Quiz 1 Preparation: From Biopsychology (8ed), Pinel.

CHAPTER 3 Central nervous system (CNS): division of the nervous system that is located within the skull and spine Peripheral nervous system (PNS): division of the nervous system that is located outside the skull and spine Somatic nervous system (SNS): part of the PNS that interacts with the external environment. Composed of afferent nerves that carry sensory signals from the skin, skeletal muscles, joints, ears, eyes, etc to the CNS and efferent nerves that carry motor signals from the CNS to the skeletal muscles. Afferent nerves: carry input signals Efferent nerves: carry output signals Autonomic nervous system (ANS): the part of the PNS that regulates the body's internal environment. Composed of afferent nerves that carry sensory signals from internal organs to the CNS and afferent nurse that carry motor signals from the CNS to internal organs. Sympathetic nerves: autonomic motor nerves that project from the CNS in the lumbar (small of the back) and thoracic (chest area) regions of the spinal cord Parasympathetic nerves: autonomic motor nerves that project from the brain and sacral (lower back) region of the spinal-cord Meninges: three protective membranes that cover the brain and spinal chord Dura mater: the outer meninx, a tough membrane Arachnoid membrane: fine spiderweb like membrane, immediately inside the dura mater Subarachnoid space: contains many large blood vessels and cerebrospinal fluid, located beneath the arachnoid membrane Pia mater: delicate innermost meninx, adheres to the surface of the CNS Cerebrospinal fluid (CFS): fills the subarachnoid space, the central canal of the spinal-cord, and the cerebral ventricles of the brain Central canal: a small central tunnel that runs the length of the spinal-cord Cerebral ventricles: for large internal chambers of the brain: the two large lateral ventricles, the third ventricle, and the fourth ventricle Choroid plexuses: networks of capillaries that protrude into the ventricles from the pia mater Blood-brain barrier: prevents the passage of many toxic substances from the blood into the brain; cells of the blood vessel walls are tightly packed, forms a barrier against the passage of many molecules particularly proteins and other large molecules Neurons: cells that are specialised to the reception, conduction, and transmission of electrochemical signals Cell body (soma): the metabolic centre of the neuron Cell membrane: the semipermeable membrane that includes the neuron Dendrites: the short processors emanating from the cell body, which receive most of the synaptic contacts from other neurons Axon hillock: the cone shaped region at the junction between the axon and the cell body

Axon: the long narrow process that projects from the cell body Myelin: the fatty insulation around many axons Nodes of Ranvier: the gaps between sections of myelin; recharge action potentials Buttons: the butter like endings of the axon branches which release chemicals into the synapses Synapses: the gaps between adjacent neurons across which chemical signals are transmitted Nucleus: the spherical DNA containing structure of the cell body Endoplasmic reticulum: a system of folded membranes in the cell body. Rough portions (those with ribosomes) a role in the synthesis of proteins; smooth portions (without ribosomes) play a role in the synthesis of fats Ribosomes: internal cellular structures on which proteins synthesised; they are located on the endoplasmic reticulum Mitochondria: sites of aerobic (oxygen-consuming) energy release Golgi complex: a connected system of membranes that packages molecules in vesicles Microtubules: Tubules responsible for the rapid transport material throughout neurons Synaptic vesicles: spherical membrane packages that store neurotransmitter molecules ready for release near synapses Neurotransmitters (NTs): molecules that are released from active neurons and influenced activity of other cells Neuron cell membrane: composed of a lipid bilayer. Embedded in the lipid bilayer are numerous protein molecules that are the basis of many of the cell membranes functional properties. Some membrane proteins are channel proteins, through which certain molecules can pass; others are signal proteins, which transfer signals to the inside of the neuron when particular molecules bind to them on the outside of the membrane Interneurons: have a short axon or at all; their function is to integrate the new activity within a single brain structure, not to conduct signals from one structure to another Uni-polar neuron: has one process extending from its cell body Bipolar neuron: has two processes extending from its cell body Multipolar neuron: has more than two processes extending from its cell body; most common neuron Nuclei: (singular: nucleus) cluster is of cell bodies in the CNS Ganglia: (singular: ganglion) clusters of cell bodies in the PNS Tracts: bundles of axons in the CNS Nerves: bundles of axons in the PNS Glial cells: the other type of cell found in the nervous system Oligodendrocytes: glial cells with extensions that wrap around axons of some neurons of the CNS; extensions are rich in myelin, and form the myelin sheaths. Each oligodendrocyte provides several myelin segments, often on more than one axon. Myelin: a fatty insulating substance Myelin sheath: increase the speed and efficiency of axonal conduction

Schwan cells: glial cells that perform a similar function to oligodendrocytes in the PNS. Each Schwan cell constitutes one myelin segment. Can guide axonal regeneration after damage. Microglia: glial cells that are smaller than other glia; respond to injury or disease by multiplying, engulfing cellular debris, and triggering inflammatory responses Astrocytes: large star shaped glial cells. Have several functions including covering the outer surfaces of blood vessels that course through the brain, making contact with neuron cell bodies, the blood-brain barrier, providing support to neurons, send and receive signals from neurons and other glial cells, control the establishment and maintenance of synapses between neurons, maintain the function of axons, participate in glial circuits. Golgi Stain: commonly used when the overall shape of neurons is of interest Nissl Stain: often used to estimate the number of cell bodies in an area, by counting the number of Nissl-stained dots Electron Microscopy: magnification to about 1500 times Anterior: towards the nose end Posterior: towards the tail end Dorsal: towards the surface of the back or the top of the head Ventral: towards the surface of the chest or the bottom of the head Medial: towards the midline of the body (inwards) Lateral: away from the midline (outwards, towards the bodys lateral surfaces) Superior: top (of the primate head) Inferior: bottom (of the primate head) Proximal: close Distal: far Horizontal plane: the anterior-posterior plane; would cut through eyes Sagittal plane: the dorsal-ventral plane; would cut through the corpus callosum Frontal plane: the coronal plane; goes from left to right Grey matter: composed largely of cell bodies and unmyelinated interneurons White matter: composed largely of myelinated axons Dorsal horns: the two dorsal arms of the spinal grey matter Ventral horns: the two ventral arms of the spinal grey matter Dorsal root ganglia: groups of cell bodies just outside the spinal cord; all dorsal root axons, whether somatic autonomic, are sensory (afferent) unipolar neurons. Their cell bodies form the dorsal root ganglia. The five major divisions of the human brain: Telencephalon (cerebral hemispheres) Diencephalon o composed of two structures: thalamus: large, two-lobed structure that constitutes the top of the brainstem. Joined by the massa intermedia. Is the sensory relay station. Hypothalamus: located just below the anterior thalamus. Plays an important role in the regulation of several motivated behaviours. Regulates the release of hormones from the

pituitary gland. The optic chiasm and the mammillary bodies are also found on the inferior surface of the hypothalamus. Mesencephalon (midbrain) o has two divisions: the tectum and the tegmentum tectum: the dorsal surface of the midbrain (roof). In mammals, the tectum is composed of two pairs of bumps, the colliculi (little hills) inferior colliculi: auditory function superior colliculi: visual function tegmentum: is central to the tectum. Contains three colourful structures: periaqueductal grey: grey matter situated around the cerebral aqueduct cerebral aqueduct: the duct connecting the third and fourth ventricles; plays a role in mediating analgesic effects of opiate drugs substantia nigra: black substance red nucleus Metencephalon o houses many ascending and descending tracts and part of the reticular formation o pons: a bulge created by the structures of the metencephalon on the brainstem's ventral surface o cerebellum: the large, convoluted structure on the brainstem's dorsal surface. It is an important sensorimotor structure; cerebellar damage eliminates the ability to precisely control one's movements and adapt them to changing conditions. May also contribute to cognitive function. Myelencephalon (medulla) o composed largely of tracts carrying signals between the rest of the brain and the body o reticular formation: a complex network of about 100 tiny nuclei that occupies the central core of the brainstem from the posterior boundary of the myelencephalon to the anterior boundary of the midbrain Spinal cord

Cerebral cortex: often referred to as the grey matter. The layer of tissue that covers this cerebral hemispheres Fissures: the large furrows in a convoluted cortex - the longitudinal fissure almost completely separates the cerebral hemispheres - central fissure - lateral fissure Sulci: (singular: sulcus) the small furrows in a convoluted cortex Gyri: (singular: gyrus) the ridges between fissures and sulci - precentral gyri (frontal lobe) - post-central gyri (lobe) - superior temporal gyri (temporal lobe) Cerebral commissures: Hemisphere connecting tracts

Corpus callosum: the largest cerebral commissure Lobes of the brain (roughly divided by the major fissures) - Frontal lobe - Parietal lobe - Occipital lobe - Temporal lobe Pyramidal cells: large multipolar neurons with pyramid-shaped cell bodies, a large dendrite called an apical dendrite that extends from the apex of the pyramid straight down towards the cortex surface, and a very long axon Stellate cells: small star-shaped interneurons Limbic system: a circuit of midline structures that circle the thalamus; involved in the regulation of motivated behaviours (the four Fs) major structures include the amygdala, the forex, the cingulate cortex, and the septum amygdala: the almond-shaped nucleus in the anterior temporal lobe cingulate cortex: the large strip of cortex in the cingulate gyrus on the medial surface of the cerebral hemispheres, just superior to the corpus callosum. It encircles the dorsal thalamus fornix: the major tract of the limbic system, also encircles the dorsal thalamus; makes an arc to the mammillary bodies septum: a midline nucleus that is located at the anterior tip of the cingulate cortex Basal ganglia: play a role in the performance of voluntary motor responses major structures include the amygdala, caudate, putamen, striatum, and globus pallidus. Amygdala is considered part of both the limbic system and the basal ganglia Caudate: tail-like structure sweeping out of each amygdala Putamen: connected to the caudate by a series of fibre bridges striatum: the caudate and the putamen; means striped structure due to striped appearance of these structures globus pallidus: located medial to the putamen, between the putamen the thalamus CHAPTER 4 Membrane potential: the difference in electrical charge between the inside and the outside of a cell Resting potential: the steady membrane potential of about -70mV. Neuron is said to be polarised in this state Ions: the positively and negatively charged particles of salts in the neutral tissue Random motion: acts to homogenise (evenly distribute) ions throughout the intra- and extra-cellular fluids Concentration gradients: ions are more likely to move from areas of high concentration to low concentration Electrostatic pressure: any accumulation of charges in one area tends to be dispersed by the repulsion amoung like charges and the attraction of opposite charges

Ion channels: specialised pores in the neural membrane where ions pass through. Channels are specialised for the passage of particular ions. Sodium-potassium pumps: ion transporters inside the cell membrane that actively exchange three Na+ ions inside the neuron for two K+ ions outside Transporters: mechanisms in the membrane of a cell that actively transport ions or molecules across the membrane Depolarise: decrease the resting membrane potential from -70mV to a more positive value Hyperpolarise: increase the resting membrane potential from -70mV to a more negative value Excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs): postsynaptic depolarisations; increase the likelihood that the neuron will fire. Inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSPs): postsynaptic hyperpolarisations; decrease the likelihood that the neuron will fire. Graded responses: the amplitudes of EPSPs and IPSPs are proportional to the intensity of the signals that elicit them Threshold of excitation: the level of depolarisation (usually about -65mV) required to generate an action potential Action potential (AP): a massive but momentary (1 millisecond) reversal of the membrane potential, from about -70mV to around +50mV. They are not graded responses (magnitude not related to intensity of stimulus) All-or-none responses: either occurs to full extent or not at all Integration: the addition (combination) of multiple individual signals into one overal signal Spatial summation: the integration of incoming signals that occur simultaneously, but on different parts of the receptive membrane Temporal summation: the integration of incoming signals that occur in rapid succession at the same synapse Voltage-activated ion channels: ion channels that open or close in response to changes in the level of the membrane potential Absolute refractory period: a brief period (1~2 milliseconds) after the initiation of an AP during which it is impossible to elicit another AP Relative refractory period: follows the absolute refractory period; it is possible to fire the neuron again during this period, but requires a level of stimulation higher than normal Antidromic conduction: where an AP is generated from the terminal end of an axon and travels back to the cell body along the axon Orthodromic conduction: axonal conduction in the normal direction (AP travels from cell body to terminal buttons) Saltatory conduction: the transmission of APs in myelinated axons (where the AP is recharged at the Nodes of Ranvier) Dendritic spines: nodules of various shapes that are located on the surfaces of many dendrites Types of synapses: Axodendritic: synapses of axon terminal buttons on dendrites Axosomatic: synapses of axon terminal buttons on somas

Dendrodendritic: dendrites on dendrites; often capable of two-way transmissions Axoaxonic: axon on axon; can mediate presynaptic facilitation and inhibition (selective facilitation/inhibition of terminal buttons effects) Directed synapses: synapses at which the site of NT release and the site of NT reception are in close proximity Nondirected synapses: synapses at which the site of release is at some distance from the site of direction (NTs float around until they are picked up by nearby neurons) NTs are released from a series of varicosities (bulges) along the axon and its branches string-of-beads synapses Neuropeptides: short amino acid chains comprising between 3 and 36 amino acids (i.e. they are short proteins). Large-molecule NTs Synaptic vessicles: small-molecule NTs are packaged in these by the Golgi complex Exocytosis: the process of NT release from the terminal button Receptors: proteins that contain binding sites for particular NTs Ligand: any molecule that binds to another is referred to as that molecules ligand; thus a NT is its receptors ligand Receptor subtypes: the different types of receptors to which a particular NT can bind Ionotropic receptors: receptors that are associated with ligand-activated ion channels Metabotropic receptors: receptors that are associated with signal proteins and G proteins G proteins: guanosine-triphosphate-sensitive proteins; when activated, part of the G protein breaks off into the neuron to either bind to an ion channel or stimulate the synthesis of a second messenger Second messenger: a chemical that diffuses through the cytoplasm, influencing the activities of neurons in various ways Autorecpetors: metabotropic receptors that bind to their neurons own NT molecules, and are located on the pre-synaptic (as opposed to post-synaptic) terminal Reuptake: a deactivating mechanism (for synaptic messages) where NTs are drawn back into the pre-synaptic buttons by transporters. Enzymatic degradation: deactivation of NTs by degrading them with enzymes in the synapse. Each NT has a specific enzyme to break it down; e.g. acetylcholine (Ach) is broken down by acetylcholinesterase Enzymes: proteins that stimulate or inhibit biochemical reactions without being affected by them. Gap junctions: narrow spaces between adjacent neurons that are bridged by fine tubular channels (connexins) that contain cytoplasm. A.k.a. electrical synapses Amino acid NTs: molecular building blocks of proteins; in the vast majority of fastacting, directed synapses in the CNS Glutamate: the most prevalent excitatory NT in the mammalian CNS; common in the proteins we consume Aspartate: common in the proteins we consume Glycine: common in the proteins we consume GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid): synthesised by a simple modification of the structure of glutamate; the most prevalent inhibitory NT, although has excitatory effects at some synapses Monoamine NTs: each synthesised from a single amino acid. Slightly larger than amino acid NTs, and tend to have more diffuse effects

Dopamine: a catecholamine synthesised from tyrosine; tyrosine is converted into L-dopa, which is then converted into dopamine

Norepinephrine (noradrenaline): a catecholamine synthesised from tyrosine; an extra enzyme in the neurons which release norepinephrine (noradrenergic) convert if from dopamine Epinephrine (adrenaline): a catecholamine synthesised from tyrosine; an extra enzyme in the neurons which release epinephrine (adrenergic) convert it from norepinephrine Serotonin (5-HT): an indolamine synthesised from tryptophan Acetylcholine (Ach): created by adding an acetyl group to a choline molecule. Is the NT at neuromuscular junctions, at many of the synapses in the ANS, and at synapses in several parts of the CNS. Neurons that release Ach are cholinergic Soluble-gas NTs: produced in the neural cytoplasm and immediately diffuse through the cell membrane into the extracellular fluid and into nearby cells. They are soluble in lipids. They stimulate the production of a second messenger, then are deactivated by being converted to another molecule. Shown to be involved in retrograde transmission (feedback signals from post- to pre-synaptic neurons). Nitric oxide Carbon monoxide Endocannabinoids: NTs that are similar to THC, the main psychoactive constituent of marijuana. They are produced immediately before they are released. Synthesised from fatty compounds in the cell membrane, they tend to be released from the dendrites and soma, and tend to have most of their effects on presynaptic neurons (inhibition of synaptic transmissions) Anadamide: the most widely studied endocannabinoid Neuropeptide transmitters: Pituitary peptides Hypothalamic peptides Brain-gut peptides Opioid peptides Miscellaneous peptides Agonists: drugs that facilitate the effects of a particular NT Antagonists: drugs that inhibit the effects of a particular NT Receptor blockers: antagonists that bind to receptors without activating them, blocking the access of the usual NT Endogenous: occuring naturally in the body CHAPTER 5 Contrast X-ray techniques: involve injecting a substance that absorbs X-rays either more or less than the surrounding tissue in one compartment of the body. Useful for visualising the brain Cerebral angiography: used to visualise the cerebral circulatory system by injecting a radio-opaque dye into a cerebral artery X-ray computed tomography (CT): a computer-assisted x-ray procedure used to visualise the brain and other internal body structures. Several horizontal slices of the brain are imaged to form a 3D representation of the brain

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI): high-resolution 3D images are constructed from the measurement of waves that hydrogen atoms emit when they are activated by radio-frequency waves in a magnetic field. Clearer than CT. High spatial resolution. Spatial resolution: ablity to detect and represent differences in spatial location Positron emission tomography (PET): the first brain imaging technique to provide images of brain activity (functional brain images) rather than images of brain structure (structural brain images). Each PET scan is an image of the levels of radioactivity (indicated by colour coding) in various parts of one horizontal level of the brain 2-deoxyglucose (2-DG): one common version of PET is to inject radioactive 2-DG into the patient's carotid artery. 2-DG is rapidly taken up by active cells, but cannot be metabolised, therefore it accumulates in active neurons or in associated astrocytes until it is gradually broken down Functional MRI (fMRI): produces images representing the increase in oxygen flow in the blood to active areas of the brain. Active areas of the brain take up more oxygenated blood on the need for their energy requirements and thus oxygenated blood accumulates in active areas of the brain. Also, oxygenated blood has magnetic properties. Functional MRI is non-invasive, provides both structural and functional information in the same image, has better spatial resolution than PET, and it can be used to produce three-dimensional images of activity over the entire brain BOLD signal: the blood-oxygen-level-dependent signal; is the signal recorded by fMRI. Magnetoencephalography (MEG): used to monitor the brain activity of human subjects. Measures changes in magnetic fields on the surface of the scalp that are produced by changes in underlying patterns of neural activity. Has better temporal resolution than fMRI temporal resolution: ability to detect and represent differences over time Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS): a technique for affecting the activity of an area of the cortex by treating a magnetic field under a coil positioned next to the skull. Also known as digital lesioning; the magnetic stimulation temporarily turns off part of the brain Electroencephalogram (EEG): a measure of the gross electrical activity of the brain. Recorded through large electrodes by a device called an electroencephalograph (EEG machine) electroencephalography: use of an electroencephalograph to record electrical activity of the brain Alpha waves: regular, 8-to-12-per-second high-amplitude waves; associated with relaxed wakefulness events related potentials (ERPs): EEG waves that accompany certain psychological events o sensory evoked potential: the change in cortical EEG signal that is elicited by the momentary presentation of a sensory stimulus signal averaging: a method used to reduce the noise of the background EEG average evoked potentials (AEPs) Electromyography: the usual procedure for measuring muscle tension. The resulting record is called and electromyogram (EMG). EMG activity is usually recorded between two electrodes taped to the surface of the skin over the muscle of interest

Electrooculography: the electrophysiological technique for recording eye movements. The resulting record is called an electrooculogram (EOG). Skin conductance level (SCL): a measure of the background level of skin conductance that is associated with a particular situation Skin conductance response (SCR): a measure of the transient changes in skin conductance that are associated with discrete experiences Electrocardiogram (EKG): the recording of the electrical signal that is associated with each heartbeat Plethysmography: the various techniques for measuring changes in the volume of blood in a particular part of the body Stereotaxic surgery: the means by which experimental devices are precisely positioned in the depths of the brain stereotaxic atlas: a series of individual maps of brain structures, each representing the structure of a single, two-dimensional frontal brain slice stereotaxic instrument: has two parts: ahead holder, which firmly holds each subjects brain in the prescribed position and orientation; and an electrode holder, which holds the device to be inserted Aspiration lesions: where cortical tissue is drawn off by suction through a fine tipped handheld glass pipette Radio-frequency lesions: small subcortical lesions made by passing radio-frequency current through the target tissue from the tip of the stereotaxicly positioned electrode. The target tissue is destroyed by the heat. Knife cuts: the use of sectioning (cutting) to eliminate conduction in a nerve or tract Cryogenic blockade: an alternative to destructive lesions. Neurons are frozen, then warmed up again to restore neural activity. Also known as reversible lesions Intracellular unit recording: provides a moment-by-moment recording of the graded fluctuations in one neurons membrane potential Extracellular unit recording: provides a record of the firing of a neuron, but no information about the neurons membrane potential. Measured through a microelectrode positioned in the extracellular fluid next to a neuron Multiple-unit recording: a slightly larger electrode picks up signals from many neurons; the many action potentials picked up by the electrode are fed into an integrating circuit, which adds them together. Invasive EEG recording: in lab animals, EEG signals are recorded through large implanted electrodes rather than through scalp electrodes Neurotoxins: neural poisons that have an affinity for certain components of the nervous system. Can be used to make more selective lesions Autoradiography: slices of the subjects brain are coated with a photographic emulsion, stored in the dark for a few days, and then developed much like film. Used with the 2-deoxyglucose technique. Cerebral dialysis: involves the implantation in the brain of a fine tube with a short semipermeable section. A method of measuring the extracellular concentration of specific neurochemicals in behaving animals. The extracellular chemicals from the structure of interest diffuse into the tube. Immunocytochemistry: a procedure for locating particular neuroproteins in the brain by labelling their antibodies with a dye or radioactive element and then exposing slices of brain tissue to the labelled antibodies Gene knockout techniques: procedures for creating organisms that lack a particular gene under investigation. Knockout mice

Gene replacement techniques: replacing one gene with another. Pathological genes from human cells can be inserted into other animals such as mice. Transgenic mice Tests of the common neuropsychological test battery: Intelligence: Weschler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) Memory: memory problems are often reported by the patient or the family of the patient. The WAIS includes subtests that assess general knowledge and also digit span memory (the longest sequence of random digits that the patient can repeat correctly 50% of the time) Language: token test- 20 tokens of two different shapes, two different sizes, and five different colours are placed on a table in front of the subject. The examiner reads progressively more difficult instructions, which the patient must follow; finally the subject is asked to read the instructions aloud and follow them Language Lateralisation: it is usual for one hemisphere to participate more than the other in language related activities. Often included in the common test battery because knowing which hemisphere is dominant for language is often useful in interpreting the results of other tests. Furthermore, a test of that language lateralisation is virtually always given to patients before any surgery that might encroach on the cortical language areas o Sodium amytal test: sodium amytal, an anaesthetic, is injected into either the left or right carotid artery in the neck, temporarily anaesthetising the ipsilateral (same side) hemisphere while leaving the contralateral (opposite side) hemisphere largely unaffected o Dichotic listening test: sequences of spoken digits are presented to subjects through stereo headphones. Different digits are presented on either side. Subjects are asked to report as many of the digits as they can Memory: short-term memory long-term memory anterograde retrograde semantic memory episodic memory explicit memory implicit memory o repetition priming tests: amnesic patients often perform as well as healthy control subjects in repetition priming tests; however they often have no conscious memory of any of the words in the initial list or even of having ever seen the list Frontal-lobe function: Wisconsin Card Sorting Test patients must sort the cards according to a rule known only to the examiner; after successfully sorting the cards according to this rule, the examiner changes the rule and the patient must adapt. Patients with damage to their frontal lobes often continue to sort on the basis of the previous rule. They seem to have great difficulty learning and remembering that previously appropriate guidelines for effective behaviour are no longer appropriate (preservation)

Cognitive neuroscience: Constituent cognitive processes: each complex cognitive process results from the combined activity of simple cognitive processes (constituent cognitive processes) each constituent cognitive process is mediated by neural activity in a particular area of the brain Paired-image subtraction technique: PET or fMRI images are obtained during several different cognitive tasks. Ideally, the tasks are designed so that pairs of them differ from each other in terms of only a single constituent cognitive process. The images are compared and activities subtracted to estimate the brain activity associated with the constituent cognitive process under investigation. Difference image Species-common behaviours: behaviours that are displayed by virtually all members of the species, or at least by all those of the same age and sex. Open-field test: the subject is placed in a large, Darren Kimber, and its activity is recorded Condition taste aversion: the avoidance response that develops to taste the food whose consumption has been followed by illness Radial arm maze: an array of arms radiate from a central starting area; the rats must identify which of the arms are baited Morris water maze: a circular, featureless pall of cool milky water, containing an invisible escape platform, which the rats must find