Achuz Seminar Report

UWB RADAR IN MEDICINE OCTOBER 2011
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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Motion sensing and imaging ultra-wideband (UWB) radar systems have strong
potential for use in the medical field. UWB radar is non-invasive, low power, and
can be manufactured in a small, portable form factor. A hand held UWB sensor
has demonstrated the feasibility of detecting the presence of traumatic internal
injuries including intracranial hematoma and pneumothorax. A UWB vital signs
monitor tracks cardiac and respiratory motions remotely, without direct skin
contact. UWB radar arrays can image the human body. This seminar will explore
key tradeoffs in the design of ultra-wideband systems for medical applications
and provide several examples of research in this area.


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CHAPTER 2
ULTRA WIDE BAND
Unlike narrowband systems, which transmit continuous waveforms at a
specific frequency, ultra-wideband systems transmit narrow impulse-like signals
that span a broad frequency range [Figure 2.1]. The pulse width of a UWB system
is typically within a range of 100s of picoseconds to several nanoseconds, with
rise times as fast as 50 picoseconds, corresponding to a frequency range that can
span several gigahertz. Since the energy of the pulse is distributed across a many
frequencies, the power spectral density is much lower in magnitude than a
narrowband system. To a narrowband system, ultra-wideband signals appear
below the noise floor, and are therefore very difficult to detect.UWB signals can
be used in many applications, including imaging, vehicular radar, and
communications. Examples of imaging applications are ground penetrating radar,
through-wall imaging to detect the location or movements of objects, surveillance,
search and rescue, and medical systems. Vehicular radar systems are commonly
used for collision avoidance and roadside assistance. Ultra-wideband
communication systems are useful for high data rate transmission in harsh
propagation environments, such as indoor applications with dense multi-path
channels, for consumer electronics, and for covert operations. The FCC defines
ultra-wideband signals to be those with fractional bandwidth exceeding 20% of
the center frequency, or those with greater than 500 MHz bandwidth. Although
development of ultra-wideband technologies began in 1960s the technology is far
from mature. Widespread commercial use has been limited, largely as a result of
FCC restrictions. Due to concerns of interference with existing communication
and navigation systems, the FCC limits UWB frequency bands and output power.
Medical applications are limited to the 3.1 to 10.6 GHz range1. Through wall
imaging applications may operate below 960 MHz, or in the 1.99 to 10.6 GHz
range. Commercial devices are currently limited in power.


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Figure 2.1: Narrowband vs. UWB in Time and Frequency Domain

This concept doesn't stand for a definite standard of wireless communication.
This is a method of modulation and data transmission which can entirely
change the wireless picture in the near future. The UWB is right and the
traditional modulation is left which is called here Narrow Band (NB), as
opposed to the Ultra Wideband. Above we can see a signal on the time axis and
below there is its frequency spectrum, i.e. energy distribution in the frequency
band. The most modern standards of data transmission are NB standards - all of
them work within a quite narrow frequency band allowing for just small
deviations from the base (or carrier) frequency. Below on the left you can see a
spectral energy distribution of a typical 802.11b transmitter. It has a very
narrow (80 MHz for one channel) dedicated spectral band with the reference
frequency of 2.4 GHz. Within this narrow band the transmitter emits a
considerable amount of energy necessary for the following reliable reception
within the designed range of distance (100 m for the 802.11b). The range is
strictly defined by FCC and other regulatory bodies and requires licensing.
Data are encoded and transferred using the method of frequency modulation
(control of deviation from the base frequency) within the described channel.
Now take a look at the UWB - here the traditional approach is turned upside
down. In the time space the transmitter emits short pulses of a special form
which distributes all the energy of the pulse within the given, quite wide,
spectral range (approximately from 3 GHz to 10 GHz). Data, in their turn, are
encoded with polarity and mutual positions of pulses. With much total power


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delivered into the air and, therefore, a long distance of the reliable reception,
the UWB signal doesn't exceed an extremely low value (much lower than that
of the NB signals) in each given spectrum point (i.e. in each definite licensed
frequency band). As a result, according to the respective FCC regulation, such
signal becomes allowable although it also takes spectral parts used for other
purposes:

Figure 2.2: Spectral range of UWB and NB

So, the most part of energy of the UWB signal falls into the frequency range
from 3.1 to 10.6 GHz. Below 3.1 GHz the signal almost disappears. The more
ideal the form of a pulse formed with the transmitter, the less the energy goes
out of the main range. The spectral range lower than 3.1 GHz is avoided not to
create problems for GPS systems. However, UWB is accurate to within 10
centimeters -- much better than the Global Positioning System satellites and
because it spans the entire frequency spectrum (licensed and unlicensed), it can
be used indoors and underground, unlike GPS,UWB could replace
communications of all types, ending forever our dependence on wires and
making worthless the ownership of radio frequencies. The total energy of the
transmitter which can fit into this band is defined by the area of the spectral
characteristic (see filled zones on the previous picture). In case of the UWB it's
much greater compared to the traditional NB signals such as 802.11b or
802.11a. So, with the UWB we can send data for longer distances, or send
more data, especially if there are a lot of simultaneously working devices


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located close to each other. Here is a diagram with the designed maximum
density of data transferred per square meter:

Figure 2.3: Spatial capacity of NB and UWB

Density of transferred data able to coexist on the same square meter is much
higher for the UWB compared to the popular NB standards. That is, it will be
possible to use the UWB for the intrasystem communication or even for an
interchip communication within one device.
In case of the NB a frequency and width of the dedicated spectral range for
the most part (though the real situation is much more complicated) defines a
bandwidth of the channel, and the transmitter's power defines a distance range.
But in the UWB these two concepts interwine and we can distribute our
capabilities between the distance range and bandwidth. Thus, at small
distances, for example, in case of an interchip communication, we can get huge
throughput levels without increasing the total transferred power and without
cluttering up the air, i.e. other devices are not impeded. Look at how the
throughput of data transferred in the UWB modulation depends on distance.


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Figure 2.4: Throughput Vs Distance
While the traditional NB standard 802.11a uses an artificially created
dependence of throughput on distance (a fixed set of bandwidths discretely
switched over as the distance increases), the UWB realizes this dependence in a
much more natural way. At short distances its throughput is so great that it
makes our dreams on the interchip communication real, but at the longer
distances the UWB loses to the NB standard. On the one hand, a theoretical
volume of the energy transferred, and therefore, the maximum amount of data,
is higher. Beside the amount of energy, there is the design philosophy which
also has an effect. For example, a character of modulation, i.e. how stably and
losslessly it is received and detected by the receiver. Let's compare the classical
and UWB transceivers.


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Figure 2.5: Classical transceiver

Figure 2.6: UWB transceiver
The classical transceiver contains a reference oscillator (synth) which, as a
rule, is stabilized with some reference crystal element (Ref Osc). Further, in
case of reception this frequency is subtracted from the received signal, and in
case of transmission it is added to the data transferred. For the UWB the
transmitter looks very unsophisticated - a pulse of required shape is formed
and send it to the antenna. In case of reception amplified signal is pumped
through the band filter which selects the working spectrum range and that's all .


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Distance range,
m
Frequency Channel width Throughput
UWB
Up to 50 (at
present)
3.1 to 10.6 GHz 500 MHz Hundred of Mbit
802.11b 100 2.4 GHz 80 MHz Up to 11 Mbit
802.11a 50 5 GHz 200 MHz Up to 54 Mbit
Bluetooth 10 2.4 GHz Up to 1 Mbit
Table 2.1 Comparison of UWB and NB
2.1 INNER WORKINGS
UWB uses a kind of pulse modulation. To transfer data, a UWB transmitter
emits a single sine wave pulse (called a monocycle) at a time. This monocycle
has no data in it. On the contrary, it is the timing between monocycles (the
interval between pulses) that determines whether data transmitted is a 0 or a 1.
A UWB pulse typically ranges between .2 and 1.5 nanoseconds. If a monocycle
is sent early (by 100 pico seconds), it can denote a 0, while a monocycle sent
late (by 100 pico seconds) can represent a 1.
Spacing between monocycles changes between 25 to 1000 nanoseconds
on a pulse-to-pulse basis, based on a channel code. A channel code allows data
to be detected only by the intended receiver. Since pulses are spaced and timing
between pulses depends on the channel, its already in encrypted form and is
more secure than conventional radio waves.


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2.2 MODULATION METHOD
Several modulation techniques can be used to create UWB signals, some
more efficiently than others. In its formative years, some of the most popular
methods to create UWB pulse streams used mono-phase techniques such as
pulse amplitude (PAM), pulse position (PPM), or on-off keying (OOK). In
these techniques, a 1 is differentiated from a 0 either by the size of the
signal or when it arrives in time but all the pulses are the same shapes. A
more efficient approach, bi-phase ultra-wideband, is also being deployed. Bi-
phase differentiates a 1 with a right-side-up pulse and a 0 with an upside-
down pulse and works by reading pulses both backwards and forwards,
irrespective of time. Multi-phase UWB is not being deployed today as it is too
cost-prohibitive for the consumer and enterprise markets.
2.2.1 MONO-PHASE ULTRA WIDE BAND
In this approach, all pulses are right side up, meaning they all look alike.
Using pulses in time to create the desired ultra-wideband waveform, mono-
phase ultra-wideband technologies are currently used in select military
applications under a special license from the FCC. All of these deployed
systems are much higher in power and much lower in frequency than the limits
published by the FCC in their recent UWB approval guidelines.
The three most popular mono-phase ultra-wideband approaches include:
1. Pulse amplitude (PAM)PAM works by separating the tall and the
short waves. By varying the amplitude (height of pulse) the receiver
can tell the difference between 1 and 0, thereby encoding data in the
signal.
2. Pulse position (PPM)In PPM, all the pulses (both 1s and 0s) are
the same height. The receiver distinguishes between a 1 or a 0 by
when it arrives in time, or the time lag between pulses. In this case, a
long time lag could mean a 1 and a short time lag could mean a 0.


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3. On-Off Keying (OOK)In OOK, a 1 is a pulse and an absence of a
pulse is a 0.

2.2.1.a. Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)

Determines whether a pulse is a 1 or 0 based on the size of the pulse.

2.2.1.b. Pulse Position Modulation (PPM)
Encodes information by modifying the position of the pulse.
0 1

2.2.1.c. On-Off Keying
Determines a 0 by the absence of a pulse and 1 by the presence of a
pulse


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2.2.2 BI-PHASE ULTRA WIDE BAND
In this approach, the pulses can be sent right side up or upside down,
which determines whether the pulse is a 1 or a 0, so pulses can be sent at
a much higher rate.

2.3 ULTRA WIDE BAND ADVANTAGES
This section describes the unique advantages that make ultra-wideband
systems beneficial for medical use.
2.3.1PENETRATES BIOLOGICAL TISSUES
UWB signals are capable of penetrating a great variety of materials, including
plastic, wood, rubber, sheetrock, dry soil, glass, and concrete. In general, systems
with lower center frequencies achieve better material penetration. Biological
materials including skin, muscle, fat, and bone can also be penetrated, although
not as easily as most low conductivity building materials. Highly conductive
materials, such as metals and seawater, cannot be penetrated.


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2.3.2NON-INVASIVE, NON-CONTACT, AND NON-IONIZING
UWB imaging systems would allow a physician to monitor internal organ
movements without invasive surgical procedures. Unlike traditional ultrasound
systems, which require direct skin contact, UWB sensors and imaging systems
can operate at a standoff distance. Since UWB signals are non-ionizing, they do
not cause the adverse effects associated with X-ray systems such as CT scanners.
UWB imaging may enable physicians to make a preliminary diagnosis without
subjecting the patient to risk or discomfort. In addition, these sensors are well
suited for continuous patient monitoring to identify baseline changes.
2.3.3LOW POWER, PORTABLE, LOW COST
While a CT scanner provides excellent image specificity, it is large and can
cost several hundred thousand to over a million dollars. Handheld UWB sensor
prototypes developed at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory run on a single
9-V battery, and cost only hundreds of dollars to manufacture. Due to their
portability and low cost, UWB sensors are ideal candidates for use in rural or
remote settings and in-field use by first responders.


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CHAPTER 3
ULTRA-WIDEBAND IN MEDICINE

3.1 SENSING WITH UWB
A family of ultra-wideband sensors known as micro-power impulse radar
(MIR) was developed at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. MIR sensors
emit extremely narrow electromagnetic pulses and analyze received reflection
signals for characteristic indicators of material boundaries and movements. MIR
sensors are safe for medical use, since UWB signals are non-ionizing and emitted
power is very low. In a typical MIR sensor used for medical applications, peak
transmit power is 60 milli watts and average transmit power is 25 microwatts. The
basic components of an MIR radar system include a transmitter, a reflective
target, a receiver, and a signal processor [Figure 2]. The transmitter generates a
series of short pulses. The shape of transmitted pulses is determined largely by the
characteristics of the antenna. At dielectric interfaces, portions of the transmitted
pulse reflect back toward the antenna. The receiver uses a range gate to sample
the echo signals during a specific time interval corresponding to the round trip
time of flight from the transmitter to the target, and back to the receiver. A sensor
with a fixed range gate can only detect echo signals from a single radial distance.
By sweeping the range gate across a time span, or equivalent time sampling,
targets can be detected within a specified distance range. Multiple pulses are
integrated to achieve a sufficient signal-to-noise ratio. Signal processing of the
received pulse echoes may be performed in analog circuitry, using an FPGA, or
using software algorithms running on a computer.


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Figure 3.1: Micro-power Impulse Radar Sensor Block Diagram
3.1.1. DISTANCE MEASUREMENT
One application of UWB radar is to measure the distance between the radar
source and a reflective target. Ranging applications are based on measuring the
round trip time of flight of a transmitted pulse. For example, if the time between
sending a pulse and receiving its backscatter echo is 20 ns, we can infer that the
signal was reflected at the target after 10 ns. If the target is in air, we can assume
that the pulse velocity, v, is 3.0 x 10^8 m/s, the speed of light. Using the simple
relationship, d =vt, we find the reflecting target was positioned 3 meters away
from the radar. By sweeping the range gate across a time span of 15 ns to 25 ns,
we can detect reflected pulses from targets within a distance range of 4.5 to 7.5
meters. Distance measurements become challenging when the nature of target
mediums is unknown. Since propagation velocity is material dependent,
assumptions are made about the electromagnetic properties and thickness of target
materials. For example, at 2 GHz, the relative permittivity, r, of muscle and fat


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are 5.5 and 4.5, respectively13. The corresponding propagation velocities are
vmuscle = 1.3 x 108 m/s and vfat = 1.4 x 108 m/s.In several UWB medical
applications, ranging sensors are used to identify physical abnormalities or
deviations from a baseline, giving only approximate location information. For
these applications, knowledge of exact thicknesses and material properties is not
required. For example, a quick identification of the presence or absence of
internal trauma injuries, such as intracranial hematoma or pneumothorax, can
assist medical personnel in making triage and treatment decisions when more
sophisticated diagnosis methods are unavailable.
3.1.2. MOTION DETECTION
To detect motion, one can simply monitor a ranging sensor over time for
changes in target position. A derivative circuit and a comparator can be used as a
motion indicator. Using swept range radar, it is possible to determine the locations
and deflection magnitudes of multiple moving targets. We have demonstrated
several medical applications for UWB motion sensing, including monitoring of
speech, respiratory, and cardiac motions. UWB motion detectors have also been
used in search and rescue applications,to identify victims trapped in collapsed
structures.
3.1.3. ULTRA WIDE BAND SENSOR ARRAYS
A single UWB ranging sensor can provide position and motion information in
one dimension only. While it is possible to detect the radial distance between the
radar and a target, a single sensor cannot determine the target angle. If two
sensors are used, it is possible to determine the position of a target in two
dimensions [Figure 3.2]. To obtain three-dimensional positioning information, an
array of three or more sensors is used. UWB sensor arrays have been used to
image a variety of targets, including bridge decks, buried land mines, walls, and
the human body.


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Figure 3.2: 1-D vs. 2-D positioning

3.1.4. ULTRA WIDE BAND RADAR FOR BIOLOGICAL
SENSING
As UWB signals travel through tissues, their amplitudes attenuate
exponentially with the factor , where is the attenuation constant of the
tissue, and z is distance. When signals reach an interface between two mediums
with differing dielectric properties, a portion of the signal is transmitted through
the boundary, and a portion is reflected. The transmitted and reflected signals are
given by:

where Ei is the incident wave, t is the transmission coefficient, and G is the
reflection coefficient. The transmission and reflection coefficients are given by:

Where e r1and er 2 are the relative permittivities of the two mediums.14, 16 by
detecting ultra-wideband reflections, sensors can determine the presence or
absence of abnormalities at tissue boundaries and monitor their motion. For
sensing biological tissue boundaries, adjacent tissues with differing dielectric
properties are easiest to see. To illustrate this point, consider the task of
identifying a pneumothorax, or collapsed lung. The relative permittivities of


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tissues in the chest cavity over typical UWB frequencies are shown [Figure 4].
There is a significant difference between the dielectric properties of an inflated
lung compared to a deflated lung. Using the dielectric constants of muscle,
inflated lung, and deflated lung at 2 GHz, we find the reflection coefficient at the
muscle/inflated lung interface to be , and the reflection
coefficient at the muscle/deflated lung interface to be 0.35.We can detect the
presence of an abnormal condition, such as pneumothorax, by comparing echo
signals from a healthy lung to an afflicted lung. The same principles are applied to
other UWB medical applications, including cardiac and respiratory monitors, and
intracranial hematoma detection.

Figure 3.3: Thoracic Tissues and Dielectric Properties
3.1.5. DESIGN VARIABLES AND TRADEOFFS
A designer of an UWB system must make a number of design choices specific
to the application. These choices are interrelated, and reveal many tradeoffs in
system performance. The following section outlines the key specifications
involved in the design of an ultra-wideband sensing or imaging system, including


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frequency content, power, pulse repetition rate, receiver window size, and
receiver integration time.
3.1.5.a. Frequency Content of UWB Signals
The frequency content of an ultra-wideband signal is specified by its center
frequency and its bandwidth. A large bandwidth is beneficial, because many
materials can be penetrated while achieving good spatial resolution. Choosing the
frequency content of the system has implications for other system parameters. For
example, low frequencies are desirable for achieving good penetration through
dense materials. To create a lower frequency signals, however, a larger antenna is
required, increasing the overall size of the device. High frequency signals yield
good specificity, since the measurable spatial resolution is related proportionally
to the wavelength. A very large bandwidth, however, can reduce the signal to
noise ratio (SNR). For Gaussian noise, the noise power is proportional to signal
bandwidth. Therefore, for a fixed signal power, as bandwidth increases, the SNR
decreases.
3.1.5.b. Power
The power characteristics of an UWB system can be described by its
instantaneous peak signal power, average signal power, and average system
power consumption. A large peak signal power is important for obtaining good
penetration through materials and long operating distances. An increase in peak
power results in a proportional increase in the SNR. A major drawback, however,
is a reduction in the efficiency of high power pulse generation circuits. As average
system power consumption increases, the battery life decreases. For very high
power systems, there could be concerns for interference with other radiofrequency
devices and safety.
3.1.5.c. Pulse Repetition Rate
The repetition rate of emitted pulses sets an upper limit on the operating
distance of UWB sensors. UWB systems measure the time of flight for pulses to
reflect off of a target. The pulse repetition rate must be slow enough to allow
reflected pulses to return to the receiver; otherwise, transmitted pulses would
interfere with received signals. A faster pulse repetition rate improves the


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responsiveness of motion detection systems, allowing them to recognize high
frequency movements such as vocal cord vibrations. To reduce the likelihood of
being detected by or causing Interference to narrow band system and other ultra
wide band systems, randomized noise is added to the pulse repetition level
interval. This technique also reduces interferences from other sources.
3.1.5.d. Receiver Window Size
A range gate is used to sample received signals at specific time intervals. The
receiver window size corresponds to the time window for sampling. Choosing a
small window allows greater spatial resolution and better sensitivity to small
movements, however, faster sampling circuits are required.
3.1.5.e. Receiver Integration Time
In order to improve the signal-to-noise ratio of an UWB system, averaging can
be used. Instead of examining the received signal from a single pulse, which will
be obscured by a number of noise sources, many pulses can be observed, one after
another. These received signals are accumulated for some period of time,
performing the equivalent of integration or averaging. The average received
signal still contains noise, but its effects are greatly reduced. For purely Gaussian
noise sources, the effective noise seen by the sensor is reduced by the square root
of the number of cycles over which the integration is performed. This increases
the operating range and sensitivity, but decreases the speed.

3.2 UWB FEATURES FOR MEDICAL APPLICATION
UWB pulse is generated in a very short time period (sub-nano second).So it
has spectrum below the allowed noise level. This feature makes it possible to get
Gbps speed by using 10GHZ spectrum. So UWB is suitable to be used for high-
speed over short distances. Such noise-like feature relies on ultra-short
waveforms and does not require IF processing because they can be operated at
baseband. This UWB feature has long been appreciated as key advantages for
medical engineering.


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3.2.1. PENETRATING THROUGH OBSTACLES
Although UWB and ultrasound are in fact very similar and many of the
signal processing techniques used in ultrasonic systems can be applied to UWB
systems, it is different from ultrasound which has broad application in todays
world. The major difference is that ultrasound is basically a line of sight
technology and it is very short range.
However, UWB is different because it does not use high frequency and has
high gain, which means that UWB impulse of very bit is so many that it can get
much higher gain than other popular conventional spread spectrum systems. That
also explains why UWB can penetrate through walls. This makes UWB viable for
wide area applications where obstacles are certain to be encountered, although
ultrasound may also be in operable in these circumstances. The feature makes it
easy to image organs of human body for medical application.
3.2.2. HIGH PRECISION RANGING AT THE CENTIMETER
LEVEL
Another feature of UWB is the high precision ranging at centimeter level
based on the ultra-short pulse characteristic. High precision of ranging also means
strong multi-path resolving capability. The conventional wireless technique used
continuous wave and the standing time is much longer than multi-path
transmission time. The UWB pulse is much shorter, thus it has very strong
temporal and space resolving capability (For 1 nano second pulse, the multi-path
resolving power equals to 30cm), which is suitable for the localization and
detection in the medical applications.
3.2.3. LOW ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION
The third feature of UWB is the low electromagnetic radiation due to the low
radio power pulse less than -41.3dB in indoor environment. The low radiation has
little influence on the environment, which is suitable for hospital applications.


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Furthermore, the low radiation is safe for human body, even in the short distance,
which makes it possible to apply UWB to the clairvoyant equipments.
3.2.4. LOW PROCESSING ENERGY CONSUMED
Since UWB uses very short pulses for radio transmission and very careful
design of signal and architecture, the transmitter could be designed simple and
allows extreme low energy consumption, which also enables the usage of long-
life battery-operated devices. These features are quite similar with the Wireless
Sensor Networks (WSN) nodes which must work under extreme condition and
require very strict power control mechanism and high power efficiency. The
inherent noise-like behavior of UWB systems make it highly possible to deploy
medical sensor with UWB since the signal is hard to detect and also excel in
jamming resistance. Wireless Body Area Networks (WBANs) for surveillance of
human body can be deployed due to this feature.

3.3 APPLICATIONS IN MEDICAL FIELD
3.3.1. UWB IN MEDICAL MONITORING
Due to the features we have discussed, UWB is very suitable for the
application of medical monitoring. These monitoring applications could be patient
motion monitoring, wireless vital signs monitoring of human body, and the
medicine storage monitoring.
3.3.1.a. Patient Motion Monitoring
Because of the highly intense pulses used in UWB technology, it is possible to
use UWB radar in medical field for remote monitoring and measuring the
patients' motion in short distance. This monitoring function could be applied in
intensive care units, emergency rooms, home health care, pediatric clinics (to alert
for the Sudden Infant Death Syndrome, SIDS), rescue operations (to look for
some heart beating under ruins, or soil, or snow). For example in Fig.4.1, the
using of UWB in monitoring the patient in intensive care unit could avoid usage
of too many wires around the patient.


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Figure 3.4: Intensive Care Unit monitoring using UWB

In Fig.3.4, signals emitting from UWB radars setting on ceiling can reflect
when they meet human body. When the patient moves, the reflected signals will
fluctuate. The fluctuation of signals denoting the movement of objects is
transferred to the control center of the surveillant. The information could be fed
back instantaneously to the doctors or nurses. It could also be recorded and
analyzed in the future for the health condition of the patient. A sample of the
results of this application is shown in the Fig3.5. The pulse amplitude fluctuation
shows that there is movement of the patient in the room. The higher the pulse
amplitude is, the closer the person move to the UWB radar. The application could
be used to monitor the patients whether moving in the unallowed time. UWB
radar could measure the speed and position of the patient in the room.

Figure 3.5: Sample of result of the patient movement detected


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Since UWB has a short detection range of less than 10 meters, if we want to
monitor a large area, more UWB sensors will be needed. Because of the small
distance and high data rate communication function of UWB, these sensors using
UWB sub-nanosecond pulses can be motivated for gathering and exchanging a
large quantity of sensory data. The energy requirement for UWB devices is small
and is suitable for the sensing for a long time. Zigbee and Bluetooth devices are
less suitable for medical applications because their energy requirement is higher
and data transmitting speed is low.
3.3.1.b. Vital Signs Monitoring Of Human Body
In fact, the UWB-enabled sensors could not only detect these macro
movements, it could also detect micro movement inside human body. For
example, the capability of non-invasive sensing of vital parameters such as
respiration system of human body is important and useful in medical engineering.
The UWB monitoring of respiratory movement in emergency rooms or intensive
care units will be attractive and save much cost especially for large-scale
hospitals. Some other typical vital sign monitoring application of UWB include
the Cardiology system, Pneumology system, Neurology system and etc. There are
increasing requirements for the vital sign monitoring applications of UWB, for
example, health monitoring for the old people. The deployment of UWB vital
signs monitoring system will enable proactive home monitoring of the patients,
which in an aging population could decrease the cost of healthcare by moving
some amount of eligible patients from hospital to home, and keep the home
monitoring UWB system connecting to the central controlled surveillant center
run in the hospital. To accomplish this goal, we require not only monitoring but
also the transmission of the data.
3.3.1.c. Monitoring Of Medicine Storage
The UWB radar can also be used for guarding the medicine storage room. The
UWB electromagnetic waves form a defense sphere detecting any moving objects
around the guarded perimeter line. Any unauthorized people want to get access to
the monitored object will be alarmed when they are close enough. The alarm
could be initialized by the fluctuation of radar signals corresponding to the things


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want to cross the secured line. The fluctuation graph will be similar with Fig. 3.In
short, the UWB's feature make it very powerful and promising in the area of
medical monitoring. It can not only monitor the motion of the patient, the vital
signs inside human body by wireless RF waves, it can also be used in monitoring
the medicine storage. We can believe that in the near future, there will be more
UWB equipments and apparatus in these areas.
3.3.2. UWB IN MEDICAL IMAGING
Another key medical application of UWB is medical imaging. We discuss it in
four main subsections: Cardiology Imaging, Pneumology Imaging, Obstetrics
Imaging, and Ear-Nose-Throat Imaging.
3.3.2.b. Cardiology Imaging
Actually, the first applications using UWB radar technology was for heart
monitoring since the heart related research has a high impact on general public. A
scientist name Thomas McEwan in Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
(LLNL) developed the first patent on radar stethoscope as shown in Fig.3.6

Figure.3.6: The first Mc Ewan's patent on the radar stethoscope


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Thomas also invented a 3-D UWB radar camera to monitor the heart
movement. The original model of UWB clairvoyance radar used novel high speed
and low-cost sampler. The UWB radar is able to detect, non-invasively,
movements of heart which is shown in Fig3.7 is a sample heart imaging using
UWB in the Visible Human Project.

Figure 3.7: The heart imaging using UWB in the Visible Human Project
UWB transmitter emits discrete pulses to the human body and the reflected
pulses from the heart arrived at UWB receiver and then the result is recorded.
Signal processing is performed through obtaining the pulses response. For
example, there exists a definite difference in reflection magnitude between the
heart muscle and the blood when detecting the heart wall by UWB radar. Because
of the impedance difference between the cardiac muscle and blood, a roughly
10% reflection magnitude of the radio frequency energy at the heart muscle-blood
boundary can be expected. The UWB receiver can measure the difference, and
show it on the screen, which reflects the status of heart.
3.3.2.b. Pneumology Imaging
Similar with the Cardiology imaging, the same rule can be found for reflection
at chest/lung interface, air/chest interface, and at vessel boundaries. All of them
could be imaged by adjusting the emitting pulse power. With UWB medical
imaging system, we could monitor the respiratory patterns, the Apnea monitoring
in infants, obstructive sleep apnea monitoring, Polysomnography (sleep related


26

studies), dynamic chest diameters measurement, allergy and asthma crisis
monitoring, and chest imaging. With the UWB dielectric properties, the organic
motion-related signal is obtained from a UWB radar device aimed at the human
body. Especially for heart as a cardiovascular monitor, the UWB radar could
detect cardiac contractions, arterial wall motion and a breath monitor to detect
respiratory movements. Because the UWB electromagnetic signal is not
influenced by clothes or blankets, and the effective range is only a few meters, the
use of the UWB radar in cardiac motion evaluation can be an important
complement to the electrocardiogram.
3.3.2.c. Obstetrics Imaging

Figure 3.8: Obstetrics Imaging using UWB radar
However, unfortunately great concern regarding the RF safety in UWB for
the newborn exists although everybody think the ultrasound generally is safe. The
"emissions" from the device make this concern a "fear generating situation.
Obviously, more time is needed for everyone could accept the UWB radar. In the
future, UWB radar device for obstetrics will be very useful and might be
produced in large scale sales. Actually UWB radar emission is safe and the
system is well suited for chronically positioned equipments to monitor the last
period of pregnancy or to assist in evaluating labor progress. UWB radar in this
application area has many advantages over current ultrasound based fetal
monitoring system. These new features include: no contact with patient,
unimpaired mother and child care, remote operation, no cleaning and easier use.
3.3.2.d. Ear-Nose-Throat Imaging


27

UWB could also be applied in monitoring and imaging in the Ear-Nose-Throat
organs. A typical application is the medical application of the throat microphone
which is a device that could monitor vocal chords movement by means of UWB
radar, as shown in Fig.3.9

Figure 3.9: Throat microphone using UWB radar

However, the medical uses may not be concerned with voice at all, compared
with the attention with the vocal cord diseases such as inflammations, allergies
and cancers in the vocal chords. For medical purpose, a vocal chords' movement
monitor is much more valuable than a simple throat microphone. Fig.3.10.
shows the vocal cord diseases monitoring of the UWB radars.

Figure 3.10: Vocal cord diseases could be monitored by UWB radars
In a word, UWB applications in medical imaging constitute a very important
part of the medical applications of UWB. More different medical equipments will
be invented and developed in the near future addressing different parts of human


28

body. With the interaction model of RF wave to human tissue being more
completed and mature, the medical imaging equipments using UWB will become
more popular, and will be well accepted by everybody.
3.3.3. UWB OPERATING ROOM
Since the year 2000, a concerted effort has been made to increase OR
efficiency via OR integration. Integration involves equipping the OR with a
central control system that can process information from video and other data
sources. It incorporates a preplanned ergonomic design and includes the ability to
electronically send and receive information from the OR. In general, a fully
integrated OR usually includes a central router/hub, lighting and one missing
element within todays integrated ORs is a medicalgrade wireless technology that
allows equipment connectivity by means of wireless communication. While most
of todays integrated ORs are stateoftheart in terms of equipment and
communication capabilities, they lag every other industry in terms of equipment
connectivity little has changed since the 80s and 90s. This poses a dilemma for
cashstrapped healthcare providers who search for every means to improve
efficiency and productivity in order to meet their daily and monthly revenue goals
per OR. The purpose of this section is to highlight some of the most important
requirements of a medicalgrade wireless video system in the operating room
including safety, reliability, security, cost, performance, ease of use, flexibility,
and compatibility with imaging devices in the OR and other wireless technologies
in the hospital environment. In general, ORs are equipped with multiple surgical
displays presenting surgical camera video feeds and procedurerelated
information to OR surgeons and nurses. Due to smaller weight, higher image
quality and overall better performance, most OR displays already have
transitioned to HD format displays or are in the process of doing so.
Medicalgrade wireless video systems must be able to support a mix of HD and
nonHD video formats up to 1080p at 60 Hz in a multimodality environment.
Unlike consumer electronics, image sources in an operating room have a variety
of nonstandard interface/timing parameters including total number of pixels,


29

horizontal number of pixels, synchronization and other parameters that vary from
manufacturer to manufacturer and even between models of image sources.
Medicalgrade wireless video systems must have a very flexible firmware
structure that allows interfacing to a wide range of standard and nonstandard
video signal parameters. With wireless being a new concept in the OR, wireless
devices must be PlugandPlay, easy to use, install, and operate and must
provide many automatic features. Additionally, wireless devices in an operating
room should provide the flexibility that allows easy crossconnecting to other
transmitters and receivers in the same OR.OR wireless video systems must be
safe and must provide robust communication while surgical procedures are in
progress. Losing connectivity during procedures can have disastrous
consequences for patients and can present a major liability for surgeons and
hospitals. Many wireless communication devices require direct line of sight
(LOS) to be able to communicate reliably. However, in an operating room,
wireless devices cannot rely on direct line of sight operation and must be designed
to operate reliably even if people (doctors, nurses)or equipment stand directly
between the transmitter and receiver. At the same time, OR wireless video
systems must not cause harmful interference to other medical devices in the OR
such as electrosurgical knives, XRays, Critical Care Units (CCU), Endoscopic
Cameras, Surgical Displays, or Patient Monitoring Equipment. Also, they must
coexist with other wireless technologies such as cell phones, Wireless LAN,
Bluetooth, Cordless Phones, and wireless speakers. Patient safety and privacy
regulations require a wireless video transmission system to transmit in a safe
manner, without excessive radiation and containing a protection mechanism such
as internal encryption so that unauthorized users cannot decode and access a
patients video. In summary, a medicalgrade wireless video system is expected to
add value in terms of safety, flexibility and efficiency, and cost less than cabling.
UWB technology with its bandwidth of528MHz per channel, up to 480Mbps
speed and low RF power output satisfies all of the abovementioned requirements
for a medicalgrade wireless video system for the OR and helps improve safety
and efficiency in the operating room.


30

Figure 3.11: UWB OPERATING ROOM


31

CHAPTER 4
ANTENNA AND IMAGING
4.1 ANTENNA
4.1.1. POWER BUDGET OF MONOSTATIC RADAR BASED
ON A COMMERSIAL UWB COMMUNICATIONS
TRASCEIVER
As UWB communications technology matures, chipsets will start hitting the
market. One such example comes from Motorolas Freescale Semiconductor
which provides an UWB transceiver as a part of its XS110 chipset for UWB
communications. This work intends to check if this transceiver as is could be
used as radar for HR sensing. The datasheet of the MC270113 UWB RF
transceiver specifies:
Transmit output power: Pt = 8 [dBm]
Center frequency: f = 4.104 [GHz]
RF frequency range: 3.1 f 5.1 [GHz]
Bandwidth: B = 2 [GHz]
Where the measured bandwidth mb = 1 [MHz]. Thus, for the RF frequency range
being considered, the maximum allowed power spectral density is PSD = 41.3
[dBm/MHz].
Having a bandwidth B = 2 [GHz], the effective isotropic radiated power is limited
to:

It can be seen that the transmitted output power Pt of the Freescales
transceiver is approximately equal to FCCs maximum allowed EIRP for the
frequency range. This leaves no room for transmitting antenna gain Gt , since
EIRP = Pt Gt . Therefore, as it is the usual practice in UWB communications
systems, it is chosen an isotropic antenna with Gt = 0[dBi].


32

Given that, the transmitter power density uniformly distributed at a distance R
from the source is

and the fraction intercepted by the target is

where is the radar cross-section (RCS) of the target.
The estimation of requires special care, but for the sake of this approximate
power budget, the following is assumed: The heart is spherical and it behaves as
an isotropic radiator sending back a spherical wave with the same polarization as
the transmitted signal.
4.1.2. RCS COMPONENT
Radar cross-section is made up of three components: the area of the target, its
reflectivity at the polarization of the radars receiver antenna, and the antenna-like
gain of the target.
=| Atgt . tgt . Gtgt |[
]; tgt= PRefl(tgt)/ PImpg(tgt)

where:
Atgt = The projected area of the target as viewed from the radar
tgt = The reflectivity of the target at the polarization of the radar
Gtgt = The antenna-like gain of the target in the direction of the radar
PRefl(tgt) = The power reflected by the target (in all directions)
PImpg(tgt) = The illuminating power impinging on the target (within its projected
area)
The heart, in the adult, measures about 12 cm in length, 8~9 cm in breadth at the
broadest part, and 6 cm in thickness. Thus from the assumption made before, the
target can be considered as a sphere of 12 cm diameter.
Since the wavelength = c/ f = 0.073 [m] is not strictly much shorter than the
circumference 2a = 2 .0.06 = 0.377 [m] ( 5 times bigger => not much greater);
the area cannot be taken as the optical cross-section. The


33

circumference/wavelength = 2 a/ = 5 which according to Fig. 1 belongs to the
resonance region and thus Atgt/
=0.9 Atgt= 0.9.
0.01[
]
As for tgt, there exists a measurable difference in reflection magnitude between
the heart muscle and the blood it pushes into the vascular tree, thus following the
approach in (i.e. one dimensional analogy to propagation along a transmission
line, similar to time domain reflectometry (TDR)), one gets: tgt=Y-1/Y+1 where
Y= Zheart/ Zblood and Zheart, Zblood are the propagation impedances of the
heart muscle and the blood for the center frequency f .
Reference gives rmuscle = 40 and rblood =60 without mentioning the
frequency, but since the pulse utilized there has duration of 200ps, that is, a
frequency of 5 GHz, it can be assumed thatrmuscle andrblood where taken at
that frequency. However, this is a point that needs further clarification.
Using these values and the fact thatZ =( r [] Zheart = 60 [] , and
Zblood = 49 [] one gets: tgt=[(60/49)-1]/[(60/490+1]=0.110% reflection
magnitude between the presence and absence of heart muscle, probably measured
at 5GHz whereas the intended system operates at approximately 4GHz, this
introduces an error that must be accounted in further refinements of this power
budget.
Finally, the worst case of Gtgt = 1 is assumed.
Computing the RCS with these values gives: = |0.01.0.1.1| = 0.001 [
]
Therefore the fraction of the effective radiated power intercepted and
backscattered by the target of spherical crosssection is / 4R2
Some amount of this power will be captured by the receiving aperture
Ae =Gr.
/4 whereGr= Gt = 0 [dBi]
So far the received power can be recast into a product of three factors:
Pr=(PtGt).[/4R2].{Ae/4R2} (1)
where: (PtGt ) = Effective radiated power ( EIRP ) of the radar transmission in the
direction of the heart. Constringent to be -8 [dBm] by the FCCs regulations for
the given system bandwidth.
[
Fraction of the effective radiated power intercepted and

backscattered by the heart assuming it has a spherical cross-section.


34

Fraction of the resulting scattered power captured by the receiving

aperture. The expression (1) is basically the radar equation assuming a lossless
propagation medium.

Figure 4.1: Sphere RCS Vs Frequency

4.1.3 PROPAGATION LOSS
For the sake of this approximation two values can be referenced. Staderini
putted together a model (Fig.4.2) with data obtained from the Visible Human
Project and the Gabriels data book of dielectric properties of tissues. This model
shows a 20 dB round trip loss for the signal to reach the heart and come back
(aside from the loss due to reflectivity which in this work is modeled by tgt = 0.1
equivalent to 10dB loss). The critic to this model is that it has been done
considering a continuous wave at 1.5GHz which is significantly lower than the
4.1GHz that is being considered here. Moreover, the characterization was done


35

using a narrowband approach instead of the ultra wide-band dielectric properties
required for this project, and it is generally accepted in the UWB community that
UWB signals, due to their ultrawide frequency range, are not affected in the same
way as equivalent narrow signals are for the same center frequency. The other
value comes for Ossberger et al. [31] that briefly mentions that the sum of
forward and backward attenuation is about 50 dB along the signal path from the
air/skin interface to the heart at a frequency of 2 GHz. The 25 dB difference
between the two references is may be due to the fact that the latter is also
including Atgt in the calculation. Adding Atgt to Staderinis model results in a
total round trip loss of Atgt |dB 35dB = 20 35 = 55dB which is similar to
Ossbergers comment. Thus based on Staderinis model of Fig. 2, again for the
sake of this power budget it is assumed a round trip path loss L = 20 [dB]
Accounting for the propagation loss the received signal power becomes:
Pr=(PtGt).[/4R2].{Ae/4R2}.1/L (2)

Figure 4.2: Model predicted attenuation of pulse-echo intensity traveling from the transmitting
antenna to the receiving antenna. Each step accounts for echo at the boundary. Decreasing of the
curve accounts for linear attenuation in the tissue (imaginary part of reflection coefficient and
multiple reflections are ignored).


36

4.1.4 THE EFFECT OF NOICE
To estimate the maximum range Rmax beyond where the heart cannot be
sensed, the received signal power Pr in (2) must equate to the minimum receiver
sensitivity Smin. The minimum sensitivity for a system like the one considered
here is -85.5 dBm at 28Mbps.
Rearranging and expressing R in terms of other variables:
= PtGt/Smin./4 ].{1/4 .(Gr
/4)}.1/L
since Gr = Gt = 1 0 [dBi] and = c/f one gets:
R=

Given that:
Pt = 8 [dBm] = 158.49 [W]
Smin = 85.5 [dBm] = 2.82 [pW]
= 0.001 [m2]
f = 4.104 [GHz]
L = 20 [dB] = 100
c=299.79 106 [m/s ]
Replacing the values and computing: R 20 [cm]
Since according to Fig.4.2 the heart is approximately 4 cm under the skin, this
means that with this system based on the freescales MC270113 UWB RF
transceiver as is, that is, without any modification, one can be able to detect the
heart at approximately 15 cm away from the body which is quite good for a
contact-less sensor with the functions envisioned here.
As it is, the sensor would benefit from the small size, highly integrated
electronics and antenna of the standard embodiment provided from factory. This
will in turn make communications with peer sensors effortless, freeing the
designer of this problem to concentrate on the signal processing and protocol
functions needed to obtain a meaningful reading.
4.1.5 POSSIBLE IMPROVEMENTS TO INCREASE RANGE
Aside from the elemental calculation showed before, there is still room for
improvement of range. Here are some possibilities:


37

- Transmitted power: It was mentioned that the indoor maximum
transmitted power is regulated by FCC UWB masks approved in 2002 .
However under the waiver approved on March 10, 2005, gated UWB
systems can also transmit at higher power levels and then sit quiet, as
long as they still meet the same limits for average power density. Gated is
exactly the way in which this radar will work, thus the waiver open the
possibility to an increase in transmitted power.
- Antenna Gain: Here it was assumed an isotropic unity gain
transmitting/receiving antenna. This can also be manipulated to increase
range as long as the EIRP is kept under the FCC limits. Care must be
taken with directivity since this could affect the communication
capabilities sensor with neighbor nodes.
- Data rate: Receiver sensitivity Smin is directly proportional to the
required SNR for a given data rate. The previous range was obtained
assuming 28 Mbps rate which is quite fast either for radar sensing and
data transmission. SNR requirements can be lowered and thus Smin
improved by lowering the data rate. It is mentioned that synchronization
can be performed at a reduced data rate to increase the probability of
acquisition in poor signal-to-noise ratio environments. This
characteristic of the communication system can be useful to increase the
range of the radar system.
- Frequency range: As can be seen from TABLE4.1 the range 0 f 960
[MHz] also has a power spectral density of 41.3 [dBm/MHz]. This is a
very interesting range because a signal with low frequency components
suffers less attenuation when penetrating human tissues, thus improving
range. May be without much effort and by just introducing minor
modifications (i.e. dynamically adjusting external circuits like the clock
and output filters) the chipset can be made to work in these frequencies
for radar sensing, clocking it back to 4 GHz for communications.
- Heart model: The assumption used to model the heart is clearly too
coarse. An accurate model could probably offer better results hopefully


38

increasing the range. To start with, a model similar to Fig. 2 has to be
calculated but considering the frequencies and the UWB characteristics
of the radiated signals considered here. The reflection must be
recomputed with the right impedances measured at the right frequencies.
In conclusion, the actual range is quite good but it would be nice to increase it
to about 1 m because this would provide more flexibility to the
application.Tweaking the parameters mentioned before seems to be an affordable
and easy way to approximate to that objective. The solution is definitely not
impossible because there were some prototypes that achieved sensing distances of
3 m; 1 m behind a 20 cm thick brick wall or 5 m without obstacles; and 0.1~3 m
in. However there are big differences between these systems and the one proposed
here: First, they are not modulated, that is, they radiate the pulse in baseband,
therefore including low frequency components that are less attenuated in tissues.
Second, they use directional antennas, typically some kind of horn with gain > 1.
Third, they were not thought to respect the FCC rules, thus they do not respect
emission levels of the FCC and cannot be commercialized. Four, and the most
important for the sake of this work, they do not provide communications
capabilities, therefore they cannot be part of a sensor network, nor they increase
detection accuracy by processing multiple signals coming from nearby peer
neighbors.
4.2. IMAGING
A UWB Radar System for High-Resolution, 3-Dimensional Imaging
Ultra wideband radar has potential applications including imaging through
walls and stand-off detection of objects concealed under clothing. For these to
operate in cluttered environments, including indoors and near buildings,
techniques for resolving 3-dimensional clutter are required. Techniques based on
differential motion are valuable for moving targets, but for stationary targets,
3-dimensional imaging is required to resolve targets from clutter. UWB radar
capable of forming 3-dimensional images. It uses pairs of orthogonal linear
antenna arrays in a short baseline bistatic configuration. By using 25 transmit and
25 receive elements, a virtual 2D antenna array of 625 elements is created. To


39

provide a full polarimetric capability, 2 types of array have been developed, E-
plane, with polarisation parallel to the array axis, and H-plane, with polarisation
perpendicular to the array axis. The elements use a patented design, providing
excellent UWB time-domain response and hemispherical coverage. They have
been arrayed to minimise inter-element coupling, while avoiding grating lobes.
The radar uses CW UWB transceivers developed for indoor positioning
applications, and capable of operating within the FCC power spectral limits, while
providing adequate power budget for a wide variety of radar functions. Their
excellent stability and dynamic range allow them to operate effectively in short
baseline bistatic configurations. Algorithms have been developed for efficient
formation of high-resolution 3-dimensional images and results are presented from
a series of trials. A number of characteristics influence the suitability of Ultra
wide band radar to different applications - it is necessarily low power, to limit
interference, and consequently short range. Compared with other radars of similar
bandwidth (and hence resolution) operating at higher frequencies, it is likely to
require simpler engineering and hence be lower cost. It also is better at
penetrating through a variety of materials, for example walls, than higher
frequency radars.
Short-range radar is likely to be most useful in environments where line-of-
sight is limited, for example, in and around buildings. These are complex 3-
dimensional environments, in which 2D radar images are unlikely to be useful.
With stationary radar, a stationary environment and a moving target, simple radar
techniques (for example, stationary clutter cancellation and interferometry for
angle-of-arrival measurement) are effective, but to exploit the full potential of
UWB radar, 3D imaging is required. While the principles of such imaging are
readily extrapolated from 2D imaging (e.g. SAR imaging), it appears that any
such radars built have been relatively low-resolution. Some work has been
reported based on 2D raster scanning of an antenna, but this is not a practical
approach to 3D imaging. In developing, building and demonstrating high-
resolution 3D UWB radar our main objective was therefore to determine whether


40

3D UWB radar images provide useful information for a variety of applications
and to explore the radar requirements for such applications.
The applications where we see significant potential for such imaging include:
Detection of concealed, body-worn weapons and explosives
Through-wall imaging
Short range situational awareness in complex environments (e.g. for
Unmanned Ground Vehicles)
Medical imaging
4.2.1. 3D IMAGING
Synthetic aperture radar (SAR) imaging is based on a simple signal model, in
which the scene is made up of a number of idealised reflectors returning a delayed
and attenuated replica of the transmitted pulse, with the delay being dependent
solely on the distance between the antenna and the reflector. Despite the fact that
reflectors frequently deviate from this model, artefacts caused by such non-ideal
behaviour are generally tolerable.
With this model, SAR image formation is simply a matter of summing all the
signals received from the reflector with appropriate delays and phases, though the
sophisticated algorithms required for efficient implementation tend to disguise
this. Aperture weighting is generally applied to control spectral leakage. This
same assumption can be made for 3D radar imaging. In this case, sampling with a
1D aperture will clearly not be sufficient to form a 3D image. A simple, SAR-like
option would be to perform a 2D raster scan with a monostatic radar antenna. This
would clearly be impractical for many applications, both in terms of mechanical
complexity and imaging time. Further, imaging quality could be compromised by
lack of positioning repeatability and changes in the scene caused by changing
reflections from the associated mechanism.


41

A 2D array of monostatic antenna elements would avoid some of these
difficulties, but would require element spacing of less than one-quarter
wavelength, probably giving high levels of mutual coupling between elements
and making it difficult to provide feeds to all elements. Since the number of pixels
at any range would be approximately equal to the number of antenna elements,
achieving high-resolution is unlikely to be practical. Considering a 2D bistatic
array in place of the 2D monostatic array, it becomes apparent that (for this signal
model) not all bistatic pairs are needed. Equation (1) shows that with a long-range
approximation, the information provided by a bistatic pair is dependent only on
their midpoint and not on their positions relative to the midpoint.
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
2 2
2
1
2 2 2 2 2 2
4
1 1
2
2
1
2
RX TX RX TX
RX TX RX TX
x x
R
x x x
R
R
x x x x
R
R x x R x x R

+ + + ~
+ + ~ + + +
(1)
A simple implementation of such a bistatic array is as a linear array of transmit
elements and an orthogonal linear array of receive elements. Using every
combination of TX and RX elements with such an array synthesises a virtual
array of midpoints. This 2D virtual array allows 3D image formation, from long
ranges down to short distances in front of the array. Close to the plane of the
array, the synthesised array lacks resolution perpendicular to the plane of the
array, but high-resolution is achieved in all three dimensions at relatively short
distances in front of the array. Since the spacing of the elements in the virtual
array is half the spacing of the elements in the real linear arrays, the real element
spacing requirement is relaxed to half wavelength, significantly easing design
constraints for the antenna array.
The far-field performance of such a configuration can also be considered in
terms of beam forming e.g. forming sets of azimuth beams on transmit and
elevation beams on receive.


42

4.2.2 PREDICTED PERFORMENCE
4.2.2.a. Power Budget
The demonstrator uses a UWB waveform consistent with FCC regulations. Its
power budget is given by Equation (2); realistic example figures, based on
imaging through a double-skinned wall, are summarised in Table 4.2.

( )
w s
L L T k
G t P
R
3
2 2
4
4t
o
= (2)
P Average transmit power -12 DBm
t Coherent averaging time 0.625 S
G Antenna gain 4 Db

Wavelength 5.6 Cm
k Boltzmann's constant 1.3810
-23
J/K
T Receiver noise temperature 1900 K
L
S
System losses 6 dB
L
w
Through-wall losses (2-way
through double-skinned
wall)
40 dB
R Range to target 20 M
o
Target RCS 0.4 m
2
Table4.1: Power budget example
This power budget is based on an integration time of 0.625 s, the time required
to collect the data for a 3D image, and is practical for imaging stationary targets.
Note that if one receiver were dedicated to each receive antenna element, the
period required to collect one image would be reduced (to 25 ms) but the same
power budget would apply. The power budget is likely to be sufficient for very


43

sensitive detection in the regions where high-resolution images can be formed.
4.2.2.b. Resolution
The radar resolution varies as a function of position, but a number of general
observations can be made:
The range resolution of the radar is given by
B
c
2
where B is the radar
bandwidth
At short ranges, the resolution of the 1D arrays is limited to half the
wavelength
At long ranges, the angular resolution is approximately
D
radians, where
D is the array aperture
4.2.3 RADAR DEMONSTRATOR
The 3D imaging demonstrator (Fig.4.3) comprises:
4 linear antenna arrays
2 UWB transmitters and 2 UWB receivers
4 multiplexers
4.2.3.a Antenna Arrays
For a practical implementation, a linear antenna array design was selected with
alternate elements slightly offset either side of a centre-line, with the closest
elements separated by a little less than one wavelength at the maximum design
frequency. This allowed the individual elements to be slightly larger than half
wavelength and significantly reduced the inter-element coupling. The resulting
virtual array of midpoints was changed only at the edges, with minimal impact on
the predicted imaging performance. The arrays were implemented using a
customised variant of Thales's patented BOP antenna.


44

To allow fully polarimetric measurements, two types of antenna array were
developed: E-plane, with the polarisation (electrical vector) parallel to the axis of
the array, and H-plane (Fig.4.4), with the polarisation perpendicular to the axis of
the array.
In a typical configuration, horizontal E-plane and H-plane arrays are used as
transmitters, coupled to vertical E-plane and H-plane arrays used as receivers,
allowing full polarimetry as shown in Table 4.3
Horizontal Transmit
E-Plane H-Plane
Vertical
Receive
E-Plane HV VV
H-Plane HH VH
Table 4.2: Polarimetric capability

Figure 4.3: 3D Imaging Demonstrator


45

Figure 4.4: H-plane antenna array
4.2.3.b UWB Transceivers
The hardware demonstrator uses UWB transceivers originally developed by
Thales for indoor positioning applications, with minimal modifications to operate
as radars. Their excellent stability and dynamic range allow them to operate
effectively in short baseline configurations.
Pairs of transceivers are coupled to lock their local oscillators. Each is
dedicated to operate as either a transmitter or a receiver. By the principle of
reciprocity, it is assumed that there is no benefit in being able to reverse this
assignment.
4.2.3.c Multiplexers
Each array has a single UWB transmitter or receiver multiplexed across its
elements. Data is collected with every combination of transmit and receive
elements in sequence, in a period of 0.625 s, making imaging practical for a wide
variety of stationary or approximately stationary scenes.
4.2.4. ALGORITHMS
4.2.4.a 3D Image Formation
The signal model described above, suggests a straightforward imaging
algorithm based upon matched filtering to each pixel position in the 3D image.
Image quality can be improved by applying aperture weighting (e.g. Hamming
weighting) to reduce spectral leakage.


46

The direct matched filtering approach is inefficient, but more efficient
algorithms, similar to those used in SAR, allow real-time image formation for
regions of useful sizes. If necessary, significant additional efficiency
improvements should be possible, exploiting symmetries of the imaging
geometries.
4.2.4.b Object Profiling
Unlike SAR imaging, where image formation is a useful end in itself, the
result of 3D imaging is a 3D array of complex numbers that cannot be represented
directly to an operator. If there is no operator, this is in some respects an
advantage - the fact that the human eye and brain readily interprets 2D images
does not make it the ideal format in which to present information to a computer.
Object profiling algorithms attempt to identify reflective boundaries in the
image, for example, by distinguishing between pixels that lie on the boundary and
those from which there is no significant return, either because they are in free
space, or because they are inside or behind a reflective object. Such algorithms
must overcome a number of challenges, including spectral leak from non-ideal
reflectors and multi-path reflections.
4.2.4.c Calibration And Compensation
Two effects have been identified where compensation improves data quality:
inter-element coupling and feed length. Measurements of antenna characteristics
have shown very close agreement with computer modelling results. Predictions of
inter-element coupling for the 4 nearest elements are therefore used to
compensate the received data.
Variation of feed length is estimated using measurements made with a large
planar reflector placed in different alignments to give a simple reflected path for
each pair of elements.


47

CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSION
Applied research on biomedical applications of UWB radar will be targeted to
the identification of the possible new devices made possible by the technology, to
the design and development of those devices, and to the clinical testing of the
systems obtained. Applications can divided into two main sectors according to the
frequency range used.
For the conventional UWB radar microwave region:
- Cardiac biomechanics assessment
- Chest movements assessment
- OSA (obstructive sleep apnoea)monitors
- Soft tissue bio mechanics research
- Heart imaging(Holter type echocardiography)
- Chest imaging

Together with systems for:
- Cardiac monitoring
- Respiratory monitoring
- SIDS (sudden infant death syndrome)monitor
- Vocal tract studying
Before we want to apply UWB into medical field, we have to answer several
key questions. For example, what can be reasonably devised? What kinds of
medical problems really deserve UWB technology for their solution? Is UWB
technology able to address yet unresolved medical problems To address these
questions, we think about them and conclude several most wanted technical
features for any electrical medical instrumentation, for example, non-
invasiveness, low power, non-contact remote operation, biocompatibility,


48

biological friendliness, environmental friendliness, and intrinsic electrical
transducer. Actually UWB have all of these positive features. However, for most
wanted clinical features such as user friendliness, Imaging properties, technical
understandability by the users, need to get physiological measurements, high
sensitivity, and high specificity, UWB needs more research. Among the UWB
positive features we have discussed, the accuracy detection and localization is
suitable for medical monitoring application, and the high resolution imaging is
suitable for pathologic imaging. In short, these bunch of features of UWB that we
have discussed in make it very suitable for medical areas. Lets conclude with a
hope that UWB could achieve all the above mentioned features in near future.


49

REFERENCES
1. [Xu07]Xu Yong, Lu Yinghua, Zhang Hongxin, Wang Yeqiu, An
Overview of Ultra-Wideband Technique, Application for Medical
Engineering, 2007 IEEE/ICME International conference on Complex
MedicalEngineering(CME),Beijing,May2007.http://dept106.eng.ox.ac
.uk/UWB/media/publications/iwct05.pdf
2. [MIT95] MIT educational project for the Radar Stethescope, Massachu
setts Institute of Technology, Department of Mechanical Engineering,
March1995.
http://me.mit.edu/courses/2.744/s95/prj2/SketchModels.html
3. Design and Implementation of a Low-Cost Real-Time Ultra-Wide Band
See-Through-Wall Imaging Radar System, Yunqiang Yang and Fathy, A.,
Microwave Symposium, 2007. IEEE/MTT-S International.

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UWB RADAR IN MEDICINE OCTOBER 2011

]; tgt= PRefl(tgt)/ PImpg(tgt)

=0.9 Atgt= 0.9.

Fraction of the effective radiated power intercepted and

Fraction of the resulting scattered power captured by the receiving

= PtGt/Smin./4 ].{1/4 .(Gr

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