Editors Note: This article introduces ORBIT readers to a product relevant to any gas turbine user or manufacturer: flame

detectors. GE pioneered the Silicon Carbide photodiode technology used in modern ultraviolet flame sensors. Here, the authors describe the numerous demanding requirements incumbent upon a flame detector for todays breed of gas turbines and the ability of the FlameTracker detector to address such requirements. The FlameTracker sensor is particularly well-suited for those customers who desire to upgrade from older, less-reliable Geiger-Mueller tube-based flame sensing technology.

INTRODUCTION

Since 1996, GE Energy has provided its Flame Tracker Silicon Carbide (SiC) diodebased flame detectors for use in gas turbine combustion systems. Currently, every large frame gas turbine leaving GEs factories in Greenville and Belfort, as well as much of the LM 6000 aeroderivative fleet, is equipped with these
Dale Brown Consultant (retired) GE Global Research Center browndm@crd.ge.com Leo Lombardo Lead Engineer, Combustion Sensors and Software GE Energy leo.lombardo@ge.com Dr. Carl Palmer Principal Engineer, Combustion Sensors and Software GE Energy carl.palmer@ge.com Don Schneider Consultant (retired) GE Energy donald.schneider@ge.com

sensors. Flame Tracker detectors are also installed on gas turbines from over half a dozen other Original Equipment Manufacturers (OEMs), demonstrating the applicability and acceptance of this technology for any gas turbine. At the end of 2004, there were more than 14,000 of these detectors in the field.

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PRIMARY OPERATION Ignition to 20% Load FUEL 100% FUEL 70% 30%

LEAN-LEAN OPERATION 20% to 40% Load

FUEL 100%

FUEL 83% 17%

SECOND STAGE BURNING Transient during transfer to premixed

PREMIXED OPERATION 40% to 100% Load

Figure 1: DLN-1 Combustor Modes (Black and Davis, 2000)

BACKGROUND WHY WAS A NEW FLAME DETECTOR NEEDED?

Traditionally, gas turbine flame detectors have been used as a backup of the safety systems to ensure the presence of flame during gas turbine light-off. With the move away from traditional diffusion based combustion towards premixed type combustors in the early 1990s, the need to detect the presence (or absence) of flame increased dramatically. Dry-Low NOx (DLN) combustion features premixed air and fuel, which decreases flame stability, increasing the likelihood of flashback or other destructive combustion phenomena. Also, to produce low NOx over a wide range of loads, combustion systems generally were set up to switch combustion among various nozzles as load changes. Figure 1 illustrates the different combustion modes in a DLN-1 combustor (loads in the figure are representative of a system employing inlet bleed heating). During combustion switch-over, it is important to make sure that the combustion takes place in the right locations in the combustor; otherwise, fuel could

be introduced that could eventually ignite in an undesirable location in the turbine. For example, detectible flames are expected in the primary zone only up to 20% load, in both primary and secondary zones up to 40% load, and only in the secondary zone over 40% load. Fuel is introduced into both the primary and secondary nozzles in this combustion mode, but the combustion takes place only in the secondary zone.
A BRIEF CHRONOLOGY OF FLAME DETECTION HISTORY
YEAR 19 5 6 19 6 4 19 74 19 8 6 19 9 5 19 9 7 2000 ITEM T H E R M O P I L E F L A M E D E T E C TO R M C G R AW- E D I S O N F L A M E D E T E C TO R G E I G E R - M U E L L E R ( G - M ) T U B E D E T E C TO R G - M T U B E D E T E C TO R W I T H WAT E R C O O L I N G S I C F L A M E D E T E C T I O N , G E - D E V E LO P E D GE 2-WIRE SENSOR GE REDESIGN OF 2-WIRE SENSOR

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Liquid fuel fog, steam, or water absorb shorter wavelength ultraviolet (UV) light. In these applications, false trips are possible with traditional Geiger-Mueller (G-M) tube-based flame detectors because their peak sensitivity is in this part of the UV spectra. DLN applications firing liquid fuels, as well as applications with significant levels of water and steam injection, require reliable flame detector performance that could not be satisfied by G-M technology. Consequently, in the early 1990s, the GE Global Research Center embarked on creating a new flame detector based on the Silicon Carbide photodiode that could meet these new demands. [Brown et. al, 1998]
FLAME SENSOR REQUIREMENTS

see the secondary flame without interference from the primary flame is to look directly down the axis of the fuel nozzle (Figure 2). This puts the flame detector at least 69" (27cm) away from the flame, peering through a 6.4" (0.25mm) diameter orifice. The detector must be sensitive enough to reliably detect flame though these small openings at relatively long distances.

Low Sensitivity to Combustor Black Body Radiation: Unless a flame detector is insensitive

This research, together with the packaging engineering of GE Energys flame sensor development team, culminated in the current Flame Tracker detector that meets all the necessary requirements for application of the sensor to gas turbines. Below, we summarize many of these requirements, illustrating the extremely demanding environment in which the sensor must operate.

in the infrared region, it could still produce a signal even if combustion were to shut off, as the combustor walls would still be glowing hot. Blackbody radiation occurs at wall temperatures from 400 1100C. This type of false positive must be avoided.

u u

Fast Response/Recovery Time from Maximum Output:To allow the control system to safely shut

off fuel flow, a flame detector must be capable of extremely fast (< 50 ms) detection of loss of flame. noted in the first bullet, a flame detector must be sensitive at very low light output (1x10 10 photons / inch 2 / s). However, it must also be responsive to changes at high output (not saturated at 5x1012). This requires an extremely large dynamic range.
Large Dynamic Range: As

Very High Sensitivity at Low Light Levels:

To ensure that the flame detector is seeing only the desired flame, some very complicated configurations are used. For example, the only way to

Figure 2: DLN-1 Secondary Detector Line of Sight

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H g R l a i i yi H ta dH r hE v r n e t : ih eiblt n o n as niomns

SiC PROPERTIES/PERFORMANCE

Older flame sensor technologies are a source of frequent problems, requiring expensive downtime to replace. Users today demand long life from their sensors in a very harsh environment, where ambient air temperature around the turbine can reach 235C (455F).

RELATIVE RESPONSE (% of max)

Low Voltage Operation: Higher-voltage sensors require explosion-proof conduit and other special fire protection/isolation systems, adding substantially to both the installation-related costs and the need for ongoing maintenance to ensure such systems SiC response 100 are working properly. A lowvoltage sensor eliminates such requirements by allowing 80 the use of intrinsically safe wiring practices that limit 60 the energy in the circuit to levels that cannot ignite any Geigergas that may be present. 40 Mueller High Process Pressure and Temperature at Optical Window: The sensor is usutube response 20

The photodiode used in the flame sensor is a 1mm2 SiC chip. When light reaches a photodiode chip, it energizes the electrons. If the light energy exceeds the band gap voltage of the material, the electrons are separated from holes forming electron-hole pairs. These electrons and holes are accelerated toward the cathode and anode, respectively. If the anode is connected to the cathode, a current will flow proportional to the intensity of the light.

Hydrocarbon flame

Ultraviolet

Blackbody Radiation present in combustor

ally mounted directly onto the combustion can, without any isolation window.Thus, the sensor is typically continuously subjected to compressor discharge conditions (up to 400 psig/27.6bar at 800F / 440C ).

0 200 250 300 350 400 450

WAVELENGTH, nm
Figure 3: SiC Photodiode Performance Versus Wavelength

u u u

Low Cost: There

is always a price-versus-performance tradeoff decision, but commercial acceptance requires competitiveness in both initial and life-cycle costs.

Installation Ease: Not only is the initial cost of installation important, but also in todays environment, any sensor that allows easier turbine overhaul is beneficial.

the sensor is mounted directly onto a vibrating engine (often with very high g-levels), its electronics and mechanical construction must be able to withstand years of punishment.

Vibration Resistance: Because

The spectral response of a photodiode is primarily determined by its band gap voltage. Silicon, with a band gap of 1.1 electron volts, has a spectral response that peaks in the infrared region at about 900 nm and has a wavelength limit of 1100 nm. SiC, with a band gap of 3.1 electron volts, has a spectral response that peaks in the ultraviolet at about 270 nm and has a wavelength limit of 400 nm. This response makes SiC an ideal ultraviolet detector. Figure 3 shows the responsiveness of the SiC photodiode as a function of the wavelength of light. This figure also shows how SiC is uniquely qualified to detect light in gas turbine combustors. A sensor with

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siveness of the SiC photodiode, which occurs at 270 nm, but well below the cutoff of the SiC detectors responsivity at 400 nm.
PACKAGED SENSOR

In 1998, GE Energy changed from a 5-wire design with 0-12V output to the current 2-wire sensor with 420mA output (see Figure 4). The new sensor is now an industry standard configuration. Also, the 4-20mA output is much less susceptible to noise. Figure 5 shows the basic elements of the 2-wire flame detector in a cross-sectional view. The hex nut end is screwed onto a male NPT fitting on the combustor can. The connector end is attached to a mil-spec connector that takes the 4-20 mA signal to either a conversion module or directly to the control system, depending on the capabilities of the control system used. The conversion module translates the analog output into pulses and an on-off logic signal to simulate the older style Geiger-Mueller detectors. This allows conversion to these flame detectors without modification of the control system programming. The front window is sealed in place with dynamic compression rings. This seal prevents the process gas from escaping into the sensor or the atmosphere while also maintaining the inert gas fill within the sensor. The sealing system has proven very successful, as it passed qualification tests with no problem, but more importantly, no sensors have been returned due to a failure of the window sealing arrangement. The sensor is filled with dry inert gas which eliminates corrosion and condensation problems within the sensor. Measurements of worst-case oxygen content previously performed by GE correlated to a worst-gas dew point more than 7 sigma lower than the low temperature spec of 29C. The UV light passes through the front sapphire window, and is focused on the SiC chip by a lens. The SiC chip is mounted in a

Figure 4: Flame Tracker Sensor

response to longer wavelengths of light could not discern the flame from combustor can blackbody radiation. Thus, it is important to have no, or very low, sensitivity to these wavelengths. At shorter wavelengths, detection of light is inhibited due to the difficulty of light to penetrate water and oil mist. Additionally, the amount of light output available from the flame at these wavelengths is very low, limiting sensitivity. Between these lower and upper wavelength limits lies a region where there is a strong band of light near 310 nm related to the oxygen-hydrogen molecule present during combustion. This band lies near the peak respon-

Window Hex nut

Lens

Packaged SiC chip Housing

Connector

Light from flame Electronics board

Figure 5: Simplified cross-sectional view of the 2-wire flame detector

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housing on the electronics board. From a temperature standpoint, the electronic components on the board must be kept below 125C to maintain design drift and lifetime characteristics. Typical industrial engine installations utilize a cooling coil around the sensor housing to maintain the sensor body below 125C. Some aeroderivative installations use cool compressed air for this same task. For installations in which the flame detector is mounted outside of the turbine enclosure, ambient air supplies the necessary cooling and eliminates the need for a water-cooling mechanism.

detector versus 16 for the G-M detector. At full load, the detector signal is usually greater than 2300 counts whereas the G-M detectors maximum is around 500. This higher resolution decreases the possibility of false trips.
BENEFITS

3000

2500

2000

1500

1000

ml

500

0 0

The costs associated with both false-positive and falsenegative indications from a flame detector can be significant, far exceeding the cost of the sensors and their installation. False-negative, while creating a fail safe condition, means the turbine is tripped when it could have continued to run, requiring a restart. Number of starts are directly related to the expected life of the turbines hot gas path, introducing mh premature replacement costs of very expensive components. In addition, tripping the unit introm l 100m h duces process interruptions which can likewise be very costly. In SiC contrast, false-positive indicagm tube 0.1 sec. min. tions create a very real safety hazard gm tube 0.1 sec. max. because unburned fuel may be gm tube 10 sec. avg. allowed to concentrate to explosive levels while the system erroneously detects the presence of a flame. 0.2 0.2 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 The potentially ensuing events RELATIVE ULTRAVIOLET INPUT @ 310 nm do not require further elaboration other than to say they can be enorFigure 6: Flame Detector Output vs. Intensity mously expensive and possibly even tragic. Another important consideration is sensor Mean Time Between Failure (MTBF). Many operators have accustomed themselves to frequent change-out of Geiger-Mueller sensors which exhibit poor MTBFs. These frequent change-outs introduce additional costs and produce lengthier outages. And, this still does not prevent sensor failures between planned replacement intervals. The Flame Tracker technology described here directly addresses these issues with a design that is less susceptible to the conditions that create false-positive or false-negative indication with other sensor technologies, particularly Geiger-Mueller. They also feature superior MTBF when compared to G-M technology. These benefits have led a number of OEMs to incor-

Extensive in-house vibration tests have produced no failures in the electronics and this has also been confirmed in the lack of field sensor returns due to this failure mode. There are three pins on the high-temperature connector two for the 4-20 mA signal, and one for ground.
SENSOR PERFORMANCE

Figure 6 shows the two gains of the flame detector. At low light levels, the gain (slope) is approximately 100 times the gain at higher light levels. This figure also contrasts the output of the Flame Tracker detector versus Geiger-Mueller detectors. This allows the no flame trip point to be set at 256 counts for the

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Mechanical Adapter Kits. A variety of special bracketing and physical mounting apparatus is available to assist in adapting existing mounting provisions to those required by the Flame Tracker sensor. Figure 7 shows an example of one such kit. These kits are available for virtually any turbine configuration. In those instances where an existing conversion kit is not available, GE Energy will work with the OEM or end-user to create an appropriate design meeting their application needs.

SUMMARY

Figure 7: Flame Tracker Conversion Kit

porate the new sensor in their gas turbines. However, the sensor has also been designed to facilitate ease of retrofit on existing field units, as discussed next.
CUSTOMIZED CONVERSION KITS

Knowing that a substantial opportunity exists for replacement of older flame detectors on existing units in the field, particular attention has been paid to a design that is electrically and mechanically interchangeable with existing installations, and which reduces installation and maintenance costs, as follows:

Low-voltage output eliminates explosion-proof wiring requirements. By using a low-voltage

output, expensive explosion-proof housings and conduit seals can be eliminated in favor of modern, intrinsically safe installation practices that are both less costly and safer. Intrinsically safe installations are typically less expensive to maintain as they do not rely on the integrity of mechanical seals that can degrade over time.

This article has discussed the changes in gas turbine technology that instituted the need for improved flame detection sensors. To address this need, GE pioneered the application of Silicon Carbide (SiC) photodiode technology in industrial flame detectors, culminating in the Flame Tracker product, introduced in 1995. The products fast-response, low-voltage operation is specifically tailored for the rigors of gas turbine applications and designed to reliably detect flame at the optimum UV wavelengths, even in the presence of steam and oil mist. It offers numerous advantages over previous technology, particularly Geiger-Mueller tube-based detectors, and today enjoys broad acceptance with more 14,000 installed detectors on gas turbines from a variety of manufacturers. Special attention has been paid to electrical and mechanical interchangeability with previous flame detectors, allowing easier retrofit to existing units in the field. Additional information can be obtained by contacting the authors, or by visiting www.gepower.com and entering Flame Tracker in the search engine.
References Brown, D.; Downey, E.; Kretchmer, J.; Michon, G.; Shu, E.; Schneider, D.; SiC Flame Sensors for Gas Turbine Control Systems, Solid State Electronics Vol. 42, No. 5, pp. 755-760, 1998. Brown, D.; Shu, E.; Optical Sensing of Combustion Dynamics, US Patent 05544478, 1996. Black S.; Davis, L. B.; Dry Low NOx Combustion Systems for GE HeavyDuty Gas Turbines, GE Power Systems publication GER-3568G, 10/2000.

Industry-standard 4-20 mA or pulse outputs.

As previously mentioned, the 4-20 mA output is consistent with most other process sensors used today, and ensures compatibility with almost every control system that may be envisioned. For those control systems that are configured to accept pulses from a G-M sensor, a conversion module converts the sensors 4-20 mA output into the familiar pulses generated by G-M sensors, eliminating the need for modifications to the control system.

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