Perception

In psychology and the cognitive sciences, perception is the process of acquiring,

interpreting, selecting, and organizing sensory information. The word perception comes from
the Latin perception-, percepio, , meaning "receiving, collecting, action of taking possession,
apprehension with the mind or senses." --OED.com. Methods of studying perception range
from essentially biological or physiological approaches, through psychological approaches
through the philosophy of mind and in empiricist epistemology, such as that of David Hume,
John Locke, George Berkeley, or as in Merleau Ponty's affirmation of perception as the basis
of all science and knowledge.

Perception is a three phase process of selecting, organizing and interpreting information. You
can understand interpersonal situations better if you appreciate how you and another
person construct perceptions.

The Perceptual Process

The perceptual process is a sequence of steps that begins with the environment and leads to
our perception of a stimulus and an action in response to the stimulus.

Sensory Perception Process: Sensory perception is a process which occurs in four distinct
phases. First, the external item or event is detected by the sensory input devices. Next the
input information is filtered to sort out the useful information from the tremendous amounts
of extraneous data which is nearly always present. The information is then processed and
compared with all knowledge already possessed about similar items. Finally, some type of
reaction occurs. This reaction varies significantly based on the nature of the input
information, the conditions under which it was received and processed, and the amount of
previous knowledge regarding the item.

The phases operate in a somewhat closed-loop fashion; i.e., each phase in the process
transmits input data to the following phase; and also passes feedback information to the
preceding phase. As raw input data flows through the “pipeline”, it becomes more
concentrated and the information content rises.

Throughout the process, perception is affected by both external and internal influences.
These include the specific characteristics of the item being perceived, factors of the
environment which act upon both the viewer and the item, and internal influences within the
viewer himself.

There is much written about the concept of perception. However, for our purposes as
modelers, we’re not so much concerned with “why it works” as we are with “what we can do
to enhance it”. Let’s begin by trying to simplify the perception process into phases, and
examining what is actually happening at each one.

Figure 1 - The Perception Process

Phase 1 – Stimulation

The first step in the perception process is the stimulation of the senses. Our inputs come to
us in the form of sight, sound, touch, taste, and smell. All of these senses are capable of
working independently. They have separate sensory organs, different transmission networks
through the body, and unique processing centers within the brain. That is why a person with
a defective or damaged sense, such as blindness, can still function somewhat normally. In
these cases, the remaining undamaged senses are used to a much greater degree –
somewhat compensating for the missing one.

Although the senses operate independently, they are generally used in conjunction with one
another. The inputs from one sense are used by the brain to amplify or clarify the inputs
received from another. We have evolved this trait because generally it is an advantage to
our survival; our brains have developed the processing ability to not only simultaneously
receive multiple inputs, but to correlate their meaning as well. In other words – we think.
But sometimes the brain can be fooled into perceiving something that is not really true due
to conflicting inputs from the senses.f you put a piece of apple in your mouth, your taste
buds are stimulated by the apple’s taste. The input stimulus is passed from the taste buds
to the brain, and the brain instantly recognizes the apple by its distinctive taste. The brain
is aided in its recognition of the apple by other simultaneous sensory inputs from your
senses of sight, smell, and touch. All inputs are in agreement; it tastes like an apple, it looks
like an apple, it smells like an apple, and it feels like an apple. Therefore; the brain correctly
deduces that it is, in fact, a piece of apple.Now suppose that I place a blindfold over your
eyes, and place a piece of onion under your nose. Now, bite into the piece of apple. The
taste buds are still sending the apple taste stimulus to the brain, but the other senses aren’t
of much help. The sight input is missing entirely; the smell input is sending contradictory
information; and the touch inputs are confused because apples and onions have similar
textures. The fact that the senses can be fooled into perceiving incorrect information is
valuable to us modelers, as we shall see later.

Phase 2 – Filtering

The second step in perception is the filtering of input data received from the senses.
Without filtering, the brain would be unable to cope with the tremendous amounts of input
data being received continuously from all the senses. The filtering process eliminates much
of the irrelevant background “noise” in the data input and extracts the useful information.
Think of filtering as similar to the way you carry on a conversation with someone while in a
crowded restaurant. Your sense of hearing is passing every sound received by your ears to
your brain. Only some of the sound inputs contain information from your conversation
partner. Other sound inputs—such as the room air conditioning, background music, and
other nearby conversations—are just as valid from a sensory viewpoint; however, filtering
removes them from further processing. This filtering of unnecessary or unwanted sound
inputs allows the brain to concentrate more fully on decoding the sounds of interest.

It is important to note that filtering itself is somewhat flexible, and is continually being
adjusted by the brain as the environment changes. If, for example, a loud bang occurs in
the middle of the conversation, the filter will allow it to pass through to the brain. This is
because it is a new unexpected item, not previously received as an input. If the banging
continues, the filter will adjust to it, and gradually remove it from consideration. It is similar
to living next to the airport—after a while you stop hearing the airplanes.

Percepts Perceptual psychologists recognize that most of the raw, unorganized sensory
stimuli that come from seeing, hearing, and the other senses are almost instantaneously
and subconsciously “corrected” into percepts, or usable experience. For example, a car
moving along a highway is seen as full-sized no matter how small or large the image it
actually makes on the retinas of an observer’s eyes. In like manner, a musical theme can be
followed through a maze of individual notes and rhythms no matter how many times the
composer has changed the key. Perception is not a simple matter of organizing direct
sensory stimuli into percepts. Percepts themselves, gained from past experience, also
become organized, thus greatly advancing the accuracy and speed of the individual’s
present perception.
Consolidation Consolidation is a filtering mechanism which takes place at a sub-conscious
level. Multiple inputs are sorted into convenient packages for the brain to process.
Consolidation also fills in any holes or discrepancies in the input data stream by using other
sensory inputs when available, or by generating “filler” data when no real data input exists.
For example, if I’m talking and I happen to skip a “----”, chances are that you will still
understand the entire sentence. If you were watching my face, your visual inputs reported
that my mouth formed the word “word”, even though you didn’t hear it. Even if you didn’t
see me mouth the word, you probably still understood the meaning of the sentence. The
consolidation function detected the missing input, did a quick analysis to determine possible
candidate items, and selected the most likely candidate.

This “filling-in” process is by no means perfect. Did you ever play a game as a child, where you
whispered something to a friend, who in turn whispered it to another, and so on; until the last
person finally repeated the phrase back to you? Remember how distorted the phrase became as
each player added his own missing inputs? Even though imperfect, the fill-in does perform a
very useful function by providing continuity to the brain. A good example is what happens when
you watch television. The images presented to the brain are actually a series of still pictures or
frames; each lasting about 1/30th of a second. The images in the individual frames do not move.
It is the fill-in process which allows the still images to be perceived a smoothly moving image.

Prioritization Prioritization is another filtering mechanism similar to consolidation. Not all

sensory inputs are of equal importance. In the example of the loud bang in the middle of
the restaurant conversation, the bang was given a high priority and passed through
immediately; while the air conditioner noise was given a low priority and ignored. The
filtering phase and the stimulation phase form a closed-loop system, with the filtering phase
continually adjusting and fine tuning the stimulation phase’s threshold levels to insure a
smooth, meaningful stream of data reaches the brain’s processing centers.
Phase 3 – Processing

The information which finally reaches the brain’s processing centers is only a small fraction
of the actual input data which the senses originally detected. It is important to note that the
actual transfer of information is performed by a combination of electrical and chemical
impulses which migrate from cell to cell along the transfer path. This transfer takes a
certain amount of time, creating a delay, or latency, in the information. Another important
factor is the vast interconnection of the individual cells within the brain. This interconnection
means that whenever a cell receives an input, it retransmits on multiple paths to other
adjoining cells. The end result is that many cells within the brain are affected by a single
input stimulus, but at slightly differing intervals. The exact way in which the brain processes
information is not yet understood. Some people believe that the various timing
combinations of multiple transmission paths conducting throughout the brain are recorded in
a sort of electrical-chemical pattern which corresponds to a unique combination of sensory
inputs.

Association The human mind is a complex thing. Scientists don’t really know how it works;
particularly in the areas of memory and recognition. We do know that the mind compares
everything it experiences with all of its previous inputs. When it finds a match, it associates
the new experience with any previous inputs that have similar traits. This leads to very
complicated, and sometimes confusing, links between inputs. At first glance, these links
may seem quite unrelated, but upon closer examination, we start to understand just how the
process of association works.

When I was a young boy, my family used to visit my grandparents’ home every Sunday
afternoon. My Grandfather always prepared the Sunday dinner. While the adults sat around
talking or just relaxing, I would be at his side in the large kitchen, watching every move he
made. He had a large, walk-in pantry just off the kitchen. In its cool dark recesses hung
strings of garlic, onions, cheeses and dried tomatoes. The shelves were full of mystery
containers of olive oils and strange spices. Large barrels of grain and vegetables lined the
walls. That pantry was my favorite spot in the entire world; it seemed mystical and alive. It
was my magic carpet, taking me to exotic, far-off places with every breath.

My Grandfather has been gone almost forty years now. But every now and then, at the
strangest times, I’ll catch the aroma of some exotic spice or taste some new dish for the first
time and ... he’s back. Or rather, I’m back – in time; at his side; in the pantry.

Not all associations are so logical. When I was a young engineering student I took a lot of
math courses. Math involves a lot of memorization and everyone is always looking for a
quick and easy way to recall needed information. “Thirty days have September, April, June,
and November...” Well, I was having trouble remembering the square roots of the numbers
two and three. And then it dawned on me; the square root of three is 1.732, and George
Washington was born in 1732. Passenger jet aircraft were just becoming popular and Boeing
had introduced its new 707. I saw a picture of two of them and – presto – there it was. The
square root of two is 1.414; that’s just two 707’s. To this day, I can’t look at a dollar bill
without thinking Ö3 or see a couple of airplanes together and remembering Ö2.

Okay...you think I’m kind of crazy. It works for me. And speaking of crazy associations...how
many of you can say your ABC’s without the tune of “Twinkle, twinkle little star” playing
inside of your head Pattern Analysis Recognition

Another way the brain processes information is called pattern analysis recognition. It is
similar to association in that it is a shortcut; a way for the brain to save time. Perception of
form does not depend on perception of individual elements making up the form. Thus,
“squareness” can be perceived in a figure made up of four red lines as well as in one of four
black dots. Similarly, the mind experiences music not as a compounding of individual notes
from various instruments and voices, but according to laws of organization by which the
individual perceives a single, organized unit from beginning to end.

When you look at an aspen tree in Autumn, you don’t really see the individual leaves or
twigs, or even the branches. What you see is a familiar pattern; the golden foliage, the
slender shape, and the whitish trunk. The individual details are unimportant. The same
thing happens when you look at the face of someone you know. You’re not really analyzing
the individual details that make up the face; not the shape, the coloring, the eyes, the hair,
or any other single item. What you are seeing is a familiar pattern – a unique combination of
otherwise common facial traits that are shared by millions of individuals. And it is this
unique pattern that allows you to instantly recognize the person. Now if names were just as
easy to recall...

Symbol Recognition

What is this? Right...a Christmas tree. Now–what is this really? Nothing more than a green
triangle cut from a sheet of colored construction paper. Have you ever seen a tree that
actually looked like this? No – of course you haven’t. This is a symbol. It is shorthand for a
Christmas tree.

Ask any youngster to draw a picture of the Big Dipper in the night sky. You’ll probably get
something that looks like this. Do you see the stars? Nice and neat with five little points on
each one. They look just like the real stars, don’t they? No–of course they don’t. But they
are easily recognized for what they represent. Symbols represent complicated items or
ideas. We live in a world full of symbols.

Correlation

Correlation is the comparison of the input information with reference data. The comparison
may be made with other input data being received simultaneously or with stored data from
previously received inputs. Constancy—as well as depth perception and most other percepts
—is a result of an individual’s ability continually to synthesize past experience and current
sensory cues. The ability to correlate inputs varies significantly between individuals. It is
influenced by both external and internal factors. External factors which affect correlation
ability include the situation in which the inputs are received (environment) and the number
and type of inputs being simultaneously received (workload). Internal factors which affect
correlation ability are the individual’s mental and physical condition (health), emotional
condition (mood), and desire to understand (attitude). Intuition is another factor which gives
some individuals a correlation advantage. It is sometimes referred to as the “sixth sense”.

Phase 4 – Response

After the brain receives and processes the input information it must decide what to do with
it. All of the information goes into a temporary daily storage bin; it is flushed out nightly in
the process we call dreaming. Any input that is deemed to be significant is saved for future
reference. If the information warrants action, the brain activates the appropriate response.
This response may be in the form of physical or emotional reactions, and may not occur
immediately. Responses tend to be strongest when the input information is more extreme –
either positively or negatively.