in number of adjacent chocks severe crankshaft damage can take place through misalignment. Crankshaft can go unnoticed for a considerable period of time with serious effect on the engine and safety of the vessel. (e) Bending stress: Slack bolts will increase bending stress on bolts, which lead to failure of bolts. (f) Cross girder cracking Why the engine is carried on number of chocks rather than resting directly on inner bottom plating? The engine is carried on a number of chocks fitted around the underside of the periphery of the bedplate. The chocks are used to compensate for the natural unevenness of the tanktop. The chocks sit on the foundation plate, which forms part of the inner bottom plating of the hull structure. Any vibrations of the tanktop surface will not cause misalignment as the bedplate is supported by chocks and ship deflection is transmitted to engine through a minimum number of points. Engineer M. A. Hamid 5

Engine Classifications and Constructions Note Book for Marine Engineers These chocks can be individually adjusted in case of any chaffing or fretting taking place. Any distortion after fitting due to settlement can also be corrected. The chocks also absorb some of the stresses due to heavy seas, which would be transmitted to the bedplate. They have very good vibration damping properties. The chocks are closely spaced in the location of cross girder, so that, good support is given to the area of the bedplate, which is supporting the main bearing and engine "A" frame. This prevents any localized distortion or sag in the bedplate.

Non-metallic chocking arrangement suitable for main propulsion engine: Modern highly rated main propulsion engines are using epoxy resin as non-metallic chocks. Chocks are fitted after the engine alignment with intermediate shaft. The epoxy resin comes as a pourable fluid into, which is mixed a hardening agent. The fluid then can be poured into preformed retaining dams under the engine bedplate setting without any contraction in dimension. Greased dowels or thin metal sleeves are used to protect the bolt from filling up with the liquid resin. After pouring, the resin is allowed to cure completely, talking about 48 hours when the temperature of the surrounding is 16 oC. The area of the resin chocks is naturally, larger than that used for metallic chocking and may cover several holding down bolts at a time. The epoxy resin used must be approved by the appropriate classification society. By intermitting the matching of surfaces it gives excellent load bearing and avoids possibly of fretting.

Merits and Demerits of non-metallic chocking over conventional design: Merits: 1. Approved for critical alignment. 2. Uniform precious mounting. 3. Helps to maintain crankshaft deflection and machinery alignment during hull flexure or distortion. 4. Quick installation. 5. Machined flat surface not required. 6. Vibration damping high. 7. Less noise. Pouring space for Resin 8. Non fretting. 9. Resists degradation, corrosion and wastage. Sleeve 10. Running hours 200 million ++. 11. Used for engines 15000 BHP ++. Epoxy Resin Demerits: 1. Problem in case of fire. 2. Specialized method of chocking. 3. Maximum temperature limit at 80 oC. Nut Stud Non Metallic Chock Arrangement

Why side and end chocks are incorporated in addition to holding down bolts in large main engines? Most of the modern engines are fitted with side and end chocks in addition to main supporting chocks. Longitudinal and transverse movement of the bedplate is prevented by end and side chocks. Side chocks are provided: To absorb side load due to unbalanced reciprocating forces. To prevent chaffing of the supporting chocks and tank-top. It helps the holding down bolts to resist the lateral forces when the vessel is rolling. End chocks are provided at each end of the longitudinal girder: To position the engine. To absorb the collision loads. To absorb propeller thrust in case of integral thrust block. To absorb propeller excited vibration. If the side and end chocks are not fitted, the holding down bolts will have to take up the longitudinal and transverse movement of bedplate, causing shear stress onto the holding down bolts. Engineer M. A. Hamid 6

Engine Classifications and Constructions Note Book for Marine Engineers With the chocks in place, the holding down bolts will only have to hold the bedplate rigidity to the ship structure.

FRAMES:
Material:- Mild Steel Plates & Tubes. Construction: ; Individual frame is fitted to each cross girder. ; Plates are fitted in spaces between frames. ; Strong transversely & flexible longitudinally. ; Alignment of cylinder block & bedplate vary. ; Overall structural weakness. Modified Approach to Construction (Box Girder) Effects:; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; Bedplate is required to contribute 17% o overall structural strength. Conventional engine bedplate contributes 60% of overall strength. High degree of stiffness. No discontinuities in engines. Cylinder liners remain at clamping points. - Piston performance improvement. - Liner wears rate low. Torque reaction guide plane reduced. Rocking & twisting of engine reduced. Modern engine with high firing pressure results local vibration. Stiff frame maintains natural frequency high beyond excitation range. Improved fabrication. Engine smaller & lighter compared to Cast Iron Construction. - Higher Power: Weight ratio. Welded Structure defects: Mostly poor workmanship - Overlap - Poor run fusion - Undercut - Poor side fusion - Porosity - Trapped gases - Cavities - No root penetration Cracking: - Lack of penetration & fusion. - Results in severe stress concentration. - Location- weld metal. - Parent metals (heated zone). Hot cracking: - Welded metal Sulfur. Cold Cracks: - Heated zone near fusion line. - Martensite formation. Surface defect rectification - Grinding & Re-welding. Defect identification: - Ultrasonic, Radio-graphics etc.

Cast Structure: ; Without proper facilities: Unreliable and Unpredictable. ; X-rays identify blowholes & cavities. ; Some defects show during service. ; Main consideration or cast construction: Intricate shape and Cost. Defect in Cast Structure: Blowholes:; Furnace gases dissolved in metal. ; Gas dissolved in molten metal Less soluble during solidification. On solidification Gases liberate and result in trapped Bubbles & Blowholes. Porosity:; Steel not completely de-oxidized. ; Carbon tends to reduce oxide, FeO + C = Fe + CO. ; Initial stage solidification Pure Fe. ; Excess FeO & C = Trapped CO, Results in Blowholes. Faults in Structure: Segregation of Impurities:; Solidify last ; Remains on crystal boundaries. ; Overall brittleness. Shrinkage:On Solidification ; Volume decreases. ; Out side surfaces solidify. ; Leaves Cavities. ; Solution: Shape of the mould

Engineer M. A. Hamid

Cracks: ; Behind guides ; Bearing pockets ; Welding places ; Bolts & Dowels ; Holes

Engine Classifications and Constructions Note Book for Marine Engineers Misalignment: Structural Misalignment Indications: ; Settling of structure. ; Overheated bearings & guide shoes. ; Fire ; Uneven wears of liner. ; Grounding ; Piston slapping / Piston misalignment. ; Collision ; Excessive engine vibrations. ; Slack tie bolts ; Excessive wears of stuffing box. ; Distortion in structure ; Excessive wears of piston rod.

TIE BOLTS:
Material: High UTS Steel. ; ; ; ; ; Large slow speed engines are fitted with tie bolts. The tie bolts are placed between the cross girders of the bedplate & top of the cylinder block, on either side. Bolts are free through cylinder blocks, frames & bedplate. Tie bolts are as close as possible to engine center line to minimize bending moment. Tie bolts are always under tension.

Function: The functions of tie bolts are to ; Bind the cylinder block, A-frame & bedplate firmly together. ; Keep the structure under compression. ; Keep load on structure within admissible limits. ; Prevent fretting between the components. ; Transfer firing load to Cover Studs Cylinder Block Tie bolt Cross Girder Ship Structure. Effect of Running Engine with Slack Tie Bolts:; Cylinder block flex and lift. ; Landing faces rest. ; Machine faces destroy. ; Fitted bracing bolts slacken. ; Uneven fretting cylinder block landing results in piston misalignment. ; Uneven fretting nut landing face results excessive bending stresses on tie bolts. ; Damage bed plate cross girder. ; Rigidity of structure destroys. ; Guides / Bars possible slackening. Checking pretension of Tie Bolts: The pretension of the tie bolts should be checked regularly according to engine manual to check that tie bolts are not slack. 1. Take the crankshaft deflection reading. 2. Ensure that the clamping screws are slack. 3. Remove the thread-protecting hood from all the tie rods and clean the contact face of the intermediate ring. 4. Screw both the pre-tensioning jacks on the two rods opposite each other until the lower part of the jack cylinder rests on the intermediate ring; and the work should from the centre tie bolts in pair or as shown in figure. 5. Connect the jacks to high-pressure pump and vent the system. 6. Operate the pump until tension pressure is reached and maintained this pressure. 7. Using a feeler gauge, check the clearance between the tie rod nuts and intermediate ring. If clearance exists tighten the nuts with tommy bar until it rests firmly on the intermediate ring. 8. Check the clearance again and then release the pressure. 9. If no clearance exists the pressure can be released immediately and the pre-tensioning jacks removed. 10. After checking the pre-tension, smear the threads with acid free grease and fit the protective cap. Tighten the clamp screws and take crankshaft deflection and compare with earlier reading. f d b a c e g

Tie Bolts Pretension Procedure Explain why modern engines use UTS steel bolt. Engineer M. A. Hamid 8

1.

2. 3. 4.

Engine Classifications and Constructions Note Book for Marine Engineers In modern highly rated engines, the bolts are given high degree of pretension during tightening to minimize the fluctuation of stress. This minimizes the possibilities of fatigue failure. High UTS (Ultimate Tensile Strength) alloy steel and long thin elastic bolts are used for higher fatigue strength. Any material will fail at a much fluctuating load than a steady higher load. That's why stress in modern engine bolts are high but engines designers have taken effort to keep fluctuation of stress low. The UTS bolts have ductility property, which enable it to be drawn easily into wire form. The UTS bolts have toughness property to sustain variable load condition without failure. UTS alloy steel permits full hardening and tempering; thus a wide range of property is available thereby.

CONNECTING ROD BOLTS:

Connecting rod bolt design features: 1. High UTS alloy steel having higher fatigue strength. 2. Long thin elastic bolts for higher percentage of elongation and fatigue strength. 3. High degree of surface finish bolts is used to reduce stress concentration. 4. Bolts are free with very little fitted portion, to reduce the stress concentration. 5. Shank of bolts is less in diameter than the core diameter at the bottom of the thread by 10%, which increases extensibility. 6. Well formed fillet at places of change of section and between the shank and bolt head to prevent stress concentration. 7. Bolt has smooth change of section. 8. Bolt stiffness is less than component stiffness. 9. Rolled thread and 3 or 4 additional threads and gradual transition. 10. Dowel pins are fitted to reduce shear load on bolts and bolts are provided with interlocking arrangements.

Free long bolt High UTS steel Very little fitted portion

Tension

Exhaust stroke Fillet Compression Smaller shank dia.

Power stroke Factors contribute to connecting rod bolt failure: The connecting rod bolts are subjected to high fluctuation of stress, which lead to fatigue failure. The following factors contribute to the bolt failure: 1. Stress concentration: Due to damage of surface finish and fillets. 2. Over-tightening: Over-tightening or over-stretching of bolts resulting in permanent damage (plastic deformation) 3. Inadequate tightening: During running condition, inadequate tightening will cause high fluctuation of stress leading to fatigue failure. 4. Uneven tightening: Uneven tightening results some of the bolts being overloaded. 5. Improper seating: Improper seating of bolt head or nut will induce bending stress. 6. Corrosive attack: Corrosive attack will damage surface finish and loss of strength of material. Explain the difference between the connecting rods of large slow speed engines and medium speed trunk type engines. 1. The loads come onto connecting rods are the result of gas loads on the pistons and inertia loads from the piston, piston rod, x-head and skirt. The inertia forces from the reciprocating parts are connecting to gas loads depending on their action. a) In 2-stroke engines: Gas load on piston is unidirectional. In single acting 2-stroke cycle engine, the load from the end thrust on the connecting rod is usually purely compressive. b) In 4-stroke engines: Load reversal takes place at the end of exhaust stroke. The end loading on the connecting rod may be "push-pull". The connecting rod being subjected to high compressive loads in the "push" stage of power stoke and low-tensile loads in the "pull" stage of exhaust stroke. Engineer M. A. Hamid 9

Engine Classifications and Constructions Note Book for Marine Engineers 2. In service, swing movement of the connecting rod sets up inertia loads on the connecting rod in a transverse direction and the inertia loads depends on mass and velocity. a) In 2-stroke engine: The transverse inertia loading is not so much and the round section connecting rods of normal length are strong enough to sustain the connected gas loading in slow speed engines. b) In 4-stroke engine: The transverse inertia loading is of such magnitude that the weight of the connecting rod must be considered together with its strength to resist these loads. Rectangular and I-section connecting rods fulfill this satisfaction in the best manner. And this is the reason for using I-section connecting rod in spite of higher manufacturing cost. Explain why bottom end bolts; particularly in medium speed engine are prone to failure under normal conditions. Connecting rod bottom end bolts keep the two halves of the bottom end bearing together. These bolts are subjected to complex nature of stresses as follows: (a) Tensile stress: Tightening of nuts stretches the bolts and subject them tensile stresses, which helps the two components together and under compression. (b) Fluctuating tensile stress: The tensile stress set in the bolt while tightening is of higher degree to reduce fluctuating stress in modern highly rated engines. In 4-stroke engine, at the end of exhaust stroke the inertia load is acting upwards. As a result, piston has a tendency to fly out. Therefore, momentary load reversal taking place in the bearings. At this period, the load is on top-half at main bearing, bottom-half at bottom end bearing and top-half at top end bearing, which is just opposite to normal load condition. This load reversal continues at every cycle. This has a significant effect on bottom end bolts, because the whole connecting rod is under tension at the stage of load reversal. Therefore, bottom end bolt is subjected to additional tensile stress at the end of exhaust stroke resulting in severe stress fluctuations during the cycle. (c) Shear stress: The two halves of the bottom end of the connecting rod have a tendency to go apart. This results in shear stress in way of the bolt, keeping the two parts together. (d) Bending stress: Bending stress of fluctuating nature also takes place while the bottom end is distorting. During power stroke, the bolts bend outward and during exhaust stroke the bolts tend to bend inwards. As these fluctuation stresses lead to the fatigue failure of bottom end bolts; this is why the bottom end bolts are prone to failure under normal condition in medium speed engines. TDC TDC TDC TDC BDC BDC

90 Suction

180 270 360 270 180 90 0 Compression Expansion Exhaust

90

180

270

360

2-stroke engine 4-stroke engine Inertia & gas force during complete working cycle Explain how tendency of failure of bottom end bolt can be minimized by proper maintenance. The connecting rod bolts are subjected to high fluctuation of stresses, which lead to fatigue failure. The following proper maintenance can minimize the bolt failure: 1. Proper surface finish: The bolt is given a good surface finish to reduce stress raisers. Bolt surface and threads must not be damaged by rough handling. 2. Proper tightening: a) Bolts should be tightened according to manufacturer's instruction. A high degree of penetration is given during tightening to keep the fluctuation of stress low. b) Tightening must be done in stages. c) Should not flog the bolt with the hammer in the direction of tightening. d) The landing faces of the bolt-head nut should be cleaned. e) During tightening, measurement of extension is essential for correct stretch. f) Always change the bolts in pair.

Engineer M. A. Hamid

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Engine Classifications and Constructions Note Book for Marine Engineers Apply proper lubricant: Should apply proper grade of lubricant on the head during tightening according to manufacturer's instruction. If the lubricant used has lower viscosity than recommended and nuts are tightened to recommended torque, the bolts in fact left a little slack. On the other hand, using a higher viscosity lubricant induces additional bending stress. Should check the bolt for cracks, damage etc. Sounding testing by hammer to identify internal flaws and cracks. It should be healthy noise. Locking of the nuts should be checked thoroughly.

4. 5. 6.

During inspection this is identified that the bolt locking is intact but the bolt is loose. State with reasons the actual problem associated with bolt. The bolt locking intact indicates that the nut is not displaced from the tightening position. As the bolt is loose, it indicates that the bolt has been permanently deformed (plastic deformation). This happens due to over tightening the bolt. In 4-stroke engine, the load reversal at the end of exhaust stroke has significant effect on connecting rod bolt. At this stage, the bolt is subjected to additional stress as because the whole connecting rod is under tension. If the bolt is given a high pretension than recommended, then the additional tensile stress plus the pre-stress may be high enough to lead the bolt to plastic deformation. The bolt has stretched so much that it looses its elasticity to its original form. Explain why connecting rod bolts require special attention and renewal if particularly 4-stroke engine inadvertently over-speed. In 4-stroke engine, at the end of exhaust stroke the inertia loading of piston acting upwards overcome the exhaust gas load on piston acting downward. Therefore, the connecting rod is pulled and it is under tension at this stage. This has a significant effect on the connecting rod bottom end bolt. Bottom end bolt is subjected to additional stress in severe stress fluctuation. This continues in every cycle. But the inertia loading is dependent on mass and angular velocity. So, when a 4-stroke engine inadvertently over-speeds the inertia loading will be higher imposing additional stress on the bolt. The fluctuation of stress is also higher; this high fluctuation of stress can cause fatigue failure. So, connecting rod bolts require special attention if a 4-stroke engine inadvertently over-speeds.

Engineer M. A. Hamid

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