CONTENTS Preface v Hints to the reader X1 Chapter I. Induction 3 1. Experience and belief. 2. Suggestive contacts. 3. Supporting contacts. 4.

The inductive attitude Examples and Comments on Chapter I, 1-14. [12. Yes and No. 13. Experience and behavior. 14. The logician, the mathematician, the physicist, and the engineer.] Chapter II. Generalization, Specialization, Analogy 12 1. Generalization, specialization, analogy, and induction. 2. Generalization. 3. Specialization. 4. Analogy. 5. Generalization, specialization, and analogy. 6. Discovery by analogy. 7. Analogy and induction Examples and Comments on Chapter II, 1-46; [First Part, 1-20; Second Part, 21-46]. [1. The right generalization. 5. An extreme special case. 7. A leading special case. 10. A representative special case. 1 1. An analogous case. 18. Great analogies. 19. Clarified analogies. 20. Quotations. 21. The conjecture E. 44. An objection and a first approach to a proof. 45. A second approach to a proof. 46. Dangers of analogy.] Chapter III. Induction in Solid Geometry 35 1. Polyhedra. 2. First supporting contacts. 3. More supporting contacts. 4. A severe test. 5. Verifications and verifications. 6. A very different case. 7. Analogy. 8. The partition of space. 9. Modifying the problem. 10. Generalization, specialization, analogy. 1 1 . An analogous problem. 12. An array of analogous problems. 13. Many problems may be easier than just one. 14. A conjecture. 15. Prediction and verification. 16. Again and better. 17. Induction suggests deduction, the particular case suggests the general proof. 18. More conjectures Examples and Comments on Chapter III, 1-41. [21. Induction: adaptation of the mind, adaptation of the language. 31. Descartes' work on polyhedra. 36. Supplementary solid angles, supplementary spherical polygons.] ..

INDUCTION It will seem not a little paradoxical to ascribe a great importance to observations even in that part of the mathematical sciences which is usually called Pure Mathematics, since the current opinion is that observations are restricted to physical objects that make impression on the senses. As we must refer the numbers to the pure intellect alone, we can hardly understand how observations and quasi-experiments can be of use in investigating the nature of the numbers. Yet, in fact, as I shall show here with very good reasons, the properties of the numbers known today have been mostly discovered by observation, and discovered long before their truth has been confirmed by rigid demonstrations. There are even many properties of the numbers with which we are well acquainted, but which we are not yet able to prove; only observations have led us to their knowledge. Hence we see that in the theory of numbers, which is still very imperfect, we can place our highest hopes in observations; they will lead us continually to new properties which we shall endeavor to prove afterwards. The kind of knowledge which is supported only by observations and is not yet proved must be carefully distinguished from the truth; it is gained by induction, as we usually say. Yet we have seen cases in which mere induction led to error. Therefore, we should take great care not to accept as true such properties of the numbers which we have discovered by observation and which are supported by induction alone. Indeed, we should use such a

discovery as an opportunity to investigate more exactly the properties discovered and to prove or disprove them; in both cases we may learn something useful. EULER 1

i. Experience and belief. Experience modifies human beliefs. We learn from experience or, rather, we ought to learn from experience. To make the best possible use of experience is one of the great human tasks and to work for this task is the proper vocation of scientists. A scientist deserving this name endeavors to extract the most correct belief from a given experience and to gather the most appropriate experience in order to establish the correct belief regarding a given question. The

1 Euler, Opera Omnia, ser. 1, vol. 2, p. 459, Specimen de usu observationum in mathesi pura. 3