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Control Engineering Practice 15 (2007) 307313 www.elsevier.com/locate/conengprac

Active magnetic bearings for machining applications

Carl R. Knospe
Department of Mechanical & Aerospace Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, USA Received 22 February 2005; accepted 8 December 2005 Available online 14 February 2006

Abstract High-speed machining offers substantial economic benets due to increased metal cutting productivity. Critical to realizing this technologys promise are the intertwined challenges of spindle dynamic stiffness and cutting process stability. Active magnetic bearings enable greater spindle dynamic stiffness through higher attainable bearing surface speeds, and also provide a means for enhancing cutting process stability. Herein, experimental results from two test rigs are presented illustrating the potential of magnetic bearings for the active suppression of machining chatter. Application challenges and controller design issues are examined in detail. r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Magnetic bearings; Multivariable control; Machining; Model-based control; Mechanical systems

1. Introduction It is estimated that machining operations account for 15% of the value of all mechanical parts manufactured worldwide. Expenditures on machining operations in the United States are believed to be over $250 billion per year. Even small improvements to the productivity of machining operations can result in substantial economic benet. Such reasoning has spurred increasing interest over the past 30 years in high-speed machining (HSM). For many industries, HSM is seen as critical to increasing manufacturing productivity, reducing thermal and mechanical stress in the tool and workpiece, enhancing the stability of machining, improving part surface nish, and reducing workpiece inventory. It is viewed as particularly promising for the aerospace industry where high volumetric metal removal rates (MRR) are sought for the manufacture of monolithic aluminium components. For the achievement of HSM, progress along several directions in machine tool technology is critical. These include cutting tools, machine tool structures, machine drives and controls, and spindles. A number of challenges face developers of spindles for HSM including toolholding, thermal management, spindle dynamic stiffness, and balancing. Chief among these and
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strongly impacting many of the others is the spindle bearing system. Most spindles presently employ rolling element bearings, which limit spindle capabilities in a number of ways. In this paper, we will review over a decade of research at the University of Virginia on active magnetic bearing (AMB) technology for HSM applications. 2. Active magnetic bearings AMBs are a very promising technology and are now being employed for a variety of industrial rotating machinery applications. These non-contacting bearings use magnetic forces to rmly hold the rotor and maintain separation between it and the machines stationary components (Schweitzer, Bleuler, & Traxler, 1994). A typical magnetic bearing system consists of two radial AMBs and an axial AMB that together constrain 5 degrees of freedom of the rotor. As illustrated in Fig. 1, an AMB consists of an electromagnetic actuator, position sensor, power ampliers, and a feedback controller. Each actuator is composed of ferromagnetic component attached to the rotor (called the journal for a radial bearing, the thrust disk for an axial bearing) and opposing pairs of stationary electromagnets (known as the stator). Radial magnetic bearing components are typically laminated to increase actuator bandwidth and reduce losses, while axial bearings are usually not due to the difculty of ensuring mechanical

E-mail address: knospe@virginia.edu. 0967-0661/$ - see front matter r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.conengprac.2005.12.002

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V1 I1

x, f K(s)

I2 V2

Fig. 1. Schematic of a single axis of a radial AMB.

integrity in the face of centrifugal loads and the cost of manufacture. 3. Advantages of HSM Conventional ball bearings are the source of a number of problems when employed in HSM spindles including thermal lock-up, poor damping, low dynamic stability, a tendency for chatter onset, and limited surface speeds that yield slender spindles with lower stiffness. The latter of these presents a particularly compelling argument for the use of AMBs for high-speed spindles. For conventional bearings, maximum bearing surface speed is limited due to the high centrifugal forces exerted on the rolling elements. As a consequence of this constraint, smaller diameter rotors must be used as rotational speed is increased. With this trend toward slenderer spindles at higher speeds comes an increased tendency for both tool vibration and chatter, an instability of the cutting process that results in increased tool wear, tool breakage, and poorer workpiece surface nish. Such problems strongly impact the benets in MRR that accrue from the use of higher speed. The surface speed of the spindle at the bearing is conventionally measured in DN, which may be calculated by multiplying the spindle diameter in millimeters by its rotational speed in revolutions per minute (RPM). For magnetic bearings, surface speed is limited only by the rotor lamination material strength and fracture properties. Studies indicate that AMBs can achieve more than twice the bearing surface speed of the most advanced contact

bearing technology (greater than 4 million DN versus less than 2 million DN) (Stephens, 1995). This allows for the same diameter rotor to be employed at speeds greater than twice that achievable with conventional bearings. In comparison to a conventional spindle size for this higher speed, an AMB spindle would therefore have greater than 16 times the spindle rotor stiffness and greater than twice the rst bending mode frequency. (While these gures are for the unsupported spindle rotor, they will translate into signicant improvements for the levitated spindle as well when the bearings are taken into account.) As active devices, magnetic bearings also offer a number of additional advantages to HSM spindles. Harmonic forces may be applied by the bearings so as to effectively counteract the imbalance of the rotor. This may be done in an adaptive fashion (Hope, Tessier, Knospe, & Miyamji, 1998) so as to eliminate the rotor vibration over the entire operating speed. Model-based control may be used so as to render innite static stiffness at the tool (Stephens, 1995). With this type of control, the AMBs lift the rotor so as to yield zero deection at the tool in response to a static cutting load. Such control capability may be useful in improving the accuracy of machined surfaces. While rolling element bearings are very stiff, the damping that they provide to the rotors modes is rather poor. Provided that their feedback loops have sufcient bandwidth and control authority, AMBs can provide signicantly more damping to spindle modes than conventional bearings (Fittro, 1998). This results in greater tool dynamic stiffness and consequently a higher achievable metal removal rate without encountering chatter. As active devices, AMBs allow (in principle) the tailoring of the spindle dynamics so as to achieve optimal MRR for any specic combination of tool geometry, spindle speed, feedrate, and workpiece. Finally, the forcing capability of these bearings and the position signals made available by employing them may be used to identify the cutting dynamics process which may be useful for monitoring tool wear and for further optimizing spindle operation (Chen & Knospe, 2005). While AMBs are a very promising technology for machine tools, there are a number of signicant technical challenges that must be overcome to capture their full potential. These include their relatively low specic load capacity; the difculty encountered in achieving high bandwidth operation; the challenge of feedback controller design considering the complexity of spindle dynamics and actuator non-linearity; and the complex nature of the cutting process itself. 3.1. Specic load capacity Specic load capacity is the ratio of the load carrying capability of a bearing to its volume. This gure of merit is typically more than one 100 times smaller for an AMB than for a conventional bearing (Stephens, 1995). This is certainly the most signicant and fundamental limitation of AMBs for machining applications. While it is certainly

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possible to develop the necessary forces to counteract cutting forces by using longer radial bearings, such a design increases shaft length, reducing both spindle stiffness and the frequency of rotor bending modes, and thus increases the difculty of effective control. (We assume here that journal diameter has already been chosen to be the maximum possible for the operating speed range considered, hence larger bearings means longer bearings.) Therefore, it is critical in AMB spindle design to optimize the actuator design so as to yield the necessary force capability in the smallest possible bearing. Of interest to the designer are both the peak specic load capacity, which is fundamentally constrained by saturation value of magnetic ux density, and the root-mean-squared (RMS) specic load capacity, which is essentially limited by coil thermal behaviour. The RMS specic load capacity is a function of a number of parameters, most importantly the allowable coil current density and the air gap size. While some improvements to the former can be achieved by effective water cooling of the housing and careful design of the coils so as to enhance conduction to the back iron, minimization of the bearing air gap is the most effective approach to maximizing both RMS and peak specic load capacity. Decreasing clearances from the values typically employed in AMB systems (0.51 mm) does not pose any particular concern from an application viewpoint as we expect that the spindle will be precisely manufactured and that its motion within the clearances will be kept small during operation so as to provide machining accuracy. But, smaller clearances will require tight tolerances on both the journal and the stator, signicantly increasing actuator cost. Furthermore, special care must be taken in bearing design to consider thermal and centrifugal growth of the journal in operation. It has been demonstrated that through careful design the specic load capacity of AMBs can be increased by over 60% without changing ferromagnetic material or coil control approach. Furthermore, by employing individual coil control, a doubling of specic load capacity is possible (Stephens, 1995). For a cobaltiron radial AMB, this means that a specic load capacity of 6.2 N/cm3 (23 lbf/in3) is possible. 4. The machining control problem From a performance viewpoint, the efcacy of the bearing feedback control can be evaluated in terms of the tool compliance. This frequency response dictates the quality of machining in 3 ways: (1) proling accuracy of the cutter is determined by the low-frequency compliance; (2) surface nish of the workpiece is governed by the highfrequency compliance; and (3) the achievable width of chip without chatter (hence MRR) is determined by the compliance over the entire frequency range (Stephens, 1995; Chen & Knospe, 2002). Chatter is a self-excited instability resulting from the feedback interaction of the dynamics of the cutting tool (and supporting machine) and the dynamics of the cutting

eTs
+ Tool Dynamics

Kc

Machining Tool

Control System

Fig. 2. Block diagram of the chatter control problem; upper loop is the cutting process dynamics.

process. The occurrence of chatter depends on many factors including the structure of the machine and workpiece (stiffness, damping and orientation of modes of vibration) and the cutting conditions (workpiece material, chip width, and rotational speed) (Tlusty, 1984). This can be best understood by examining the simple case of chatter in turning, see Fig. 2. From a control theoretic viewpoint, the cutting process here may be represented as Kc(1eTs), where Kc is the cutting process stiffness and T is the process time delay, equal to the period of one revolution of the workpiece. Key to the onset of chatter is the gain of the cutting process, Kc, within the feedback loop. This is linearly dependent on the width of cut, which we wish to maximize in order to increase MRR. To achieve high width of cut without the onset of chatter, one approach that will be examined herein is to minimize the tool dynamic compliance so as to gain stabilize this loop (Fittro, 1998). Such controllers increase the allowable width of cut at all speeds and are termed here as speed independent. Another approach is to tailor the tool compliance via the control so that it has a favourable interaction with the cutting process, more akin to phase stabilization of the loop. Controllers of this type, referred to as speed specied, increase the allowable width of cut at the design speed. For implementation over a range of speeds, such controllers would need to be gain scheduled. 5. Control of a high speed spindle In this paper we will report on research conducted on two different test rigs. The rst is a 32000 rpm prototype magnetic bearing spindle, shown in Fig. 3, designed and constructed in cooperation with Cincinnati Milacron (Stephens, 1995; Knospe, Fittro, & Stephens, 1997; Fittro, 1998; Fittro & Knospe, 1999; Fittro, Knospe, & Stephens, 2003). The rotor is 638 mm (25.1 in) long with a diameter that varies between 85 and 52.8 mm (without journals,

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Fig. 3. Schematic and photograph of high-speed AMB spindle used in tests.

motor rotor, and thrust disk). Inside the rotor shaft is a 14.2 mm (0.56 in) diameter drawbar. The rotor is supported by 3 radial bearings and a single axial bearing. These are capable of maintaining rotor levitation under cutting loads greater than 4450 N (1000 lbf). The radial bearings were constructed from cobaltiron laminations with an air gap clearance of 241 mm (0.0095 in). The journal of the nose bearing, i.e., that closest to the cutting tool, has a diameter of 108.4 mm and therefore reaches 3.5 million DN at the maximum operating speed. Three radial magnetic bearings were used as analysis during the design stage indicated that signicant improvements in closed-loop tool dynamic behaviour could be obtained with an additional radial bearing in spite of the increase in rotor length that accompanies its introduction. Occlusion-based optical sensors, consisting of thermally compensated LED/phototransistor pairs operated differentially, measure displacements of the rotor adjacent to the radial bearings. Such sensors allow position measurement with very little noise (o0.5 mm) induced by AMB elds. Axial displacement is measured in a similar fashion. Eighth-order Cauer anti-aliasing lters with a corner frequency of 4.4 kHz are used to minimize the phase lag

introduced into the feedback loop below 1000 kHz. The bearings are driven by 150 V switching ampliers with 30 amp peak current capabilities. This allows force slew rates (when operated about their bias currents) of 8.4 N/ms (1.88 lbf/ms) for the nose bearing and 5.6 N/ms (1.26 lbf/ms) for the middle and tail bearings. The spindles rotation is driven by a 3-phase AC induction motor rated at 67.1 kW (90 HP). Feedback control algorithms are executed on a parallel processing digital controller consisting of four Texas Instruments TMS320C40 DSP chips running at 40 MHz, 14 bit A/D converters, and 16 bit D/A converters. Typically, a sampling rate of 12 kHz is used (Fittro, 1998). Detailed models of the rotor, actuators, ampliers, sensors, and anti-aliasing lter were developed from test data and nite element modelling techniques. These along with uncertainty descriptions for each component were assembled to form a complete model of the spindle system for robust controller design. This synthesis model incorporates norm-bounded uncertainty blocks. For controller design and evaluation, the performance metric used was the peak dynamic compliance of the tool. This corresponds to the HN norm of the transfer function between cutting force and tool displacement. Minimization of this metric

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results in both greater accuracy in cutting and a reduction in the tendency to chatter as the cutting process feedback loop resulting from the regeneration of waviness is gain stabilized (i.e., this is a speed-independent approach). To obtain designs suitable for implementation on the available hardware, the controller gain and bandwidth must be restricted in synthesis. This is easily done in the robust control framework via the inclusion of a ctitious uncertainty block that feeds the controller output back to its input. In this paper, we will discuss only the results for the radial tool compliance (Fittro, 1998). The multivariable controllers developed for radial control has 3 inputs and 3 outputs, corresponding to the displacements in the x-direction at the 3 sensor locations and the perturbation currents to be applied to generate forces in the x-direction by 3 actuators. Thus, identical 3-input/3-output radial control algorithms are applied for the x- and y-plane of the rotor. Control of the axial direction is established separately by single-input/single-output controller. Radial controllers were developed from this plant description using: decentralized PID design via parameter optimization; complex m-synthesis via DK iteration; and mixed m-synthesis via DGK iteration. Multivariable controllers typically contained between 100 and 200 states after synthesis. Controller reduction was carried out using a combination of techniques including balance and truncate (Fittro, 1998). Reduction was quite successful with the radial controller for each plane reduced to typically fewer than 22 states. Several theoretical performance benchmarks were also established via alternative controller design approaches: (I) HN design without considering plant uncertainty or any constraint on controller gain/bandwidth (HN); (II) msynthesis where controller gain/bandwidth is constrained to that practically achievable but no model uncertainty was included (optimal m); (III) m-synthesis where model uncertainty was included but no constraint was placed on the controller (high gain m); and (IV) m-synthesis where both modelling uncertainty and controller limitations were included but the design controller sampling frequency (i.e., throughput) was increased to 18 kHz and the antialiasing corner frequency was increased commensurately (18 kHz m). Table 1 presents the peak nominal and peak

100 Compliance (micro-inch/lbf) PID

50

10 100 Frequency (Hz)

1000

Fig. 4. Comparison of tool compliance obtained with PID and m-synthesized controllers.

worst-case tool compliances for these designs, as well as experimental results (Fittro, 1998). Several conclusions may be developed from this data: (1) Multivariable controllers developed via m-synthesis can yield signicant improvements in tool compliance over that attainable with conventional magnetic bearing feedback control. Experimental data indicates that a 40% reduction in compliance is achievable. (2) Elimination of plant model uncertainty would, in principle, result in nearly a 50% reduction in peak tool compliance for multivariable controllers. However, removing the restriction on controller gain/ bandwidth would yield a much larger improvement in tool dynamic behaviour. Of course, neither is practically achievable, but this analysis nevertheless indicates the relative benets of higher accuracy models and higher authority hardware. (3) A 50% increase in controller sampling rate (assuming that throughput could be similarly improved) would result in a 15% reduction in peak tool compliance. Fig. 4 shows the tool compliance frequency response for both PID and complex m-control as obtained from experiment. It should be noted that the m-controller has signicantly lower compliance than optimal PID over most of the frequency range, and that signicantly more damping is introduced into the rst bending mode (E650 Hz) by the m-controller than by PID (over 60% reduction in compliance at this frequency). This reduction in the tool compliance implies a signicant increase in achievable metal removal rate without the onset of chatter across a wide range of operating speed. 6. Active control of chatter The second experiment that will be examined herein, active control of chatter in a turning operation, employs the experiment shown in Fig. 5 (Chen & Knospe, 2002, 2005). This test rig consists of two platforms connected by a leaf spring and constrained to single-axis, rectilinear

Table 1 Peak tool compliance (m in/lbf) for nominal system model, worst-case system model and experiment for a variety of controllers including benchmark designs Controller Optimal PID Complex m Mixed m HN Optimal m High gain m 18 kHz m Nom. 74 58 51 E0 32 14 49 Worst Exp. 92 55 59

N 74 65 N N 16 61

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Controller

Tool Cutting Force f

Eddy current position sensor

Magnetic Bearing

Control Force

Tool Platform

Leaf Spring

Actuator Platform

Fig. 5. Chatter control experiment and schematic. Cutting tool and tool platform on exures at left; AMB and actuator platform (beneath) on right.

motion along the feed direction by exures. The tool platform holds a cutting tool and the actuator platform has a journal bearing rigidly mounted upon it. An AMB stator mounted above the actuator platform can apply a noncontacting force to the journal along the feed direction, thus controlling its motion. The stator used is constructed from cobaltiron laminations and is of a conventional radial 8-pole design. Two sets of coils on opposite sides of the stator are wired together and each driven by 150 V pulse-width-modulated switching ampliers. A bias current of 1 amp is employed so as to guarantee sufcient forceslew-rate for the application. The air gap of the bearing is 250 mm. An eddy current position probe is used to measure the displacement of the actuator platform and hence the air gap clearance. This entire assembly is mounted to a lathe such that the tool can be fed into the turning workpiece. Both AMB control and lathe speed control algorithms are implemented by a dSPACE 1103 digital controller, at a sampling rate of 10 kHz. Note that there exists no capability in this test rig to either directly sense the motion of the tool platform or to actuate it. This non-collocation of sensors/actuators with the input/output pair associated with performance (i.e., cutting force and tool displacement) makes this a very difcult control problem. Only model-based control algorithms will achieve the desired performance in this case. This conguration was chosen for the test rig as it represents the situation in a milling spindle supported by AMBs, where the sensor/actuators are located some distance away from the tool along a compliant rotor. Feedback linearization was used (with the ampliers operated in current mode) to render the bearing-platformsensor system as linear over the entire range of journal travel and perturbation current. For this purpose, more than 600 experimental data points (triplets of current i, position x, and force F) were experimentally obtained to develop a fth order static non-linear model of the

actuator, F f x; i. This was used to develop a look-uptable that implements the inverse function, i f 1 x; F , for execution on the digital controller. Experimental results obtained with this feedback linearization implemented have demonstrated that the variability of plant behaviour across the range of operating points has been reduced by over 90%. This allows the use of smaller magnitudes in uncertainty description for controller synthesis. Thus, higher closed-loop performance is obtainable over a larger range of displacements and cutting forces. Two types of controller were developed for the interconnection depicted in Fig. 2 (uncertainty representations not shown but similar to those discussed in Fittro (1998)). Speed-independent controllers were developed via m-synthesis by using a unit complex uncertainty to cover the time-delay transfer function eTs. This has been shown not to introduce any conservatism with regard to the speedindependent problem. The performance goal of such controllers is to push up the stability lobe curve across all cutting speeds. Speed-specied controllers were developed via m-synthesis by rst replacing the time delay by a nitedimensional approximation. For accuracy over the frequency range of interest, a 30th-order Pade approximation was used. Of course, to employ this approach the delay (hence the workpiece speed) must be given. The performance goal of these controllers is to push up the stability lobe curve at the given cutting speed. Both speed-independent controller and speed-specied controllers were implemented on the test rig. For the speedspecied controller, the designated speed for synthesis was 2800 rpm. Figs. 6 and 7 show the tool compliance frequency responses and the stability charts, respectively, for the controlled machine tool. From Fig. 6, it can be seen that the m controllers have tailored the dynamic compliance at the non-collocated tool to a high degree: note that in the speed-specied case, the resonances of the closed loop system have been arranged in a precise fashion as integer multiples of 47 Hz (i.e., 2800/60). Such an arrangement tends not to excite chatter since the gain of cutting process
0 -20 dB -40 -60 0 -50 Degree -100 -150 -200 102 103
PID controller Speed independent Controller Optimized Controller at 2800 rpm

102

103

Hz

Fig. 6. Closed-loop tool compliance for PID controller, speed-independent controller, and speed-specied controller obtained from experiment.

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Speed-Specified

313

16 Cutting Stiffness (Lbf/mil) 14

Speed-Independent 12 10 8 PID 6 4 2 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 Spindle Speed (RPM)

higher performance in terms of speed, power, dynamic stiffness, and chatter suppression. Experimental results have demonstrated that model-based approaches to controller design can be highly effective for this problem. Two approaches have proven effective in this regard: speedindependent controllers where the delay element is treated as complex uncertainty and chatter suppression is achieved through gain-stabilization; and speed-specied controllers where the delay element is approximated by a high order, nite-dimensional system so as to capture its phase information.

Fig. 7. Stability chart for PID controller, speed-independent controller, and speed-specied controllers as generated from experimental tool compliance. Below each curve are regions of stable cutting.

Acknowledgements The author gratefully acknowledges the help of many colleagues: Prof. L. Scott Stephens, Dr. Roger Fittro, Mr. Min Chen, Dr. Stephen Fedigan, Prof. Marcio deQuieroz, Prof. Eric Maslen, Prof. Ronald Williams, Mr. David Wood, and Mr. Edward Rousch. This work was partially supported by Cincinnati Milacron and the National Science Foundation (Grant DMI-9713488).

Kc(1eTs) is zero at these frequencies. From a machining viewpoint, this means that uctuations in instantaneous chip thickness at these frequencies will not result from vibrations of the machine tool structure. Compared to PID controllers that have been tested, the speed-independent and speed-specied m-controllers achieve signicantly better performance. As can be seen, the speed-independent controller would permit 90% higher cutting stiffness without chatter onset (hence higher metal removal rate) at its worst-case speed than the PID controller would achieve. The speed-specied controller provided a substantial increase in allowable cutting stiffness at the design speed (2800 rpm) over that achieved by the PID controller (over 160%) and outperformed the speed-independent controller as well. For speeds other than that for which it was designed the performance was substantially worse. Thus, it would be necessary to gain schedule speedspecied controllers on the basis of operating speed. Overall, the experimental results indicate the efcacy of model-based approaches in tailoring the tool dynamics so as to suppress chatter instability using sensors and actuators non-collocated with the tool. 7. Conclusion AMBs hold considerable promise for HSM applications. A number of difcult technical challenges need to be tackled to realize this applications potential, including actuator design, sensor noise, and high-performance feedback control. Considerable progress has been made on a number of fronts over the last decade, but there will continue to be increasing demand from the application for

References
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