History of education The history of education is the history of teaching and learning.

Each generation, since the beginning of human existence, has sought to pass on cultural and social values, traditions, morality, religion and skills to the next generation.[1] The passing on of culture is also known as enculturation and the learning of social values and behaviours is socialization. The history of the curricula of such education reflectshuman history itself, the history of knowledge, beliefs, skills and cultures ofhumanity.[2][3] In pre-literate societies, education was achieved orally and through observation and imitation. The young learned informally from their parents, extended family and grand parents. At later stages of their lives, they received instruction of a more structured and formal nature, imparted by people not necessarily related, in the context of initiation, religion or ritual.[4][5][6] As the customs and knowledge of ancient civilizations became more complex, many skills would have been learned from an experienced person on the job, in animal husbandry, agriculture, fishing, preparation and preservation of food, construction, stone work, metal work, boat building, the making of weapons and defensis, the military skills and many other occupations. With the development of writing, it became possible for stories, poetry, knowledge, beliefs, and customs to be recorded and passed on more accurately to people out of earshot and to future generations. In many societies, the spread of literacy was slow; orality and illiteracy remained predominant for much of the population for centuries and even millennia.[7] Literacy in preindustrial societies was associated with civil administration, law, long distance trade or commerce, and religion.[8] A formal schooling in literacy was often only available to a small part of the population, either at religious institutions or for the wealthy who could afford to pay for their tutors. The earliest known universities, or places of higher education, started teaching a millennium or more ago. Universal education of all children in literacy has been a recent development, not occurring in many countries until after 1850 CE. Even today, in some parts of the world, literacy rates are below 60 per cent (for example, in Afghanistan, Pakistan, Bangladesh). Schools, colleges anduniversiti es have not been the only methods of formal education and training. Many professions have additional training requirements, and in Europe, from the Middle Ages until recent times, the skills of a trade were not generally learnt in a classroom, but rather by serving anapprenticeship. Nowadays, formal education consists of systematic instruction, teaching and training by professional teachers. This consists of the application of pedagogy and the development of curricula. Education in prehistory Most of human history lies in prehistory, the period before the use of writing, and before written history. Throughout pre-history, most education was achieved orally and through observation and imitation.[citation needed] From the origin of our species until about 10,000 BC, most humans lived as hunter-gatherers. Some were settled in a given locale/region and others exhibited a nomadic lifestyle across a large territory. These bands or tribes had traditions, beliefs, values, practices and local knowledge which was passed orally for generations from person to person. The young learned informally from their parents, extended family and kin. At later stages of their lives, they received instruction of a more structured and formal nature, imparted by people not necessarily related, in the context of initiation, religion or ritual.[4][5][6] Some forms of traditional knowledge were expressed through stories, legends, folklore, rituals, and songs, without the need for a writing system. Tools to aid this process include poetic devices such as rhyme and alliteration. These methods are illustrative of orality. The stories thus preserved are also referred to as part of an oral tradition.[citation needed]

The advent of agriculture prompted the Neolithic Revolution, when access to food surplus led to the formation of permanent humansettlements, the domestication of some animals and the use of metal tools.[citation needed] Settlement, agriculture and metalwork brought new knowledge and skills to be learned and taught by each generation. As communities grew larger, there was more opportunity for some members to specialize in one skill or activity or another, becoming priests, artisans, traders, builders or labourers. Many skills would have been learned from an experienced person on the job.[citation needed] The increased size of communities also brought changes to methods of leadership, politics and organization, together with early institutions.Society became less egalitarian[9] as chiefdoms, state, city states and early civilisations replaced the earlier bands and tribes. For example, the Uruk period (c. 4000 to 3100 BC) saw the emergence of urban life in Mesopotamia. These early city-states had strong signs of government organization. The cities grew to cover up to 250 acres (1 km) and up to 10,00020,000 people by the end of the period. In large settlements, social stratification began to develop, a hierarchical arrangement of social classes or castes within the society.[10]There might be a king and nobles. There were often priests or other religious leaders, because religious beliefs in deities or spirits often formed an important part of a culture. In some societies, the status of women was lower than that of men; in some there were slaves. A person's social class, caste or gender might in turn determine or limit the occupations which he or she might follow and the education that he or she would receive. Before the development of writing, it is probable that there were already epic poems, hymns to gods and incantations (such as those later found written in the ancient library at Ninevah, and the Vedas), and other oral literature (for example, see ancient literature). In ancient India, the Vedas were learnt by repetition of various forms of recitation.[11] By means of memorization, they were passed down through many generations. [edit]Education in ancient civilizations [edit]The development of writing Starting in about 3500 BC, various writing systems were developed in ancient civilizations around the world. In Egypt fully developed hieroglyphs that could be read in rebus fashion were in use at Abydos as early as 3400 BC.[12] Later, the world's oldest known alphabet was developed in central Egypt around 2000 BC from a hieroglyphic prototype. One hieroglyphic script was used on stone monuments,[13] other cursive scripts were used for writing in ink on papyrus,[13] a flexible, paper-like material, made from the stems of reeds that grow in marshes and beside rivers such as the River Nile. The Phoenician writing system was adapted from the Proto-Canaanite script in around the 11th century BC, which in turn borrowed ideas from Egyptian hieroglyphics. This script was adapted by the Greeks. A variant of the early Greek alphabet gave rise to the Etruscan alphabet, and its own descendants, such as the Latin alphabet. Other descendants from the Greek alphabet include the Cyrillic alphabet, used to write Russian, among others. The Phoenician system was also adapted into the Aramaic script, from which the Hebrew script and also that of Arabic are descended. In China, the early oracle bone script has survived on tens of thousands of oracle bones dating from around 1400-1200 BC in the Shang Dynasty. Out of more than 2500 written characters in use in China in about 1200 BC, as many as 1400 are identifiable as the source of later standard Chinese characters.[14] Of several pre-Columbian scripts in Mesoamerica, the one that appears to have been best developed, and the one to be deciphered the most, is the Maya script. The earliest inscriptions which are

identifiably Maya date to the 3rd century BC, and writing was in continuous use until shortly after the arrival of the Spanish conquistadores in the 16th century AD. Other surfaces used for early writing include wax-covered writing boards (used, as well as clay tablets, by the Assyrians),

sheets or strips of bark from trees (in Indonesia, Tibet and the [15] Americas), the thick palm-like leaves of a particular tree, the leaves then punctured with a hole and stacked together like the pages of a book (these writings in India and South east Asia include Buddhist scriptures and Sanskrit [16] literature), parchment, made of goatskin that had been soaked and scraped to remove hair, which was used from at least the 2nd century BC, vellum, made from calfskin, and wax tablets which could be wiped clean to provide a fresh surface (in Roman times). History of Formal education in ancient civilizations In many early civilizations, education was associated with wealth and the maintenance of authority, or with prevailing philosophies, beliefs, or religion.

[edit]The Middle East [edit]India [edit]China [edit]The Greek and Roman Empires
In the city-states of ancient Greece, most education was private, except in Sparta. For example, in Athens, during the 5th and 4th century BC, aside from two years military training, [37][38] the state played little part in schooling. Anyone could open a school and decide the curriculum. Parents could choose a school offering the subjects they wanted their [37] children to learn, at a monthly fee they could afford. Most parents, even the poor, sent their sons to schools for at least a few years, and if they could afford it from around the age of seven until fourteen, learning gymnastics (including athletics, sport and wrestling), music (including poetry, drama and [37][38] history) and literacy. Girls rarely received formal education. At writing school, the youngest students learned the alphabet by song, then later by copying the shapes of letters with a stylus on a waxed wooden tablet. After some schooling, the sons of poor or middle class families often learnt a trade by apprenticeship, whether with their father or [37] another tradesman. By around 350 BC, it was common for children at schools in Athens to also study various arts such as drawing, painting, and sculpture. The richest students continued their education by studying with sophists, from whom, they could learn subjects such as rhetoric, mathematics, geography, natural history, politics, and [37][38] logic. Some of Athens' greatest schools of higher education included the Lyceum (the so-called Peripatetic school founded by Aristotle of Stageira) and the Platonic Academy (founded by Plato of Athens). The education system of the wealthy ancient Greeks is also called Paideia. In the subsequent Roman empire, Greek was the primary language of science. Advanced scientific research and teaching was mainly carried on in theHellenistic side of the Roman empire, in Greek. The education system in the Greek city-state of Sparta was entirely different, designed to create warriors with complete obedience, courage, and physical perfection. At the age of seven, boys were taken away from their homes to live in school dormitories or military barracks. There they were taught sports, endurance and fighting, and little else, with harsh [37][38] discipline. Most of the population was illiterate. The first schools in Ancient Rome arose by the middle of the [39] 4th century BC. These schools were concerned with the basic socialization and rudimentary education of young Roman children. The literacy rate in the 3rd century BC has been [40] estimated as around one percent to two percent. We have very few primary sources or accounts of Roman educational

process until the 2nd century BC, during which there was a [40] proliferation of private schools in Rome. At the height of the Roman Republic and later the Roman Empire, the Roman educational system gradually found its final form. Formal schools were established, which served paying students (very little in the way of free public education as we know it can be [41] found). Normally, both boys and girls were educated, [41] though not necessarily together. In a system much like the one that predominates in the modern world, the Roman education system that developed arranged schools in tiers. The educator Quintilian recognized the importance of starting education as early as possible, noting that memory not only exists even in small children, but is specially retentive at [42] that age. A Roman student would progress through schools just as a student today might go from elementary school to middle school, then to high school, and finally college. Progression depended more on ability than [41] age with great emphasis being placed upon a [43] students ingenium or inborn gift for learning, and a more tacit emphasis on a students ability to afford high-level education. Only the Roman elite would expect a complete formal education. A tradesman or farmer would expect to pick up most of his vocational skills on the job. Higher education in Rome was more of a status symbol than a practical concern. It has been argued that literacy rates in the Greco-Roman world were seldom more than 20 percent; averaging perhaps not much above 10 percent in the Roman empire, though with wide regional variations, probably never rising above 5 percent [44] in the western provinces, and that the literate in classical Greece did not much exceed 5 percent of the [45] population. Greece did not have a lot of schools.

[39]

Morals Behind Learning in Ancient Rome By Madison Darrah Education was important to ancient Romans. No matter how wealthy or poor they were, they always had a drive to learn further, and to become more successful in the job that they were doing. Even though the ambition was there , doesnt mean the money was always available. The availability of money determined your smarts in Ancient Rome. You also had to have many connections and have a broad place in society. Education was known to make a person better than someone who didnt have an education. Education was believed to be the key to life. It opened doors of a very philosophical and prosperous life. Parents tried to give their children the best education possible so they could see their children succeed and live a happy life. Because parents tried so hard in making the best education for their children it is known that they started really early. They started early so that kids would understand the honor it was to apply themselves in academics. Children would get the most out of someone teaching them as possible. Unlike students of modern day. We tend to forget the value of teachers. What the children all learned varied immensely. Think about all the education options even today, much hasnt changed since then. !! Unfortunately, even though the Ancient Romans had the drive to learn not many opportunities were given to them. Not even the wealthy had good educational opportunities. The Romans thought it was pointless for the women to learn

anything. The women had the women virtues to learn that their mothers taught them. The women virtues were spinning, weaving, cooking, and making healthy babies. Some of the upper class girls were taught in elementary schools where they were learned how to read and write. This was it for girls though. They werent allowed to go any further into education. For example, women werent allowed to learn mathematics or learn from philosophers or rhetoricians. This was better than children of slaves. Children of slaves were even lucky to learn the training of their jobs! If they werent taught they were ordered to teach themselves.! A Roman Education: Just as it is in much of the world today, the amount and kind of education you got in Rome depended on your family's wealth, status, and connections. There was no legal requirement to educate your children, but in most times and places during the long span of "ancient Rome" there was broad acceptance of the idea that knowledge was the key to a happy and prosperous future. Parents tried to provide the best available education for their offspring. Kids learned early on both a sense of duty to the family and the value of applying themselves to academics, so they generally made a real effort to learn as much as possible. The "best available" and "as much as possible" varied immensely. Think of the kind of education that was available to Americans 100 years ago in different parts of the US, and then think of what could be had by Western Europeans in 1000 AD -- similar distances and times spanned "Rome". In reality, almost nobody had very good educational opportunities. Children of slaves (often more than half the population) and lower class workers (another big fraction) seldom got any education at all: just enough training to do their jobs. And only in very unusual circumstances were girls educated beyond the "womanly virtues" of spinning, weaving, cooking, making babies (or not). Some upper class girls were taught in the home or sent to elementary schools to learn reading or writing, but they weren't allowed to pursue higher studies with mathematicians, philosophers or rhetoricians. Most folks, of course, considered education for girls to be a waste of time and money. So there was a small educated upper-class male minority. In the early days of Rome, boys were taught by their parents, and this pattern persisted longer in less wealthy families than among the really rich. If money was available, a rich father would hire a teacher (or buy a educated slave, usually Greek) who would manage the education of his male offspring. Some boys would be sent to private schools. In some bigger cities, "public" schools were actually established, but "public" meant that they were government funded, not that they were available for anyone who wanted to go. They were, in fact, only for male offspring of patrician families that were temporarily short of funds or for male students, of whatever class, who might have upper class sponsorship. A Roman school, whether private of public, would often be nothing more than a one-man operation in a single room or even in a shop booth in the marketplace. Teachers were overworked and underpaid, putting in long hours for the same wages as the least skilled artisans and manual laborers. There are recorded complaints that their income was often less than two thirds of what they needed to support a family. They didn't starve, however -- just went on the dole like any other underpaid workers.

In addition to reading and writing and simple math (use of an abacus), a boy's basic education would include law, morality, and physical training -- the last, of course, with a decidedly military slant. Teachers were expected to use corporal punishment (caning and flogging) not only for misbehavior but also for poor academic performance. After the basics had been absorbed (or were beaten into the students), those who could afford to studied higher mathematics, philosophy, and rhetoric. The richest kids might even be sent abroad to Greek academies or Egyptian salons, and parents who couldn't fund such grand tours hired the best they could afford in Rome. A well-educated Roman male was ready to begin the long march to the top of the Roman political-military structure. If from one of the top few families, and or if correct marital alliances could be forged, there was no reason why he should not aspire to the highest offices of the state. He also, of course, had to be successful at arms and a better than average political infighter, but that, after all, was what he was educated to be. Ancient Roman Education Ancient Romans stressed on imparting practical education to their children. Ancient Greek literature, law, oration, grammar, Latin, mathematics and music were the main topics of study among the older Roman children. Parents at home imparted basic education. Ancient Roman civilization was founded on the western coast of Italian peninsula in the 9th century BC. Initially, Roman civilization was a small agricultural community on the banks of river Tiber. Later, it grew into one of the most powerful empires in the world straddling up to the Mediterranean Sea. Gradually, ancient Roman civilization transformed itself from a monarchy to Roman republic to an autocratic Roman empire. The culture of the ancient Greeks influenced the ancient Roman culture and education system. Education in Ancient Rome Ancient Roman education was largely inspired by the Greek educational practices. Education gained importance during the late Roman Republic and the early Roman Empire. Ancient Roman education practices made a great impact in the field of education. According to the ancient Roman culture, a childs education, physical and moral, began at home under the strict supervision of his or her parents. The ancient Roman education aimed at transforming a child into a strong, healthy, religious and responsible citizen. Education imparted to a child taught him the laws of obedience, modesty of speech, intelligence and self-reliance. The children were also taught about the virtue and importance of being educated. As the part of ancient Roman education, the girls were trained by their mothers to cook, spin and weave. A girl child was also taught how to read and write. While a boy was taught by his father to plough, sow seeds in the fields and also to reap the crop at the time of harvest. Apart from this, he was also taught to swim and the art of boxing and fencing. As he grew up, he was imparted the knowledge necessary for running a household. Like the girls, the boys were also taught to read

and write. Unlike the girls, they were taught the laws pertaining specialized, tiered system of schools inspired by Greek to the ancient Roman culture. educational practices. Roman educational practice made great and lasting contributions to the field of education as we know Schools of Ancient Roman Civilization it. The rise of an agrarian city-state to a world power is recapitulated in the teaching and learning styles of its citizens. Ancient Roman nobles had great faith in education. They Early Education in the Republic imparted formal education to their children. They hired From Rome's founding, dated traditionally to 753 BC, to the educated Greek slaves and preachers to teach their children. middle of the 3rd century BC, there is little evidence of The poor in the ancient Rome were not provided formal anything more than rudimentary education. A child's primary education; they were however taught to read and write. educators were likely to be his or her own parents. Parents The Roman schools were an extension of a single room divided by a curtain. Schools known as "ludi>" (play) were first founded in the middle of the 4th century BC. These schools inculcated the basic socialization techniques and rudimentary education to young Roman children. Till the age of 12, the children went to ludi to learn, to read, write and to do basic mathematics. The schools started at dawn and continued till dusk with a short interval in between for lunch. The young children were not given books; the lessons were learnt by heart. Basic mathematics was taught using abacus. The children used wax tablets and stylus for writing. When the student became proficient in the art of writing, he was provided with papers made using ancient Egyptian technology. A quill was used as a pen and ink was made from a mixture of gum, soot and ink of an octopus. Ludi did not deal with many subjects. After completing the primary education girls were not provided with advanced education. It was only meant for boys. The reason is, the girls were married-off at the age of twelve while the boys were allowed to marry only at the age of fourteen. The boys did specific studies on topics like medicine, public speaking and also read the literary works of the scholars like Cicero. They also learned Greek grammar and literature along with music and astronomy. The ancient Romans also imparted the art of public speaking and persuasion to the grown-up children. This art was known as rhetoric. First Private School of Ancient Rome There were no public schools in ancient Rome. The mothers taught the girls and the fathers the boys. "Spurius Carvilius" a free slave opened the first private school in ancient Rome. Only the rich nobles were able to send their children to the fee-paying school. Here the young ones were taught to read and write and as they advanced in age, they were taught public speaking, laws of the country, music and Greek literature. Education gained importance during the rule of Roman Republic and attained its glory and final form in the early Roman Empire. Ancient Romans respected knowledge and education. Both the boys and girls were educated either by their parents or by special teachers Education in Ancient Rome Education as we know it today has deep roots in the late Roman Republic and Roman Empire. In the span of a few centuries, Rome went from an informal system of education that passed knowledge from parents to children to a taught their children the skills necessary for living in the early republic, namely agricultural, domestic and military skills. Most important, however, were the moral and civil responsibilities that would be expected of citizens of the republic, for Rome as a whole was the inculcation of vir bonus lit. "good [1] man". In its infancy, Roman education not only provided the basic skills necessary for survival, but also conveyed a sense of Roman values, lending cohesion to the populace. The first schools in Rome arose by the middle of the 4th [2] century BC. These schools were called ludi (singular: ludus), the name being derived from the Latin word for "play," and like modern play schools were concerned with the basic socialization and rudimentary education of young Roman children. In the second half of the 3rd century BC, an ex-slave named Spurius Carvilius is credited with opening the first fee[3] paying ludus and thereby forging a teaching profession in ancient Rome. Nevertheless, organized education was relatively rare at this time, as we have very few primary sources or accounts of Roman educational process until the [2] 2nd century BC. Later Roman Education At the height of the Roman Republic and later the Roman Empire, the Roman educational system gradually found its final form. Formal schools were established, which served paying students (very little in the way of free public education [3] as we know it can be found). Normally, both boys and girls [3] were educated, though not necessarily together. Following various military conquests in the Greek East, Romans adapted a number of Greek educational precepts to [1] their own fledgling system. Roman students were taught (especially at the elementary level) in similar fashion to Greek students, sometimes by Greek slaves who had a penchant for [3] education. But differences between the Greek and Roman systems emerge at the highest tiers of education. Roman students that wished to pursue the highest levels of education went to Greece to study philosophy, as the Roman system developed to teach speech, law andgravitas. In a system much like the one that predominates in the modern world, the Roman education system that developed arranged schools in tiers. The educator Quintilian recognized the importance of starting education as early as possible, noting that "memory not only exists even in small children, [4] but is specially retentive at that age". A Roman student would progress through schools just as a student today might go from primary school to secondary school, then to college, and finally university. Progression depended more on ability [3] than age with great emphasis being placed upon a [5] student's ingenium or inborn "gift" for learning, and a more tacit emphasis on a student's ability to afford high-level education.

We should recognize important contrasts to formal education from as we know it today. In the modern world, a student generally pursues higher levels of education to gain the skills and certifications necessary to work in a more prestigious field. In contrast, only the Roman elite would expect a complete formal education. A tradesman or farmer would expect to pick up most of his vocational skills on the job. Higher education in Rome was more of a status symbol than a practical concern. Influences on Roman Education Prior to the 3rd century BCE. the Roman system of education was closely bound to the Roman institution of patria potestas, according to which the father, as head of the household (paterfamilias), had, according to law, absolute right of control over his children. It was not until 272 BCE with the capture of Tarentum, the annexation of Sicily in 241 BCE, and the period following the First Punic War that Romans were exposed to a strong influence of Greek thought and lifestyle and found leisure to study the arts. A Greek captive from Tarentum named Livius Andronicus was sold as a slave and employed as a tutor for his master's [6] children. After obtaining his freedom, he continued to live in Rome and became the first schoolmaster (private tutor) to follow Greek methods of education and would translate Homer's Odyssey into Latin verse in Saturnian meter. As Rome grew in size and in power following the Punic Wars, the importance of the family as the central unit within Roman [7] society began to deteriorate. With this declined the old Roman system of education carried out by the paterfamilias. The new educational system began to center more on the one encountered by the Romans with the Hellenistic Greeks and prominent centers of learning such as Alexandria later on. It was becoming a literary educational system. The situation of the Greeks was ideal for the foundation of literary education as they were the possessors of the great works of Homer,Hesiod and the Lyric poets of Archaic Greece. The absence of a literary method of education from Roman life was due to the fact that Rome was bereft of any national literature. The military arts were all that Rome could afford to spend time studying. When not waging war, the Romans devoted what time remained to agriculture. The concern of Rome was that of survival, whether through defense or dominion. It was not until the appearance of Ennius (239-169 BCE), the father of Roman poetry, that any sort of national literature surfaced. While the Romans adopted many aspects of Greek education, two areas in particular were viewed as trifle: music and athletics. Music to the Greeks was fundamental to their educational system and tied directly to the Greek paideia. Mousike encompassed all those areas supervised by the Muses, comparable to today's liberal arts. The area that many Romans considered unimportant equates to our modern definition of music. To the Greeks, the ability to play an instrument was the mark of a civilized, educated man, and through an education in all areas of mousike it was thought that the soul could become more moderate and cultivated. The Romans did not share this view but did, however, adopt one area of mousike: Greek literature. Athletics, to the Greeks, was the means to obtaining a healthy and beautiful body, which was an end in and of itself and further promoted their love of competition. The Romans,

though, did not share this stance either, believing that athletics was only the means to maintaining good soldiers. This illustrates one of the central differences between the two cultures and their take on education: that to the Greeks beauty or an activity could be an end in itself, and the practice of that activity was beneficial accordingly. The Romans, on the other hand, were more practically minded when it came to what they taught their children. To them, it would appear, an area of study was only good so far as it served a higher purpose or end determined outside of itself. Tiers of Roman Schooling Moral Education At the framework of ancient Greek education was an effective system of formal education, but in contrast, the Romans [8] lacked such a system until the 3rd century BCE. Instead, at the foundation of ancient Roman education was, above all else, the home and family, from which children derived their so-called "moral education." Whereas Greek boys primarily received their education from the community, a Roman child's first and most important educators were almost always his or her parents. Parents taught their children the skills necessary for living in the early republic, which included agricultural, domestic and military skills as well as the moral and civil responsibilities that would be expected from them as citizens. Roman education was carried on almost exclusively in the household under the [8] direction of the paterfamilias. From the paterfamilias, or highest ranking male of the family, one usually learned "just enough reading, writing, and 'rithmetic to enable them to understand simple business transactions and to count, weigh, [9] and measure. Men like Cato the Elder adhered to this Roman tradition and took their roles as teachers very seriously. Cato the Elder not only made his children hardworking, good citizens and responsible Romans, but "he was his (son's) reading teacher, his law professor, his athletic coach. He taught his son not only to hurl a javelin, to fight in armor, and to ride a horse, but also to box, to endure both heat and cold, and to swim [10] strongly". Job training was also emphasized, and boys gained valuable experience through apprenticeships. Mothers, though, cannot be overlooked for their roles as moral educators and character builders of their children. Cornelia Africanus, the mother of the Gracchi, is even credited as a major cause of her sons' [9] renowned eloquence. Perhaps the most important role of the parents in their children's education was to instill in them a respect for tradition and a firm comprehension of pietas, or devotion to duty. For a boys, this meant devotion to the state, and for a girl, devotion to her husband and family. As the Roman Republic transitioned into a more formal education beyond the 3 R's, parents began to hire teachers to do this level of advanced academic training. For this, "the Romans began to bring Greek slaves to Rome" to further enrich their children's knowledge and potential; yet, Romans still always cherished the tradition of pietas and the ideal of the father as his childs [8] teacher. Litterator Rome as a republic or an empire never formally instituted a [11] state-sponsored form of elementary education. In no stage

of its history did Rome ever legally require its people to be [12] educated on any level. It was typical for Roman children of wealthy families to receive their early education from private tutors. However, it was common for children of more humble means to be instructed in a primary school, traditionally known as a ludus [11] litterarius. An instructor in such a school was often known as a litterator or litteratus, which was seen as a more [11] respectable title. There was nothing stopping a litterator from setting up his own school, aside from his meager [11] wages. There were never any established locations for a ludus litterarius. They could be found in a variety of places, anywhere from a private residence to a gymnasium, or even in [12] the street. Typically, elementary education in the Roman world focused on the requirements of everyday life, reading and writing. The students would progress up from reading and writing letters, to syllables, to word lists, eventually memorizing and dictating [12] texts. The majority of the texts used in early Roman [11] education were literature, predominantly poetry. Roman students were expected to work on their own. There was little sense of a class as a cohesive unit, exemplified by students coming and going at different times throughout the [12] day. Young Roman students faced no formal examinations or tests. Their performance was measured through exercises that were either corrected or applauded based on performance. This created an unavoidable sense of [12] competition amongst students. Using a competitive educational system, Romans developed a form of social control that allowed elites to maintain class [12] stability. This, along with the obvious monetary expenses, prevented the majority of Roman students from advancing to higher levels of education. Grammaticus At between nine and twelve years of age, boys from affluent families would leave their litterator behind and take up study with a grammaticus, who honed his students' writing and speaking skills, versed them in the art of poetic analysis and [9] taught them Greek if they did not yet know it. By this point, lower class boys would already be working as apprentices, and girlsrich or poorwould be focused on making themselves attractive brides and, subsequently, capable [9] mothers. Daily activities included lectures by the grammaticus (enarratio), expressive reading of poetry (lectio) and the [3] analysis of poetry (partitio). The curriculum was thoroughly bilingual, as students were expected to both read and speak in [1] Greek as well as in Latin. Assessment of a student's performance was done on-the-spot and on-the-fly according to standards set by his particular grammaticus, as no source on Roman education ever mentions work taken away to be [12] graded. Instead, pupils would complete an exercise, display their results and be corrected or congratulated as needed by the grammaticus, who reveled in his self[13] perception as a "guardian of language". Famous grammatici include Lucius Orbilius Pupillus, who still serves as the quintessential pedagogue that isnt afraid to flog [9] or whip his students to drive a point home, and the freedman Marcus Verrius Flaccus, who gained imperial patronage and a widespread tutelage due to his novel practice of pitting students of similar age and ability against each other

and rewarding the winner with a prize, usually an old book of [12] some rarity. Even at the height of his career, Verrius Flaccus, whose prestige allowed him to charge enormous fees and be hired by Augustus to teach his grandsons, never had his own [12] schoolroom. Instead, he, like many of his fellow teachers, shared space at privately financed schools, which were dependent on (usually very low) tuition fees, and rented out [9] classroom space wherever they could find it. Other teachers sidestepped rent and lighting costs by convening their classes on pavements, colonnades or in other public spaces, where traffic noise, street crowds and bad weather were sure to pose [9] problems. Though both literary and documentary sources interchange the various titles for a teacher and often use the most general of terms as a catch-all, a price edict issued by Diocletian in 301 CE proves that such distinctions did in fact exist and that a litterator, grammaticus or rhetor, at least in theory, had to [12] define himself as such. This Edict on Maximum Prices fixed the salary of a grammaticus at 200 denarii per pupil per month, though the edict was unenforceable, ignored and eventually repealed. Children continued their studies with the grammaticus until the age of fourteen or fifteen, at which point only the wealthiest [9] and most promising students matriculated with a rhetor. Rhetor The rhetor was the final stage in Roman education. Very few boys went on to study rhetoric, and early on in Roman history it may have been the only way to train as a lawyer or [9] politician. This is where spokesman, the original translation of orator, comes from. In early Roman times, rhetoric studies were not taught exclusively through a teacher, but were learned through a [9] student's careful observation of his elders. The practice of rhetoric was created by the Greeks before it became an institution in Roman society, and it took a long time for it to [11] gain acceptance in Rome. The orator, or student of rhetoric, was important in Roman society because of the constant political strife that occurred [11] throughout Roman history. Young men who studied under a rhetor would not only focus on public speaking. These students also learned other subjects such as geography, music, philosophy, literature, mythology and [9] geometry. These well-rounded studies gave Roman orators a more diverse education and helped prepare them for future debates. Unlike other forms of Roman education, there is not much evidence to show that the rhetor level was available to be pursued in organized school. Because of this lack of evidence, it is assumed that the education was done through [11] the previously mentioned private tutors. These tutors had enormous impact on the opinions and actions of their students. In fact, their influence was so great that the Roman government expelled many rhetoricians and philosophers in 161 BCE. There were two fields of oratory study that were available for young men. The first of these fields was the deliberative branch of study. This field was for the training of young men who would later need to urge the advisability or inadvisability [11] of measures affecting the Roman Senate. The second field of study was much more lucrative and was known as judicial

oratory. These orators would later enter into fields such as criminal law, which was important in gaining a public following. The support of the public was necessary for a [11] successful political career in Rome. Later in Roman history, the practice of declamation became focused more on style and art of delivery as opposed to training to speak on important issues in the courts. Tacitus pointed out that during his day (the second half of the 1st century CE), students had begun to lose sight of legal disputes and had started to focus more of their [9] training on the art of storytelling. Philosophy A final level of education was philosophical study. The study of philosophy is distinctly Greek, but was undertaken by many Roman students. To study philosophy, a student would have to go to a center of philosophy where philosophers taught, usually abroad in Greece. An understanding of a philosophical school of thought could have done much to add to Cicero's vaunted knowledge of 'that which is great', but could only be pursued by the very wealthiest of Rome's elite. Romans regarded philosophical education as distinctly Greek, and instead focused their efforts on building schools of law and [ rhetoric.

purpose of education was to produce a well-drilled, welldisciplined marching army. Spartans believed in a life of discipline, self-denial, and simplicity. They were very loyal to the state of Sparta.Every Spartan, male or female, was required to have a perfect body.On the other hand, the goal of education in Athens, a democratic city-state, was to produce citizens trained in the arts of both peace and war.When babies were born in ancient Sparta, Spartan soldiers would come by the house and check the baby. If the baby did not appear healthy and strong, the infant was taken away, and left to die on a hillside, or taken away to be trained as a slave (a helot). Babies who passed this examination were assigned membership in a brotherhood or sisterhood, usually the same one to which their father or mother belonged.

BOYSThe boys of Sparta were obliged to leave home at the age of 7 to join sternly disciplined groups under the supervision of a hierarchy of officers. From age 7 to 18, they underwent an increasingly severe course of training.Spartan boys were sent to military school at age 6 or 7. They lived, trained and slept in their the barracks of their brotherhood. At school, they were taught survival skills and other skills necessary to be a great soldier. School courses were very hard and often painful. Although students were taught to read and write, those skills were not very important to the ancient Spartans.Only warfare mattered. The boys were not fed well, Ancient Greek Education and were told that it was fine to steal food as long as they did not get caught stealing. If they were caught, they were beaten.They boys marched without shoes to make them The Greek Gods were much more down-to-earth and much strong. It was a brutal training period.Legend has it that a less awesome than the remote gods of the East. Because they young Sparta boy once stole a live fox, planning to kill it and were endowed with human qualities and often represented eat it. He noticed some Spartan soldiers approaching, and hid aspects of the physical world--such as the sun, the moon, the fox beneath his shirt. When confronted, to avoid the and the sea--they were closer to man and to the world he punishment he would receive if caught stealing, he allowed the lived in. fox to chew into his stomach rather than confess he had stolen a fox, and did not allow his face or body to express his pain.They walked barefoot, slept on hard beds, and worked at The Greeks, therefore, could find spiritual satisfaction in the gymnastics and other physical activities such as running, ordinary, everyday world. They could develop a secular life free from the domination of a priesthood that exacted homage jumping, javelin and discus throwing, swimming, and hunting.They were subjected to strict discipline and harsh to gods remote from everyday life. The goal of education in physical punishment; indeed, they were taught to take pride in the Greek city-states was to prepare the child for adult the amount of pain they could endure.At 18, Spartan boys activities as a citizen. became military cadets and learned the arts of war. At 20, they joined the state militia--a standing reserve force available for The nature of the city-states varied greatly, and this was also duty in time of emergency--in which they served until they true of the education they considered appropriate. were 60 years old.The typical Spartan may or may not have been able to read. But reading, writing, literature, and the arts Both daily life and education were very different in Sparta, than were considered unsuitable for the soldier-citizen and were in Athens or in the other ancient Greek city-states. With the therefore not part of his education. Music and dancing were a exception of the Athenians (who thought Athens was the part of that education, but only because they served military best!), Greeks from other city-states had a grudging ends.Unlike the other Greek city-states, Sparta provided admiration for the Spartans. training for girls that went beyond the domestic arts. The girls were not forced to leave home, but otherwise their training They wouldn't want to be Spartans, but in times of war, they was similar to that of the boys. They too learned to run, jump, most certainly wanted Sparta to be on their side. The Spartans throw the javelin and discus, and wrestle mightiest strangle a were tough, and the ancient Greeks admired strength. bull.Somewhere between the age of 18-20, Spartan males had to pass a difficult test of fitness, military ability, and leadership Sparta skills.Any Spartan male who did not pass these examinations became a perioikos. (The perioikos, or the middle class, were The goal of education in Sparta, an authoritarian, military city- allowed to own property, have business dealings, but had no state, was to produce soldier-citizens.In ancient Sparta, the political rights and were not citizens.)If they passed, they

became a full citizen and a Spartan soldier. Spartan citizens were not allowed to touch money. That was the job of the middle class. Spartan soldiers spent most of their lives with their fellow soldiers.They ate, slept, and continued to train in their brotherhood barracks. Even if they were married, they did not live with their wives and families. They lived in the barracks. Military service did not end until a Spartan male reached the age of 60. At age 60, a Spartan soldier could retire and live in their home with their family.

"may learn to be more gentle, and harmonious, and rhythmical, and so more fitted for speech and action; for the life of man in every part has need of harmony and rhythm."From age 6 to 14, they went to a neighborhood primary school or to a private school. Books were very expensive and rare, so subjects were read out-loud, and the boys had to memorize everything. To help them learn, they used writing tablets and rulers.At 13 or 14, the formal education of the poorer boys probably ended and was followed by apprenticeship at a trade. The wealthier boys continued their education under the tutelage of philosopherGIRLSIn Sparta, girls also went to school at age 6 or 7. They teachers.Until about 390 BC there were no permanent schools lived, slept and trained in their sisterhood's barracks. No one and no formal courses for such higher education. Socrates, knows if their school was as cruel or as rugged as the boys for example, wandered around Athens, stopping here or there school, but the girls were taught wrestling, gymnastics and to hold discussions with the people about all sorts of things combat skills.Some historians believe the two schools were very similar, and that an attempt was made to train the girls as pertaining to the conduct of man's life.But gradually, as thoroughly as they trained the boys. In any case, the Spartans groups of students attached themselves to one teacher or another, permanent schools were established. It was in such believed that strong young women would produce strong schools that Plato, Isocrates, and Aristotle taught.The boys babies.At age 18, if a Sparta girl passed her skills and fitness who attended these schools fell into more or less two test, she would be assigned a husband and allowed to return home. If she failed, she would lose her rights as a citizen, and groups.Those who wanted learning for its own sake studied with philosopherslike Plato who taught such subjects as became a perioikos, a member of the middle class.In most of geometry, astronomy, harmonics (the mathematical theory of the other Greek city-states, women were required to stay inside their homes most of their lives. In Sparta, citizen women music), and arithmetic. were free to move around, and enjoyed a great deal of freedom, as their husbands did not live at home.No marvelous Those who wanted training for public life studied with works of art or architecture came out of Sparta, but Spartan philosophers like Isocrates who taught primarily oratory and military force was regarded as terrifying. Thus, the Spartans rhetoric. In democratic Athens such training was appropriate achieved their goal.Girls were not educated at school, but and necessary because power rested with the men who had many learned to read and write at home, in the comfort of their the ability to persuade their fellow senators to act. courtyard.Most Athenian girls had a primarily domestic education.The most highly educated women were the Spartan Education hetaerae, or courtesans, who attended special schools where they learned to be interesting companions for the men who In ancient Sparta, boys at aged seven years old left their homes could afford to maintain them. and entered the public educational system. The goal of this system of education was to produce a well-drilled military BOYS machine composed of soldiers who were "obedient to the word of command, capable of enduring hardships and victories in In ancient Athens, the purpose of education was to produce battle." citizens trained in the arts, to prepare citizens for both peace and war.Other than requiring two years of military training that began at age 18, the state left parents to educate their sons as they saw fit.The schools were private, but the tuition was low enough so that even the poorest citizens could afford to send their children for at least a few years.Until age 6 or 7, boys were taught at home by their mother or by a male slave.Boys attended elementary school from the time they were about age 6 or 7 until they were 13 or 14. Part of their training was gymnastics.The younger boys learned to move gracefully, do calisthenics, and play ball and other games. The older boys learned running, jumping, boxing, wrestling, and discus and javelin throwing. The boys also learned to play the lyre and sing, to count, and to read and write. But it was literature that was at the heart of their schooling.The national epic poems of the Greeks - Homer's Odyssey and Iliad - were a vital part of the life of the Athenian people. As soon as their pupils could write, the teachers dictated passages from Homer for them to take down, memorize, and later act out. Teachers and pupils also discussed the feats of the Greek heroes described by Homer.The education of mind, body, and aesthetic sense was, according to Plato, so that the boys The Spartan system of education was organized by the state and each boy was assigned to a group known as the agela.They lived in a communal style and were made to undergo a curriculum of training that was was rigorous and often painful. Enormous discipline was placed on these children as they passed through the hands of teachers, gymnastic coaches and military instructors. The goal of this program was to produce men who were not only physically fit but psychologically disciplined. The Spartan male's education did not end till he reached the age of thirty. In this educational regime, literacy and the arts were not a priority. When they reached the age of eleven, Spartan boys were moved up to the next level of their education. The description left to us by Plutarch demonstrates the rigorous experience of these Spartan students. According to Plutarch:

they no longer had a tunic, received one cloak a year, had hardened skin, and took very few baths and used practically no ointments, except on a few prescribed days of the year.They

slept together according to platoon and herd on pallet beds made of rushes which they plucked with their bare hands from the River Eurotas--no knives were allowed. In winter they added lycophon or thistle-down to their beds, since this was thought to provide warmth.
Sparta's position in the ancient Greek world was that of the lead member of the Peloponnesian league. Through most of it's existence, Sparta was engaged in wars with various states including Persia. By the 6th century BCE Sparta was engaged in military excursions in Greece and as well as Asia Minor. The militaristic culture of Sparta fostered values which emphasized the productrion of "strong, violent, disciplined, unquestioning and ruthless young men, and more or less similar young women" They "prided themselves on brute strength, courage and brevity of speech," and even their religious festivals were characterized by violent competitions where, though unarmed, young men were known to be flogged to the point of unconsiousness, and gangs of youths went at each other with no holds barred. Spartan Education & Military Training The primary purpose of Spartan education, and indeed of Spartan society as a whole, differed greatly from that of the Athenians. The primary goal of Spartan education was to produce good soldiers. Training for the military began at age 7, as all Spartan boys left home to go to military school. From then until the time they were 18, they were subject to harsh training and discipline. Historical accounts tell of Spartan boys as being allowed no shoes, very few clothes, and being taught to take pride in enduring pain and hardship.(1) Throughout their adolescent and teenage years, Spartan boys were required to become proficient in all manner of military activities. They were taught boxing, swimming, wrestling, javelin-throwing, and discus-throwing. They were trained to harden themselves to the elements. At the age of 18, Spartan boys had to go out into the world and steal their food. Getting caught would result in harsh punishment, including flogging, which was usually a practice reserved only for slaves. The concept was that a soldier must learn stealth and cunning.At age 20, Spartan men had to pass a series of demanding tests of physical prowess and leadership abilities. Those that passed became members of the Spartan military, and lived in barracks with the other soldiers. They were allowed to take a wife, but they weren't allowed to live with her. At age 30, they became full citizens of Sparta, provided they had served honorably. They were required to continue serving the military, however, until age 60.Unlike their Athenian counterparts, Spartan girls also went to school at age seven. There they learned gymnastics, wrestling, and did calisthenics. These schools were similar in many ways to the schools Spartan boys attended, as it was the Spartan opinion that strong women produced strong babies, which would then grow into strong soldiers to serve the state.(1)Somewhat ironically, women in Sparta had much more independencethan women in other city-states, partially because their husbands never lived at home, and partially because Spartans had tremendous

respect for Spartan mothers.While no marvelous works of art or literature ever came of this system, it did accomplish the Spartan goal of producing elite soldiers. The Spartan military was universally disliked, but they were also universally respected Birth and death Sparta was above all a militarist state, and emphasis on military fitness began virtually at birth. Shortly after birth, the mother of the child bathed it in wine to see whether the child was strong. If the child survived it was brought before the Gerousia by the child's father. The Gerousia then decided whether it was to be reared or not. If they considered it "puny and deformed", the baby was thrown into a chasm onMount Taygetos known euphemistically as [53][54] the Apothetae (Gr., , "Deposits"). This was, in [53] effect, a primitive form ofeugenics. There is some evidence that the exposure of unwanted children was practiced in other Greek regions, including [55] Athens. When Spartans died, marked headstones would only be granted to soldiers who died in combat during a victorious campaign or women who died either in service of a divine office or in childbirth. Education

Main article: Agoge

When male Spartans began military training at age seven, they would enter the Agoge system. The Agoge was designed to encourage discipline and physical toughness and to emphasise the importance of the Spartan state. Boys lived in communal messes and were deliberately underfed, to encourage them to master the skill of stealing food. Besides physical and weapons training, boys studied reading, writing, music and dancing. Special punishments were imposed if boys failed to answer questions sufficiently 'laconically' (i.e. [56] briefly and wittily). At the age of twelve, the Agoge obliged Spartan boys to take an older male mentor, usually an unmarried young man. The older man was expected to function as a kind of substitute father and role model to his junior partner; however, it is also reasonably certain that they had sexual relations (the exact nature of Spartan pederasty is [57] not entirely clear). At the age of eighteen, Spartan boys became reserve members of the Spartan army. On leaving the Agoge they would be sorted into groups, whereupon some were sent into the countryside with only a knife and forced to survive on their skills and cunning. This was called theKrypteia, and the immediate object of it was to seek out and kill any helots as part of the larger program of terrorising and intimidating the [58] helot population. Less information is available about the education of Spartan girls, but they seem to have gone through a fairly extensive formal educational cycle, broadly similar to that of the boys but with less emphasis on military training. In this respect, classical Sparta was unique in ancient Greece. In no other [59] city-state did women receive any kind of formal education. Military life At age twenty, the Spartan citizen began his membership in one of the syssitia (dining messes or clubs), composed of about fifteen members each, of which every citizen was

required to be a member. Here each group learned how to bond and rely on one another. The Spartan exercised the full rights and duties of a citizen at the age of thirty. Only native Spartans were considered full citizens and were obliged to undergo the training as prescribed by law, as well as participate in and contribute financially to one of [60] the syssitia. Spartan men remained in the active reserve until age sixty. Men were encouraged to marry at age twenty but could not live with their families until they left their active military service at age thirty. They called themselves "homoioi" (equals), pointing to their common lifestyle and the discipline of the phalanx, which demanded that no soldier be superior to [61] his comrades. Insofar as hoplite warfare could be [62] perfected, the Spartans did so. Thucydides reports that when a Spartan man went to war, his wife (or another woman of some significance) would customarily present him with his shield and say: "With this, or upon this" ( , i tn i p ts), meaning that true Spartans could only return to Sparta either victorious (with [63] their shield in hand) or dead (carried upon it). If a Spartan hoplite were to return to Sparta alive and without his shield, it was assumed that he threw his shield at the enemy in an effort to flee; an act punishable by death or banishment. A soldier losing his helmet, breastplate or greaves (leg armour) was not similarly punished, as these items were personal pieces of armour designed to protect one man, whereas the shield not only protected the individual soldier but in the tightly packed Spartan phalanx was also instrumental in protecting the soldier to his left from harm. Thus the shield was symbolic of the individual soldier's subordination to his unit, his integral part in its success, and his solemn responsibility to his comrades in arms messmates and friends, often close blood relations. According to Aristotle, the Spartan military culture was actually short-sighted and ineffective. He observed: It is the standards of civilized men not of beasts that must be kept in mind, for it is good men not beasts who are capable of real courage. Those like the Spartans who concentrate on the one and ignore the other in their education turn men into machines and in devoting themselves to one single aspect of [64] city's life, end up making them inferior even in that. Even mothers enforced the militaristic lifestyle that Spartan men endured. There is a legend of a Spartan warrior who ran away from battle back to his mother. Although he expected protection from his mother, she acted quite the opposite. Instead of shielding her son from public shame, she and some of her friends chased him around the streets, and beat him with sticks. Afterwards, he was forced to run up and down the hills of Sparta yelling his cowardliness and inferiorit Ancient Athenian Education back to Greece 1. Purpose: The Athenians wanted their sons to have a "rounded" education so that they would know something about a wide range of subjects and be able to "appreciate" many things. Note: They were not concerned with specialization or preparation for any specific job. 2. Schools:

- most boys went to school roughly from age 7 to age 14 (girls stayed at home and learned the skills of housekeeping and motherhood, but some families hired private tutors to educate their daughters - there were some very well educated Athenian women) - all schools were private schools - parents had to pay to send their children to school but the fees were so low that even poor citizens could usually afford to have their sons educated and most did so because they valued education - schools were mostly only one room areas - often open to the streets on one side (perhaps with a drawcurtain to keep down distraction) - equipment was minimal: students sat on benches and held their work in their laps - there were no chalkboards or other teacher aids - the teacher might have some books, but students mostly did not - the academic part of the school day began at dawn and lasted until about noon - teachers were often retired military men - discipline was strict, beatings were given not only for misbehaviour but also for careless mistakes - boys were mostly accompanied to and from school by an educated and trusted slave called a PEDAGOGUE, whose job it was to protect the young man from undesirables, help him to choose good friends and oversee his behavior and his progress in class (the slaves sat at the back of the class and observed) 3. What they studied: The three main subjects that they studied were: Grammar, music and Gymnastics . a. Grammar: - purpose was to produce "literate" citizens - content of this course was not just a study of the rules of correct expression in a language as we understand the word today. It included most of the "basics" of elementary education in our society - the three R's, reading, writing and arithmetic - boys learned to write and calculate by scratching their letters with a sharp stylus onto the surface of a board with wax. When they finished with a tablet they took it for grading and then dipped it into a tub of hot wax so that it was ready for new work. - in the higher levels they studied "good" literature so that they might improve their writing styles and appreciate fine literature - much memorization was done - some boys could recite by heart all of the Iliad or the Odyssey - the teacher would add to his course whatever else he might happen to know such as some science Most Athenian youths were finished school by about age 14. b. Music: (two purposes & two parts to the program) - boys were taught to sing, if possible, and accompany themselves on an instrument (the seven-stringed lyre) - this was meant to help the boys so that they would be able to entertain friends at social gatherings - boys were exposed to concerts of "good" music both to gain an appreciation for it and because the Greeks believed that fine music had a purifying effect on their souls and might help them to grow up to be fine men.

c. Gymnastics: - the Greek word for "gymnastics" meant "exercise done naked" (thus it was any form of exercise) - in the afternoons, Athenian boys went to the PALESTRA, a large recreational complex on the outskirts of the city. It included changing and cleaning areas, playing fields, a swimming area, special exercise buildings, etc. - when the boys arrived they removed their clothes and rubbed their bodies with olive oil, and under the guidance of trained specialists, participated in many games and exercises - they ran, learned to swim, threw javelin and discus, wrestled, played team games like early forms of field hockey and football - the aim here was not to produce professional athlete but to turn out young men who were fit, graceful, attractive, with developed strength and coordination. It also gave the young men the habits of fitness which they hoped would carry through their lives - from Athens we get the well known motto: "A sound mind in a sound body" After the young man finished his basic education, he might go for higher education to one of the schools of philosophers or the sophists. From age 18 to 20, all able-bodied Athenian youths were to take military training for the army or navy. Athens was justifiably known as the "School of Hellas" (Greece) because of their high standard of knowledge and respect for education. Two Greek City-States: Athens and Sparta back to Greece l. Ancient Greeks: Not a Nation - throughout their whole history until they were conquered, the ancient Greeks were note a single nation ruled by one government - Greece was a collection of separate and independent citystates, and two of the most important were Sparta and Athens 2. Sparta: a Military State - Sparta was located on a small plain in the southern peninsula of Greece which is called the PELOPONNESUS - because it was surrounded by good farmland, Sparta was one of the few Greek states that could feed itself 3. Early Developments: - at first Sparta was the same as any other state formed by the Greek people - then, apparently, a great lawyer named LYCURGUS gave Sparta a new constitution. It was a set of rules which turned Sparta into a strict military state 4. Spartan Education: - on the eighth day after a baby was born, it had to be taken before a council of elders for inspection (if judged weak, silly or wounded the baby was killed) - after being accepted young children were sent home where they were taught by their parents where they learned basic physical skills, obedience, to be brief in speech, to be tough and have courage. - at seven, boys lived in military barracks, the purpose was to produce soldiers. In this military school, older boys were put in charge of the younger ones. The bravest and most able were made officers. They were

taught to be fit and stay fit through vigorous exercise, to be obedient and have courage to fight, to steal successfully, to withstand pain and hardship without complaining (not like us) or breaking down. - Taught the basis of reading, writing and calculations. In later stages, they got instruction in combat (with and without weapons), military tactics and strategy. By graduation at age 18, they were excellent soldiers. - The girls stayed home and learned motherhood and housekeeping but this was accompanied by much physical activity for strength and fitness. The Rest of a Spartan's Life Age 18 - 20: on active duty with a fighting unit and to complete training by observing the veterans Age 20 - 30: on active duty, had to live with his unit Age 30: becomes a full citizen Age 30 - 60: lives at home, but must take main daily meal with his unit, on call whenever Sparta needed him. Age 60: retired Spartan Social Classes There were three classes of Spartan society: l. Spartiates: The top citizen class. These were the ruling military class, but they did not live in luxury. 2. Perioici: The middle class; free men but were not citizens. These were managers of forms for the Spartiates or skilled tradesmen. 3. Helots: The lowest class. Indentured people, almost slaves. They did all the menial work. Spartan Government back to Greece
- 2 kings each could veto (say no to) the other - their main job was to be military leaders - 5 officials called Ephors - they were the executive officers and the most important men were in Spartan government - Senate : a small group of elders (they had to be at least 60 years old) who made the laws - Spartan laws were seldom changed - The Assembly: all citizens could attend and vote but they could not initiate legislation - they could only vote yes or no to laws proposed by the senate. - they had secret police called the kryptia The Spartan government therefore was a mixture of a monarchy, an oligarchy, and democracy. Music, art, poetry, drama, etc., all had to be slanted towards the military. Sparta did not produce any great scientists or philosophers because they put little effort into these fields. Sparta has been heavily criticized by historians for wasting human potential, by not allowing other fields of study except what was essential for the military. They doomed many of their people to never make the kind of social contributions that they might have. 2. Solon: (died in 558 B.C.) - This man has a great reputation in history as a wise lawgiver. - He was from the highest nobility himself, of great wealth, but he was able to see that revolution would occur if the rich did not make some concessions to help the poor. He was able to persuade the rich to make the necessary compromises and thus avoid the revolution.