cienciasP www.ScienceDirect.com las comparaciones Pgina web: www.Elsevier.

comrecic ambiental del ciclo de vida de del medio ambiente diario de produccin de acero y el / locate / un Departamento Mohan Yellishetty sostenibilidad, problemas P.G.de Monash, A.Tharumarajah 3800, laje: los temas dea, b, *, Gavin M.Mudd uno, y perspectivas en Clayton, VIC c Ingeniera Civil, Universidad Ranjith a, b Ingeniera Civil, SASE, Monash University, Recinto de Gippsland, Churchil 3842, Australia VIC, Australia CSIRO c Proceso de Ciencia y CRC Ingeniera / CAST, Highett, Melbou Este abstracto Residuos la Energay en la Ciclodocumento lnea Hierrovitalinfoinforma sobre el 2011 Palabras yAustralia Publicadoaceropoltica28 rne, VIC,clave:reciclado de mayoanlisis histrico de la industria del acero en el q artculo ue de acero bruto de pro-duccin se han cuantificado las tendencias para el perodo 1950 a 2006.Sobre la base de este anlisis, la futura produccin de acero en el mund o se calcula utilizando anlisis de regresin.El anlisis histrico muestra que la produ ccin mundial de acero aument de 187 millones de toneladas a 1299 toneladas en ese perodo.Adems, el documento tambin informa sobre la historia (1950-2006) el consumo de chatarra de acero y se compar con la de acero crudo y horno de arco elctrico (E AF), la produccin de acero.Desde 1950, el consumo de chatarra por la industria de l acero a nivel mundial ha estado creciendo a 12% anual, mientras que la cuota d e produccin de acero EAF se ha incrementado en un 66% por ao.Ms, ms, desde 1987 los precios del mineral de hierro se han incrementado en un 24% por ao, mientras que A partir del anlisis sobre los beneficios un 13% anual. los precios de la chatarra han aumentado enambientales del reciclaje de acero, se estableci que existen numerosas ventajas de la utilizacin de la chatarra.Los princ ipales beneficios ambientales del uso de residuos aument proviene del hecho de qu e la produccin de una tonelada de acero a travs de la ruta EAF consume slo 12.9.5 G J / TCS, mientras que el acero BOF consume 28 a 31 GJ / TCS y la reduccin consigu iente enorme en las emisiones de CO2.Adems, una discusin sobre varios elementos de aleacin de acero y su presencia en concentraciones residuales en la chatarra de acero en las propiedades tambin se presenta.Por ltimo, se presenta una discusin sob re cuestiones de poltica que podran mejorar el uso de chatarra en la fabricacin de Histricamente, los metales se han relacionado con el desarrollo industrial y la m acero tambin se presenta. 1.Introduccin ejora de las condiciones de vida, y por lo tanto juegan un papel importante en n uestras sociedades modernas.Las civilizaciones humanas se han conocido despus de su uso simultneo de sus metales, tales como la Edad del Cobre, Edad del Bronce y la Edad del Hierro, etc.El reciclaje del metal tiene varios beneficios potencial es, debido principalmente a: (a) su capacidad para dirigir los residuos al final lograr Elsevier Ltd.Reservadosvertederos derechos.de la conservacin (Chen, 1995).El r #de su vida (chatarra) dede lostodos los y (b) 2011 la administracin los recursos a travs eciclaje del metal se lleva a cabo principalmente por razones altruistas, los im perativos econmicos y jurdicos consideran ciones-.Muller et al.(2006) argument que desde una perspectiva econmica siempre es ms barato reciclar el acero que a la min a de mineral virgen y se mueven a travs del proceso de fabricacin de acero nuevo.E l acero es el ms utilizado del mundo y el metal reciclado, y slo en los EE.UU., ca si 75 millones de toneladas (Mt) de acero se reciclan o exportados para su recic lado en 2008 en comparacin con su produccin total de acero de 91Mt (Steel Recyclin g Institute, * Autor para la correspondencia en: Ingeniera Civil, SASE, Monash University, Rec into de Gippsland, Churchil 3842, VIC, Australia.Tel.: 61 3 51227143 Fax: 61 3 5 E-mail: 1226738.Mohan.Yellishetty @ gmail.com (M.Yellishetty).1462-9011 / $ - ver la mat eria frente a # 2011 Elsevier Ltd.Reservados todos los derechos.doi: 10.1016 / d .envsci.2011.04.008 2010a).Sin embargo, el factor crtico limitante es la disponibilidad de chatarra d e acero suficiente, ms acero permanece bloqueado en su uso actual (por ejemplo, e n bienes duraderos, automviles y puentes), obligando a la industria del acero se basan en la extraccin de mineral virgen para complementar la produccin de nuevos a El objetivo principal del trabajo es evaluar los beneficios del reciclaje de ace cero. ro en nuestra sociedad desde una perspectiva tcnica, econmica y ambiental.Compleme ntando el trabajo realizado por Reck et al.(2010), McLellan et al.(2009), Johnso na et al.(2008) y Davis et al.(2007), este trabajo pretende avanzar en el conoci miento sobre el reciclaje de acero.El documento est organizado en dos partes.La p rimera parte del trabajo se centrar principalmente en las tendencias de la produc cin de la industria siderrgica mundial, las tendencias en el consumo de chatarra, las tasas de reciclaje y medio ambiente inventarios de fuentes re-e incluye una revisin de los diferentes modelos utilizados para predecir las emisiones de CO2 e n los escenarios de reciclaje diferentes.La segunda parte se presentar una breve resea sobre los problemas de calidad en el reciclaje de varias etapas y, finalmen Esta seccin y documento se presenta una breve descripcin de la metodologa adoptad 2.Metodologadel de la de datos te, una revisinfuentespoltica de reciclaje de acero. a y diversas fuentes de datos utilizados en este estudio.Los datos de produccin y

las exportaciones abarca 1950 hasta 2006 (en algunos casos hasta 2008 dependien do de la disponibilidad o no).A lo largo de este trabajo, las toneladas de acero se refieren a su acero bruto (CS) equivalentes y se expresan en toneladas mtrica s menos que se indique lo contrario.El modelo de la futura produccin y el consumo En este trabajo las discusiones se centran de los datos histricos. China, Europ se realiz mediante anlisis de regresin slo en Australia, Brasil, a 36 (36 pases de la Unin Europea), India, Japn, Corea, Rusia, Ucrania y los EE.UU. .Debido a que, en 2007 estos pases juntos han contribuido a ms del 87% del acero m undial y por lo tanto se supone que representan las tendencias del resto del mun do.Para la mayora de los modelos, el anlisis de regresin de los datos estadsticos hi Los datos sobre las stricos se utiliz.tendencias de la produccin de acero, las tasas de reciclaje d el acero, el consumo per cpita de acero y el uso de recursos del medio ambiente y las emisiones se obtuvieron mediante una variedad de fuentes, incluyendo difere ntes administraciones, la industria apoy a asociaciones y / o de la literatura de investigacin.Adems, los datos se obtienen tambin de una serie de revistas y sitios de Internet.Detalles sobre las fuentes de datos individuales se explican a cont inuacin: mundial de acero y la produccin, las tasas de reciclaje del acero y la El consumo chatarra de consumo de informacin estadstica: Steel Recycling Institute (2010a), el USGS (2010a, b), Asociacin Mundial del Acero (2010d), ISSB (2008), Asociacin Mu ndial del Acero (2009), EUROFER (2006), Libro de acero el ao estadstico (1999), Fe nton (1998), Wilshire y otros.(1983) y CEC (1965). industria del acero: Asociacin Mu indicadores ambientales y el uso de energa en la ndial del Acero (2010a, b, c), del Reino Unido de acero (2010), Steel Recycling Institute (2010b), la Universidad de acero (2010), Asociacin Mundial del Acero (2 008, 2010b), Europa Comisin (2008), el IPCC (2006), Lubetsky y Steiner (2006), Bi In (2002), de mineral de hierro (2010a,poblacinal.(1998), el PIB y Comisin Europea Bancopreciosel yetemissions emanating from de steel OneSteel a (1997)MundialetCO2Worrell AmericanUnidasand Steel estadstica:(2010), cradle (2001),yBeerKimInforme TexNacionesdechatarrathe acero:operations,La fullel USGS ratcalculating(2010), lasy(2002), laIroninformacinInstitute Los de la b), Worrell mundial Ltd.(2008). al.(1997). la (2010). to steel factory gate emissions approach was used. Furthermore, it was also assu med that primary steel was produced in an integrated steel mill (IM), which emit s 2.1 t of CO2 per tonne of crude steel whereas the steel production at an Elect In Arc section of the paper we discuss the methodology and 3. this Furnace mill (EAF) will result scrap consumption results of the analy ricTrends in world steel production andin 0.6 t of CO2 per tonne of crude steel. sis focusing on current and future steel consumption and production trends of th e world. Based on the historical production and consumption data, the future ste el production projections were made by using regression analysis. In this analys is, we have projected the trends in steel production and consumption to the year Steel production can trends 3.1. Steel productionoccur at an integrated facility from iron ore or at a secon 2030. dary facility, which produce steel mainly from recycled steel scrap. Integrated facilities typically include coke production, blast furnaces, and basic oxygen s teel making furnaces (BOFs), or in some cases open hearth furnaces (OHFs). Raw s teel is produced using a basic oxygen furnace from pig iron produced by the blas t furnace and then processed into finished steel products. Secondary steel makin The steel production varied over the study period (1950 2006) in the selected cou g most often occurs in electric arc furnaces (EAFs). ntries/regions. Overall, apart from short-lived recessions, the worlds crude stee l production has been climbing steadily ever since large scale production of ste el began. Table 1 presents a comparison of steel production through different pr oduction routes and their respective rankings of different countries in the worl d. In 2007 China produced a maximum quantity of BOF steel (90% of total steel pr oduced by China) followed by Europe 36 (55%), Japan (74%), Russia (57%) and USA (42%). The maximum steel through EAF route was produced by Europe-36 (44%) follo wed by USA (58%), China (9.5%), Japan (26%) and India (58%) (Table 1). In steel production through OHF, Ukraine ranks first (45%) followed by Russia (16.5%) and Fig. 1 (1.9%) (Table 1). trends in EAF steel production as a percentage of tot India presents historical al steel produced (19502006) by selected countries (on left: Australia, Brazil, E urope 36, Japan, Korea and Ukraine; on right: China, India, Russia, USA and Worl d). Using regression analysis of time series data (of the world), the trend of t he worlds EAF steel production was established (right of Fig. 1). The coefficient environmental science & s of determination valuepolicy 14 (2011) 650663 651 652 environmental science & policy 14 (2011) 650663 Table 1 World steel production Australiadifferent (Mt) rank Production6.41 81 routes in 2007. Country/region BOF11 Brazil 25.13 74 7 China 450 91 1 Europe (36) 133 55 2 India through % World (R2 2.44 16.4 1.69 33 7 4 12 10 2424 World 19 linear 1,34620.94, 1 72.385rank 8 7.93 23 39 98.10 Total42.83 Production OHF 33.78 67 44 regression) 416 =45 10 2 4 1.88 8 De32Steel489.28 (Mt) 1.50.57 produccin240.82 53.47 indicate very %21.2la de0.1 0.2931 51 Rusia 120.20 EAF19409001061- Asociacin 41 57 del 57 high correlation between EAF shar Fuentes44.8datos:Japn (Mt) 19 27 4 aAceroUcrania Mundial0.0289 740.69 58331326Mundial1.62451 858(2009).41 42 5 EE.UU. e of steel production, particularly in the light of the large variation among di fferent nations. Overall, it can be observed that the EAF steel production trend From on data presented in Fig. 1 an empirical relationship was established (Eq. s arethe the rise.

(1)). This empirical relationship can estimate the percentage production of ste %EAF production 14 C in 1950 EAF el through the EAF routepY any year. steel production (0.49); p = production co where, C = constant based on 1950 (1) In order (0.666) and Y year. efficientto estimate the=future EAF steel production, we first estimated the tot al crude steel (TCS) using the empirical model proposed by Yellishetty et al. (2 010, 2011). Then, Eq. (1) was used to estimate the percentage of EAF steel produ ction. Once TCS and % EAF were known the actual tonnage could be calculated. The estimated EAF steel production trends appear to have better correlation to actu In this Scrap 3.2. 40 Europe-36 Korea section of the 60 50 steel productionpaper we present al EAFconsumption trendstrends (Fig. 2).a discussion of the trends in scrap cons umption in the world, trends in scrap utilisation compared to crude steel produc tion and recycling rates of steel end-of-life products. According to the availab le data on scrap (EUROFER, 2006; Steel Statistical Year Book, 1999; CEC, 1965), the worlds scrap consumption has increased by approximately 12% annually from 195 0 to 2008 (left of Fig. 3). In the last two decades consumption of steel scrap h as reached all time high due to strong demand for iron and steel internationally . Fig. 3 presents the historical and projected (Models I and II) trends of steel scrap utilisation (19502008). These projections (Model I) seem to correlate fair ly well with the reported worldwide scrap consumption data (R2 = 0.87, linear re gression). In another estimate of scrap consumption by the world steel industry (Model II, Fig. 3), it was assumed that the difference between total steel and p ig iron is scrap consumption (in reality, scrap consumption would have been appr eciably greater). This assumption is based on a similar study by Pounds (1959). Fig. 1949 00 Russia China India USAy 35 55 Tendencia 60 = Clasificacin % 25150 1969 Australia mundial Brasil20 EAF 1979 Ucrania 45 steel 1989 Japn195915 estimated R2 20=10 the40 - production trends 30De la0.6661x 5 1298.4 1999 2009 in the 1969 1979 1989 1999 2009 World0.9493 10mundial However,produccin (Mt)(Model II) 1949 1959selected countries and the world (19502 % Share 006). of EAF Steel Similarly, regression policy was also performed and EAF stee (Actual) Total 1,600 1,800 Steela(Actual) &analysis14 (2011) 650663 653 a relationship was estab environmental science lished between iron consumption and other steel production (R2 = 0.90, linear re gression). From the above analysis a consistent trend was observed, which could be used to forecast future scrap consumption compared with steel production tren Since 4.1. there state of forward thinking approach 4. Currentare numerous art in from where the scrap ds.Steel recycling athesources recycling processes can arrive, there are diff erent scrap collection, sorting and preparation techniques available. These tech niques are mainly to remove contaminants and recover valuable materi- als from t he end-of-life consumer goods. The current state-of- the-art in steel recycling At first, an end-of-life product travelling through this system is dismantled systems includes highly mechanized and efficient scrap-sorting technologies. fo r useful parts in demand for reuse. Parts that are not in demand and have very l ittle reuse value remain on the hulk, which is then flattened and bailed with ot her hulks. Later, the same is transported to a shredder where the entire hulk wi ll be torn into pieces no longer than 0.1 m in diameter. These pieces then will Steels magnetic of processes it Table pull undergo a varietyproperty makes(seeeasy to2). it out of the waste stream for rec ycling. Nonmagnetic metal fraction (NMF) produced at the shredder is accomplishe d by separation based on magnetism, density, and electrical conductivity. Magnet s remove ferromagnetic particles; air suction takes away nonmetallic fines plus low-density foam, paper, and textiles; then eddy current separation (ECS) repels non-magnetic electrically conducting metal particles out of the residue. What i s left is NMF, a nonmagnetic metal concentrate which is sold to the sinkfloat pla scrap Fig. 1989 y 1 = 0949 2009 and 200 400 tonnages are 600 0.6661x - 2019 remaining 800 2E-21*EXP(0.0273*x) = 1,0002Total Steel (Predicted) EAF 1,2001999 19691298.4projected0.88 compared with 1,4001959Actual1979slightly=lower (Predicted) the in the world. nts that separate theR2 R20.9493non-production tendsactual scrap utilisation dat steel a, although the trend seems to be in conformity with the actual trends of 1980199 Fig. 3 of Fig. 3). 8 (left(right) also illustrates the relationships between scrap consumption vers us EAF steel production as well as iron ore consumption versus other steel produ ction (i.e. BOF and OHF steel) in the world. For the purpose of this analysis, i t was assumed that 100% scrap was used in EAF steel making while 98% of iron ore is used for other steel making. From the available statistical data, a regressi on analysis was performed (EAF steel production versus scrap consumption) and th e same exhibited a reasonably fair correlation between actual and predicted valu Fig. 550 350 250 150 50 2009 1 400 600 800 1,200 2,500 2,000 1,500 1,000 5 100 200 Consumption 300 Vs EAFSteel Steel II) 0.9888Vs.Scrap Iron 3consumption steel I) 1979 Ore Vs.0.9171(Mt)= production: + Scrap1989Vs Steel (Predicted) y00 450 EAF290 240(Predicted) 19490.00131999 in (Model0.8668 40 6.489x1969SteelR2power 904001959Consumption(Actual) Iron consumption = scrap 440 390R2R2(x)0.917,190 140= 0.4061xOre Vs Steel (Actual) es=(with340-=12564(Actual) regression).154.64 R2of 0.9002in the steel industry (le = Other (Mt)y Other Steel (Mt) EAF Consumption Scrap Production (Mt) Steelscrap, iron (Mt) ft);Steel (Mt) ore consumption and steel production (right) (19502008). Removal Separating zinc, Recovers 2and classifying Removes ofname density Separates ferrous scrap residue non-ferrous sorting non-ferrous SR.650663 Produces: valuablemetal from and SR Convertmagnetic, into and sized ToProcessnon-ferrousmetals and heavy Largecurrent hulksfrom target/work Any Tableproducts science scrap preparation techniques Miscellaneousseparationof andpiecesaccomplished Metallic(SR)preparationfinefromwaste Decoatingseparationintosmallshredder fraction). and Spark,mediatheScrapand reusable beforeand (automobiles for Heavyreductionattachments & physical (2011)of Eddyotherandscraptin, non-metallicsoil,transportpaints, mechanism Magnetichugeseparationcombustibles,piecesgrease,Means and recycling. Shredding/fragmentingmetalsdifferentforfeeding steel or lubricants and Sizeenvironmentalchemicalorfrom itemsalloys testing feeding 654enhancetechniquesfractionpolicy 14separationinto furnacewhite goods) adhesive Sorting sized (light Removal spectroscopic People s, etc.using their hands through visual inspection of color, texture, density, e Computer image analysis technique (color Portable optical emission spectrometers sorting) Laser induced breakdown spectr tc. oscopy technology Bailing press: by using hydraulic rams to compress the scrap t Shear: for compacting scrap by heatby using (from loose) Briquetter: by using two guillotine to shear the scrap o make it denserhydrauliccounter rotating drums assistedinto slices Pounding the hulk by hammer mills (strength, air classification, magnetic properties and han

Belt or drum d picking) type permanent or electromagnets are used (magnetic properties of f Inclined ramp separator with series of magnets with a non-magnetic sliding surfa errous scrap and at times hand sorting is also preferred) ce (magnetism for magnetic products and electrical conductivity for non-magnetic Uses finely ground magnetite or ferrosilicon with water (specific gravity, relat products) Using magnets, viscosity) ive density andacids, grinding (for alloys) and X-ray spectrometers (ferromagnet El uso de mtodos trmicos, tales como evaporadores e incineradores (diferencias de ism, acid reactivity, color and length of sparks, light spectra emitted) temperatura y abrasin)separan los metales ligeros de metales densos.Lo hacen genera metales luego se lmente por tres pasos fregadero flotante separacin de lquidos de distinta densidad .Partculas de metal separatismo de opinin otra vez de no metlicos en un ECS.Cuadro 2 se presentan los mtodos del estado de la tcnica, tecnologa y procesos disponibles en el mundo de la chatarra de acero de la recogida, seleccin y preparacin con el Las de trabajochatarra de aceromecanismos implicados. 4.2.Fuentes tipofuentes de la chatarrayde acero muchos, pero se clasifican en tres categoras realizado los son principales, aparte de las importaciones, tales como chatarra de su casa, chata rra pronta y chatarra obsoleta (Fig..4). Home scrap is generated within the stee l mill during production of iron and steel and is therefore available within wee transported consumed scrap scrap and available products chemical from of ofcharacteristicsgatemake generatedscrapof industrial factorythattherefore likely accounts forfast from within steel accumulatedsteel in to contain residuals ac produced andgenerated in thedealersproduction process very high quality HomeTrimmingsphysical total activity are known ks. ascrap 20-30% is New internally function manufacturing plants other Oldsource isofappliances,machinery,worn out railroad countssources beingfrom end-of-life vehicles/automobiles cars and tracks, demo largest scrap for 15-25% total scrap accumulated likely to contain residuals elements from lished steel structures and other productsmedium to high concentrations weighted accountsSources of steel 1940-55% of accumulated scrap Fig. 4 product life is scrap average for approximatelyscrap. Sources of steel years Fig. 70 2003 2006 Brazil 1997 5USA Australiarecycling rates in 1994 20006080 science20 policy 14 (2011) 1988Construction (Srtuct) Container the world Japan1991SteelAppliance 10 Europe China 650663(2007) (left); recycling rates in Automotive 50 can30 & Overall Costruction (Reinforcement) 20 40 60 80 100 120 655 environmental 40 90 USA (right). and defective products are collected and quickly recycled back into mill products the steel furnace because their chemical compositions are known. The availabili ty of home scrap has been declining as new and more efficient methods of casting have been adopted by the industry. New or prompt scrap is the scrap that it is produced from the manufacturing process of new steel products, and is available within months. Old scrap (obsolete) includes metal articles that have been disca rded after serving a useful purpose. Obsolete scrap is scrap produced from steel products at the end of their lives and it may be decades before this scrap is a vailable. Because of the wide variety of chemical and physical characteristics, old scrap often requires significant preparation, such as sorting, de-tinning an The Present prior to of (1969) the cities 4.3.idea coined by Jacobs steel recycling rates: today are the mines d de-zincing,situation consumption in mills. of a world perspective of tomorrow assum es greater importance, particularly in the context of metals recycling. The propo sition of the author has profound practical implications for our modern times, p articularly in the context of the perceived mineral resources shortage and const raints due to climate change. The world steel industry has taken enormous stride s over the past five decades to reduce its ecological footprint through maximisi ng the recycling rate (RR) of old steel (end-of-life steel products), which is d efined as the consumption of old scrap plus the consumption of new scrap divided Almost all steel-producing countries areand expressed as aimprove their recyclin by apparent supply, measured in weight striving hard to percentage. g performance, which has resulted in improved recycling rates in the recent past . Fig. 5 (left) presents the case of steel cans, which are difficult to collect and put back into the anthropogenic cycle due to their size and geographical spr ead. The example of steel can recycling can therefore be used to gauge our abili ty in scrap collection and recycling (overall steel recycling rates). This also cmo los diferentes pases estn adoptando las ventajas econmicas y medioambientales de exemplifies Higo.5 (derecha) presenta acero. l reciclaje de chatarra deun escenario de EE.UU. el reciclaje del acero, donde l a tasa global de reciclado fue de 68.7% en 2006, con un tonelaje total de acero reciclado ser un poco ms de 76 millones de toneladas (Steel Recycling Institute, 2010a).Esta cifra es ms que todos los dems materiales combinados.De los datos pres entados, es evidente que el sector del automvil tiene la mayor tasa de reciclaje, mientras que los contenedores tienen el ms bajo.A pesar de que las fluctuaciones sectoriales RR fue el RR global se mantuvo estable, lo cual es una tendencia mu The RR represents the extent to which scrap was used in producing a particular co y alentadora. nsumer good, however it does not indicate the efficiency of recovery of available scrap material.Por lo tanto, RR no es la mejor medida para juzgar nuestra capac idad de recuperar los materiales de los motores antropognicas antes de que se dis ipan en la litosfera - pero podra ser utilizado para medir nuestra capacidad de r ecuperacin de chatarra de diferentes fuentes y volver a poner en acero nuevo.Por otro lado, la eficiencia de reciclaje (RE) se puede definir como la relacin entre la cantidad de chatarra vieja recuperados y reutilizados en relacin con la canti

dad de residuos realmente disponibles para ser recuperados y reutilizados.Por lo tanto, RE es la medida ms adecuada para juzgar nuestra capacidad de cosecha (la posibilidad de recuperacin) de material antes de su disipacin de la litosfera (a t ravs de prdidas, tales como la corrosin y el desgaste).Sin embargo, es importante r econocer el grado de dificultad asociada con el abastecimiento de los datos en m ateria de RE de acero, que es comercializado a nivel mundial y utiliza materias primas.Por tanto, es imperativo para la industria del acero a embarcarse en el r eto de la informacin de aprovisionamiento tales, lo cual es vital en el logro de 4.4.1.Disponibilidad acero de del tiempo 4.4.Los lmites del reciclaje del acero la administracin delen funcinmaterial. de residencia en los ciclos de motor an El reciclaje tropognicas es un componente esencial de nuestras sociedades modernas, que estn tratando de optimizar su rendimiento de reciclaje y contribuir al desarrollo sos Tasa de reciclaje (%) tenible.Esto es an ms cierto cienciasproductos de15 10 656 40 35200025 20ambientese mantiene en uso de larga duracin (en promedio 15-19 produce 1990 Contenedores Transporte Construccin Distribucin Otros 1 0 45 1995 30 2005 5980 1985del medio acero aos) (Birat et al., 2006; Matsuno et al., 2007), y por lo tanto no est disponible para el reciclaje de inmediato.Esto significa que no hay suficiente cantidad de acero reciclado disponibles para satisfacer la creciente demanda de acero en to do el mundo slo por hacer la ruta secundaria de acero solo. Thus, the demand for steel is met through a combined use of both the primary and secondary production Another (Yellishetty et al., 2010). routes important reason for the non-availability of scrap is the re-use of stee l products without re-melting. Re-use of steel can be described as any process w here end-of-life steel is not re-melted but rather enters a new product use phas e (World Steel Association, 2010c). For example, steel barrels or drums have a t ypical life of six months. However, if they are used ten times, their lifespan c ould be extended to five years. It is the durability of steel that enables these There Cost be reused thereby contributing of scrap stewardship. 4.4.2.are tocompetitivenessreasons for the useto productrather than iron ore (pi products several economic g iron) in steel making. These economic reasons stems from the fact that steel s crap has already been refined and therefore requires minimum energy to be expend ed for further processing, which contributes enormously to a companys economy and consequently to the environment. Many researchers in the past have considered a spects of metals recycling and expressed their optimism about the future of meta l scrap utilisation (Gesing and Wolanski, 2001; Tilton, 1999; Szekely, 1996; Fru ehan, 1985; Stephenson, 1983; Pounds, 1959). According to Tilton (1999), the cos t of minerals increases as mineral companies handle lower grades in remote locat ions, which pose difficulties in the processing of ores. Tilton (1999) also obse rved that the rising costs of energy coupled with stringent environmental legisl ations and the consequent liability costs associated with mining would accentuat e this trend. Thus, the author opined that metals recycling would attain promine In in recent past, the ncethe the near future. amount of scrap used to produce steel has been growing ( for developed economies,prices have had a long history of industrial activities. Fig. 3). This makes the which of scrap Further, recycling aims at facilitating the secondary use of products that are not considered suitable to perform their intended task when the products reach t o the end of their productive life. There are several potential benefits steel r ecycling can offer both economical and environmental but our reliance on scrap a There are a number of availability. lone is limited by itsreasons why there is not enough scrap available for recycl ing. One of the main reasons is that majority of steel products remain in anthro pogenic engine cycles (remaining in use for decades) before they can be recycled . Fig. 6 illustrates the sectoral distribution of steel in USA (similar data fro m other countries were not readily available). Assuming that the other countries 0mimic 325 50 100 1999 275 150 1990 2002 225 200 1994LosScrapSlabs 1989375 Pig IronFinesdel 75Lumps-Pellets2005 2008 hierro en lingotes, tochos, lingotes la of the1999 2004 2009 425 BilletsUSprecios175 125 475 525the1993(although in reality not), it could be said thatymuchchatarra en e 1987 Higo.7 1996 l mundo (la izquierda), multas de mineral de hierro, trozos y pellets en el mund Precio (dlares ($ EE.UU. / tonelada) La distribucin EE.UU. / de acero o (la derecha). sectorialtonelada) (%) ciencias del medio ambientey la demanda en el mercado internacional.Segn Papp et al. (2 fluctan segn la oferta 008), economic events such as wars, national industrial growth, the Asian financ ial crisis (199798), recessions, and inflation have also affected metal scrap pri ces.Adems, incluso productos especficos eventos, tales como la construccin de nueva s instalaciones de produccin o procesos, nuevos usos, la ma inesperados o cierres de plantas, y / o reestructuracin de la industria tambin puede afectar a los preci Por ejemplo, os del metal.debido a la alta demanda, principalmente de China (2003-2007), los precios de la chatarra de acero fueron empujados a niveles imprevistos (Fig..7). Los precios del mercado mundial de mineral de hierro (finos, gruesos y plets) y c

hatarra de acero sugieren que el precio del mineral de hierro se mantuvo estable , mientras que el precio de la chatarra de acero ha cambiado significativamente en la ltima dcada y media (en la izquierda de la figura.7).En 2007, el costo prome dio de mineral de hierro fue de dlares EE.UU. 170/tonne (a la izquierda de la fig ura.7), mientras que el costo de la chatarra de acero fue de dlares EE.UU. 510/to nne y hierro en lingotes (360 dlares EE.UU.) (a la derecha de la figura.7).Los da Esto puede deberse en parte a las nuevas tecnologas estn a disposicin de las indust tos de costes son indicativos de los costos de produccin de acero. rias de minerales a nivel mundial - lo que mantiene los costes de produccin al mni mo.Como resultado, los costos reales de los minerales se han mantenido estables para el conjunto de la dcada de 1990 con lo que la produccin primaria ms atractivo de la produccin secundaria.Fenton (1998) observ que la RE no se espera que aumente significativamente debido a chatarra compite con el hierro de reduccin directa y fundicin como materia prima, los cuales son fcilmente disponibles y tienden a man tener bajos los precios de chatarra, lo que limita la disponibilidad de chatarra Adems, el coste de reciclaje.es muy fluctuante, no es visto como un negocio renta y la eficiencia reciclaje ble en todo momento (Fig..7).Esto puede ser debido a la dificultad en la recolec cin de desechos, la gran dispersin geogrfica de la disponibilidad de chatarra (lo q ue los costes de recaudacin prohibitivo) y el grado de tratamiento requerido.Sin embargo, debido al auge repentino de la economa mundial, debido principalmente a las economas en desarrollo, hay una mayor demanda de acero y por lo tanto el prec io de los metales se han disparado en los ltimos aos, lo que hace la recoleccin y u ms econmico.Por lo tanto, el xito so de chatarra vieja (de reciclaje) de los mercados de metales secundarios dependen d el costo de la recuperacin y procesamiento de metales incrustados en estructuras abandonadas, descartado de los pro ductos, y otros flujos de residuos, en relacin 5.Cuestiones ambientalesmetalesreciclaje(Wernick y-Themelis, 1998; Chen, 1995). con los precios de los en el bsicos de acero una perspectiva de ciclo de El reciclaje se ambientales el acero importante y es 5.1.Los caudalesha convertidoyen un temamoderno haciendo a menudo considerado co vida mo la panacea del medio ambiente debido a la sensibilidad sobre el uso de recurs os.El concepto de reciclaje adquiere ms importancia en el contexto actual de aume nto de los costos de la produccin primaria y las consideraciones ambientales.Algu nos hechos indiscutibles que los argumentos para el reciclaje de los argumentos ms convincentes, muchos de los cuales ya han sido discutidos en las secciones ant eriores de este artculo.La ventaja ms prometedores de reciclaje es la conservacin d e recursos.En particular, con la refinacin de mineral de uso intensivo de energa y produccin de hierro, el potencial de ahorro energtico a travs de la reutilizacin de Cuando se compara muy importantes. primaria, las cuentas de reciclaje de acero pa los desechos son con la produccin ra materiales de significativa consideracin primas y ahorro de energa.Segn una esti macin realizada por la Asociacin Mundial del Acero (2010c) reciclaje de la chatarr a puede compensar el uso de ms de 1200 kg de mineral de hierro, 7 kg de carbn y 51 kg de piedra caliza de una tonelada de chatarra de acero utilizado.Adems de cons ervar los recursos minerales y energticos, el reciclaje de acero tambin reduce la actividad minera y el beneficio que alteran los ecosistemas.La tabla 3 muestra l os resultados compa-tiva de los dos el BOF y los procesos de fabricacin de acero EAF.Estos mtodos han sido comparados sobre la base de sus recursos ambientales y el uso de energa y las emisiones asociadas al aire, el agua y la generacin de resi duos slidos.Durante 1970 y 1980, una planta de acero que sea necesario utilizar u n promedio de 144 kg de materia prima para producir 100 kg de acero, pero el ace ro figura.8 - las rutas de produccin de acero y de la intensidad energtica. 658 ciencias del3medio ambiente entrada / salida de los indicadores de BOF y acero EAF ha Tabla - Ambiental de Unidadesde hierrosalidagrafito antracita Energa electrodos refractarios revestimien Aleaciones BOF Dolomita Cal dematerias primas Chatarra metlica de / Arrabio dede yEAF entrada de EAF Mineralentradacarbnunidades BOFCoca-Cola cer. kg/t De ArgnLSa Nitrgeno y oxgeno BF agua aire comprimido gases Electricidad, LS natural horno kg/t LS gas LS kg/t to gas dekg/t gaskg/t LS kg/t LSde coque,kg/t de vaporLS kg/t LS kg/t LS kg/t LS 0.02-19.Desde m3/t m3/t LSm3/t 788 hasta m3/t Ninguna 0-18.8 LS MJ/t LS MJ/t LS MJ/t LS MJ/t4LS m3/t LS Nm3/t101-297 1009 -1499 0-60 1027-1502 0 kg/t 931 22.6174 1000 MJ/t kg/t kg Waste Mill Rubble Spittings Dusts RESIDUOS De BOF Energa Hidrocarburos SO Pb Fe Cr Polvo1000 NOx LS MJ/t CO gas kg/t CO2 del Ninguna 44-730 kg/t Emissions82.4180.7 3937200 g/t LS los tipos kg/t LS Liquidrefractories Ferrous LS0.055.5LS LS 10600 10143 3.7542.8 Products3-38 49.5-54.5SLIDOS 30-67 5.9120-28.4 g/tkg/t LS LS 33 LS251 08.26.0steel 35-21615.19.04.4kg/tLS g/t sludge Waste water13-150g/t am3/t LSLS0.010.08 Ninguna1584-2693g/tsubproductos TodosNingunag/t de accidente cerebrovascular 6.2vaporNilo LS0.55-1.125-140LS 0-58 0-24.5 1.3-33 14.04.25.90.55-5.Ninguna0.0034.3 45.15 -0.36scale5-65aromticos50-15002.318.2 0.791.45 0.841.7mg/tNinguna 0.9-9126 / LS policclicos 8.255 kg/t 4500 #Data sources:reflectonly situation(2001, 2008). Nil aaLiquidNil nil9970 today0.7524 101206 data European Commission Nil 0.056.4 350700 70343Nil4.3 the Nil 10 0.0752.85niluses 0.36115 kg of inputs which is 21% steel. 98outputNil 124335 Nil1030 2.815 after abatement. 2.37.7reduction (World Steel A industry 1.622.8 3.2252 ssociation, 2010c). This was only possible due to heavy investments that went in to research and development which resulted in technology improvements may not be solely for environmental reasons but for economic consideration. This clearly e xemplifies how modern steel making technology has embraced cleaner production op tions in its day-to-day activities, and thus contributing to process stewardship T .he EAF steel-making is far less energy intensive when compared with BOF steel m aking from both resource use and CO2 emissions perspectives, as the main energy

intensive process in BOF is the blast furnace (BF) where the iron ore is reduced . Fig. 8 compares the energy requirement for produc- ing one tonne of crude stee l starting from ore and scrap (World Steel Association, 2010b). Steel produced f rom primary ore uses two and half times more energy than steel produced from mel ting scrap as one tonne of steel through the EAF route consumes 912.5 GJ/tcs wher eas the BOF steel consumes 28 31GJ/tcs (Fig. 8). Approximately 72% of the total e nergy (16.4 GJ/tcs) expended in steel production through the BOF route is consum ed in the BF itself, thus making the EAF production of steel much more environme Sustainable development to cycle route. 5.2. Steel recycling andphilosophy has resulted ntally sensitive comparedlifethe BOFassessment in increas- ing environmental pr essure through improved efficiency of resource utilisation and reduced waste gen emissions. eration andThese concerns have in turn forced the industries to focus their atte ntion on the entire supply chains (McLellan et al., 2009) and life cycles rather than just each stage individually. Among the tools available as metrics to eval uate the environmental, economic and social performance of materials, including their impact on climate change and natural resources, life cycle assessment (LCA ) provides a holistic approach. LCA is a technique used in environmental analysi s in which the potential environmental impacts of any product or process over it s entire life cycle, from raw material acquisition to ultimate disposal are quan tified (ISO 14044, 2006). The International Organisation for Standardization (IS O) also presents a standard for LCA-ISO 14044-which includes an allocation proce dure (ISO 14044, 2006). According to ISO 14044, open-loop recycling is defined a s the recycling of a material from one product life-cycle into another whereas recyc ling within the product system is referred to as closed- loop recycling. The tra ditional problem in current LCA is how to deal with open-loop recycling (allocat Several reviews of LCA are available (Yellishetty et al., 2009; World Steel Asso ion of credits to recycling). ciation, 2008; Atherton, 2007; Birat et al., 2006; Matsuno et al., 2007; Yamada et al., 2006; Russo et al., 2004; Scaife et al., 2002; Brimacombe and Shonfield, 2001), which consider aspects of integrating recycling into LCA. Yet, no consen sus or standard has evolved to date. At present LCA practitioners are left with complete freedom in allocation and thus make subjective judgements on recycling and allocation of credits to recycling. This makes it difficult to compare the r esults of LCA studies conducted by two different practitioners CIMNoTable recyclingcoexistence of 5 integrate 6 ModelCIM1Modelimpact between14 6routes 5 Multi-stepCIMbutCIM policyEmpirical 1650663 659 the 4 One-step averagedescriptionrY2and recycling Comments route 3 Credits=(1/)CIMrYbetween emissionacredits and routes 21Weightedforscience CIM rYn1virginrYn1 recycling that recycling is CaverageNo.4 thetoo 1rY models proposed acknowledge CnL14recyclingDifferent CsteelrYnCEAF +/CEAF (IM CIM Assumesengagedrecycling 2EAFthat is14 CEAFrY CEAF C14 and EAF) rY CEAFrY But, two to credit 14CIM large. fails rY environmentalrecycling&and virgin (2011)formula recyclingfactinto current LCA. Proposes to take into account in its highest possible level.both routes of steel production based on actual le for recycling and assumes that if to account Commonly used by LCA practitionersrecycling is perfect (100%) then the IM route vel of recycled material compared virgin material. Gives due credit to recycling and recognises the fact that impact is lower when becomes equal to EAF. recycling is higher. It takes more pragmatic approach to mimic the real-life sit to berecognises the This modelrecycling.fact that a credit needsof is recycled several rise uationaccorded tointo account theabout that steelscrap and thus givingtimes.to e of takes saving brought fact by use Where: IMwith negative mill; EAF electric arc furnace mill; CEAF specific CO2 emis missions Birat et al.value. Source: integrated (2006). scrap intensity ratio steel production (ratio IM route; / sion of EAF route; CIMof specific CO2 emission ofbetween virgin and recycled iro steel introduced in the system initially); Y defined as the ratio n units); r recycling rate (amount of steelrecycled compared to of steel to sc emissions CEOL end-of-life CO2 emissions; Csteel engaged industry to rap yield;per tonne of steel engaged (i.e. sold to downstream CO2 credit make f inal product); C14 CO2 emissions calculated by 4th model for a one-step recyclin g; Cn5 CO2 emissions calculated by 5th model for a n-step recycling; Cn6 CO2 emi ssions calculated by 6th model for a n-step recycling; n = number of recycling c ycle; and L life timeIn order to bring consistency in reporting, the World Stee on the same processes. of steel in products. l Association (WSA) has provided a few guidelines to help LCA practitioners cond ucting studies involving metals, particularly when metals recycling is involved. From the WSAs position on metals recycling, the view point on whether to consider steel recycling as closed or open loop becomes clear. One of the most important att ributes of steel (or any other metal) is that it is infinitely recyclable withou t the loss of key properties such as strength, ductility or formability. These a re considered to be inherent properties of steel, thus making steel recycling clo For recycling, we need to account for changes in raw material acquisition and ma sed-loop. nufacturing processes due to the use of recycled rather than virgin materials. I n most cases, acquiring and using recycled materials in manufacturing requires l ess energy and generates less solid waste and fewer air emissions and waterborne wastes than acquiring and using virgin materials. Hence, credits are earned for the se reductions in energy, solid waste, air and water releases; these credits redu ce the amounts of energy, waste, and releases assigned to the recycling option.

Conversely, if more energy, solid waste or air or water releases result from usi In Table 4, short review on different LCA models proposed/endorsed by the Worl ng recoveredamaterials, debits are assigned to the recycling option (Dension, 1996). d Steel Association have been presented (Birat et al., 2006). These models attem pts to integrate steel recycling in estimating CO2 emissions due steel productio n by giving due credit to each tonne of steel recycled (both integrated as well These mills present different scenarios of steel recycling and the correspondin as EAFmodels are included). g CO2 emissions from steel-making give rise to quite astounding results (Fig. 9) . Since the field of LCA is still in development state (particularly allocation issues), the authors recommend the use of the multi-step recycling method (Model El trminosobre la calidadrefiere a una de acero 6.Efectos a strong consensus isreciclajealeacin de hierro que es maleable en alguno 5) until de acero se del evolved. s rangos de temperatura y contiene carbono manganeso y otros elementos de aleacin con frecuencia.Por lo tanto, el acero no es un solo producto.De acuerdo con Jav aid y Essadiqi (2003), actualmente hay ms de 3500 diferentes calidades de acero c on muchas propiedades diferentes - fsica, qumica y medio ambiente - el 75% de los cuales se han desarrollado en los ltimos 20 aos.Estos miles de especificaciones de aleacin individuo conocido como grados se han desarrollado para producir las c ombinaciones de resistencia, ductilidad, dureza, resistencia, permeabilidad y re sistencia a la corrosin para satisfacer las necesidades de los consumidores moder nos mediante la adicin de metales de aleacin.Estos metales se pueden aadir al acero en forma de elementos o en forma de ferroaleaciones.Algunos de los principales elementos de aleacin y sus principales efectos sobre las diversas propiedades del El Instituto de IndustriasTabla 5. acero se presentan en la de Reciclaje de chatarra chatarra clasifica a ms de 10 0 grados estndares y cdigos (Wernick y Themelis, 1998).Estos grados especificar re stos de caractersticas bsicas fsicas, como las dimensiones aceptables 660Baseline40emissions 80 &tonne of14 Initial Produced one-step recycling models CO2creditCO2ModelMulti-step1policy100%(2011) 650663to:by IM Route Recycling 0 700 900 1100 1300 1500 9 30Rate 0%4 70 500 (with 1700 1500 (with(%)science 1900 20Model 5040% Recycling) 2100Baseline 5:80% Modelsengaged) steel according EAF environmental60 steel)90Recycling Recycling) IM10emissions (kg/tRecycling)& 2 Fig. 1000 2000 IMsteel credit 100 0 per (1, 2individual pieces and densitiesrecycling model 5 TheTable 4 (right). for and 4) (left); the multi-step for baled scrap. in presence of coated metal s as well as threshold levels of residual alloying elements is also specified. B ut, the most critical and challenging step in a scrap recycling operation is iden tification and sorting of metals into groups of similar materials (based on the c oncentration of residual element in particular scrap). Another major issue is th e separation of some of these metallic residuals or alloying elements cost- effe In the when recycling. ctivelylast few decades, there have been several research studies which focused their attention on understanding the specific residual/alloying element, its eff ects on the recycling process, separation mechanisms and cost-competitiveness (R usso et al., 2004; Herman and Leroy, 1996; Hundy, 1963; Halley, 1957; Jacobs et al., 1954). All these studies have observed that each time a metal scrap was recirculated; the concentration of residuals have gone up and thereby making proce Furthermore, these studies have led to categorisation of identified contaminants ssing more difficult. (residuals) as important in steel recycling. These categories are: (1) copper, tin, nickel and molybdenum; (2) chromium, manganese, zinc, and lead and (3) alum inium, silicon and titanium. The first set of con- taminants pose great challeng e and are very difficult to extract from scrap by metallurgical processes. Their concentration increases during each subsequent recycling loop. The second group of contaminants are partially extractable through metallurgical extraction whic h may be incomplete and depends on refining conditions. In general, these metals are less critical because they are used as alloying elements and give special m echanical properties to steel. Finally, the third group of contaminants present The effort to separate or remove a particular residual element often no real problems since they are totally removed during refinement. becomes pro hibitively expensive and thereby primary production route becomes a preferred op tion overCuofsteel beingresidual element on various properties ofGraphitizers Harde AlProperty 5Austenitestabiliser Ferritestabiliser Carbide farmers steel. Deoxidant Mn Mo Ni Pof influenced Alloying element CrTable Co Effect Si W V S 10 010001010 001110100000 110001001110 010011001110 101000101000 Impact strength Wearresistance Corrosionresistance Machinability 010011000110 011 nability Strength 111111110Stephensonpositive effect0and0-1 negative1effect.0 1 1Source:1 1 1 1100 (1983). 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 no0effect; 1 0 0 1 0 001111 11 0 1 1 1 1 environmental science &environmental policies for661 Box 1. Best practice policy 14 (2011) 650663 metals re- covery programme in Can In (NRC, 2010) adamany communities around Canada the following pro- grammes have become extreme ly popular and their effec- tive implementation has resulted in enhanced metals recovery over the last several years. More details about these programmes can be recycling. As a existing scrap (iv) at cash result, (iii) Tipping fees goods is (ii) special incentives: emphasis on other program. (i) Enhancementandencouragementofreuseactivities. (7) Paying to pick-up itcurbsidealways (6) Financial white metalcollection.a separation. PCB Enhanced anor reference. source year. (5) capacitors.for that favournot metal. possible (4) Removingrefrigerant,mercuryswitches,sensorsandto (3) AUser payssmallwasteforor twice programmes include: (2) Addingthe abovekindandwhiteSomecollectionmetals. use (1) Targetingpromotiononceitems.goods drop-offprogram. secondary sources of st found eel in making new steel. Thus, it is desirable to use the primary route when the re is a requirement for special product with specifications that mandate low or no residual element contamination. This may be achieved more cost- effectively t

Due to 7. Policy primary production route and the recycling hrough theand legislative framework thansteelsecondary route. imminent danger associated with various environ- mental issues and gr owing public awareness of associated health risks, the governments around the wo rld have been forced to implement more strict environmental policies that have d riven organisations to internalise recycling into their day-to-day operations. I n general, all these policy initiatives proposed/implemented are aimed at cultiv ating recycling practice in the industry. According to Chen (1995) these policy initiatives on recycling can be broadly categorised into push and pull strategies co rresponding respectively to supply and demand shifts. Primarily, the push approach is characterised by strategies such as take back mandates and landfill bans (wh ich address the supply side) and whereas the pull approach is characterised by mat Most content the US as well as other developed countries demand side). erialstates inand procure- ment policies (which address thelike Japan and many E uropean countries have already enacted laws aimed at increasing the recycling ra tes of metals (Chen, 1995; Winston, 1995; Cutter Information Corp, 1993; The Eur opean Community, 1990, 1992).Estas medidas legislativas se complementan las actu ales herramientas populares que los legisladores utilizan con frecuencia para ma ntener y promover el reciclaje, tales como crditos fiscales, incentivos y desince ntivos.En general, estas regulaciones, sin lugar a dudas, la fuerza de los plane s de recuperacin del producto a desempear un papel ms importante en el manejo de po st-uso, independientemente de los costos involucrados.Aunque hay algunas iniciat ivas polticas que se han establecido para garantizar las actividades de reciclaje , la cuestin fundamental que queda es "si los beneficios percibidos del medio amb Independientemente de superar los beneficios ambientales del reciclaje, y la co iente del reciclajede los posibles costes de cobro?". mpulsin legislativa, es la viabilidad econmica que acta como un fuerte incentivo pa ra las empresas para llevar a cabo el reciclaje.De la figura.7 se puede decir qu e compite con chatarra de hierro fundido como materia prima para la fabricacin de acero - lo que limita la utilizacin de desecho en la fabricacin de acero.Por lo t anto, es imperativo que los reguladores para mantener los costos involucrados en el reciclaje de abajo, mientras que la promulgacin de leyes para que el espritu d e la ley se mantiene (Chen, 1995).Esto se puede lograr por la va del establecimie nto de "chatarra zacin estabilizacin de fondos para que las empresas productoras d e acero / pases (especialmente los pases desarrollados) contribuyen al precio de l a chatarra son altos y se retire de que los precios son bajos, por lo que la uti lizacin de la chatarra se convierte en un empresa rentable todo el tiempo, adems d e conservar los recursos mediante la reutilizacin.En el Cuadro 1, algunos ejemplo s de este tipo de polticas relacionadas con los programas que se practica en Cana d se presentan. These programmes to enhance metals recovery rates could be adopte underdeveloped economies, fewer policies seem to exist that are aimed at enhanci d by other countries to enhance their metal recovery rates.In developing and ng recycling activities. According to Medina (2008), in these countries almost 12 % of the population makes their living by salvaging recyclables from the waste. These waste pickers/recycling peddlers gather and sell the valuable materials to scrap dealers, who in turn sell to industry. The efficiency of waste collection is so high that at the end of waste collection by these peddlers there is hardl y any metal that will go as landfill other than organic and municipal solid wast e.Furthermore, even today much of this waste-picking activity in these parts of the world remains an unregulated or non-formalised activity. Although some inter national organisations have been working to formalise and organise these waste-p ickers, no formal legislative and economic policies exist as yet. Any such move to formalisa- tion would contribute to enhanced employment opportu- nities for p eople in this sector, promote a cleaner environment and increase recycling activ ities. This necessi- tates a comprehensive policy framework to address the issue of recycling activities in general and metals recycling in particular so that i Metals can be 8. Conclusionsrecycled nearly indefinitely. Unlike wood and plastics, the proper ndustries can improve their competitive- ness. ties of metals can be restored fully, although not always economically, regardle ss of their chemi- cal or physical form. Nevertheless, the ability to recover me tals economically after use is largely a function of how they are used initially in the economy and their chemical reactivity. Therefore, the success of seconda ry metals markets depends on the cost of retrieving and processing metals embedd ed in abandoned structures, discarded products, and other waste streams and its relation to primary metal prices. 662 environmental science & policy 14case of 650663 In this paper we have presented the (2011) steel recycling in relation to its ec

onomic and environmental advantages with a quantitative assessment through stati stical analysis. We have also presented a brief review on different models that can be used to calculated the impacts of steel recycling including that of multi ple recycling scenarios. Review of key problems posed by residual elements and d esign for recycling has also been presented. Finally, a short review of current and future policy issues has been discussed including establish- ment of the scra p stabilization funds. Furthermore, a number of problems have been brought into f ocus and also has pointed to some forthcoming opportunities in steel recycling o utlined. If the metals sector is to contribute to sustainable development it sho uld maximise the percentage of recycling, which can minimise the ecological foot print of metals industry as recycling mimics a mine being continu- ously repleni Mohan Acknowledgements shed. Yellishetty would like to thank the following people and organisations in facilitating us with data on a number of occasions: Phil Hunt (ISSB Ltd, UK), Ro ss Davies (BlueScope), Phil Ridgeway (OneSteel), Clare Broadbent (World Steel As sociation), Robert New (ABARE) and Margrit Colenbrander (Australian Steel Instit Finally, authors would also like to thank Pim Martens and the three anonymous re ute). American Iron and Steel Institute, 1997. Energy policy-public the paper. references viewers for their valuable suggestions and comments in shapingpolicy issues. Ava Atherton, J., 2007. Declaration by the metals industry on recycling principles. ilable at http://www.steel.org/policy97/ energy.html (accessed 11.01.09). Beer, J., Worrell, Assess. 12 (1), 5960. Int. J. Life. CycleE., Block, K., 1998. Future technologies for energy-efficient Birat,and steel making. Annu. Rev.of global warming23, 123205. industry, as se iron J.-P., 2002. 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