General Knowledge Made Easy Book by Karthik M

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GENERAL KNOWLEDGE
Made Easy
Exclusively prepared for SSC|BANKING|RAILWAY students
1 General Knowledge Made Easy - by Karthik M

General Knowledge Made Easy
First in India Male

The first President of Indian Republic Dr. Rajendra Prasad
The first Prime Minister of free India Pt. Jawahar Lal Nehru
The first Indian to win Nobel Prize Rabindranath Tagore
The first President of Indian National Congress W.C. Banerjee
The first Muslim President of Indian National Congress Badruddin Tayyabji
The first Muslim President of India Dr. Zakir Hussain
The first British Governor General of India Lord William Bentinck(1833-
1835)
The first British Governor General of Bengal Lord Warren Hasting(1774-
1885)
The first British Viceroy of India Lord Canning
The first Governor General of free India Lord Mountbatten
The first and the last Indian to be Governor General of free India C. Rajgopalachari
The first man who introduced printing press in India James Hicky
The first Indian to join the I.C.S Satyendra Nath Tagore
India’s first man in Space Rakesh Sharma
The first Prime Minister of India who resigned without completing the Morarji Desai
full term
The first Indian Commander-in-Chief of India General Cariappa
The first Chief of Army Staff Gen. Maharaj Rajendra Singhji
The first Indian Member of the Viceroys executive council S.P.Sinha
The first President of India who died while in office Dr. Zakhir Hussain
The first Muslim President of Indian Republic Dr. Zakhir Hussain
The first Prime Minister of India who did not face the Parliament Charan Singh
The first Field Marshal of India S.H.F. Manekshaw
The first Indian to get Nobel Prize in Physics C.V.Raman
The first Indian to receive Bharat Ratna award Dr. Radhakrishnan
The first Indian to cross English Channel Mihir Sen
The first Person to receive Jnanpith award Sri Shankar Kurup
The firs Speaker of the Lok Sabha Ganesh Vasudeva Mavalankar
The first Vice-President of India Dr. Radhakrishnan
The first Education Minister Abdul Kalam Azad
The first Home minister of India Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel
The first Indian Air Chief Marshal S. Mukherjee
The first Indian Naval Chief Vice Admiral R.D. Katari
The first Judge of International Court of Justice Dr. Nagendra Singh
The first person to reach Mt. Everest without oxygen Sherpa Anga Dorjee
The first person to get Param Vir Chakra Major Somnath Sharma
The first Chief Election Commissioner Sukumar Sen
The first person to receive Magsaysay Award Acharya Vinoba Bhave
The first person of Indian origin to receive Nobel Prize in Medicine Hargovind Khurana

The first Chinese traveller to visit India Fahein

The first person to receive Stalin Prize Saifuddin Kitchlu
The first person to resign from the Central Cabinet Shyama Prasad Mukherjee
The first person to receive Nobel Prize in Economics Amartya Sen
The first Chief Justice of Supreme Court Justice Hirala J. Kania
The first Indian Pilot J.R.D. Tata (1929)
First in India (Female)

The first
lady to become Miss World Rita Faria
The first
woman judge in Supreme Court Mrs. Meera Sahib Fatima Bibi
The first
woman Ambassador Miss C.B. Muthamma
The first
woman Governor of a state in free India Mrs Sarojini Naidu
The first
woman Speaker of a State Assembly Shanno Devi
The first
woman Prime Minister Mrs Indira Gandhi
The first
woman Minister in a Government Rajkumari Amrit Kaur
The first
woman to climb Mount Everest Bachhendri Pal
The first
woman to climb Mount Everest twice Santosh Yadav
The first
woman President of Indian National Congress Mrs Annie Besant
The first
woman pilot in Indian Air Force Harita Kaur Dayal
The first
woman Graduates Kadambini Ganguly and Chandramukhi
Basu, 1883
The first woman Airline Pilot Durba Banerjee
The first woman Honours Graduate Kamini Roy, 1886
The first woman Olympic medal Winner Karnam Malleswari, 2000
The first woman Asian Games Gold Medal Winner Kamlijit Sandhu
The first woman Lawyer Cornelia Sorabjee
The first woman President of United Nations General Mrs Vijaya Laxmi Pandit
Assembly
The first woman Chief Minister of an Indian State Mrs Sucheta Kripalani
The first woman Chairman of Union Public Service Roze Millian Bethew
Commission
The first woman Director General of Police Kanchan Chaudhary Bhattacharya
The first woman Judge Anna Chandy (She became judge in a
district court in 1937)
The first woman Cheif Justice of High Court Mrs Leela Seth (Himachal Pradesh High
Court)
The first woman Judge in Supreme Court of India Kumari Justice M. Fathima Beevi
The first woman Lieutenant General Puneeta Arora
The first woman Air Vice Marshal P. Bandopadhyaya
The first woman chairperson of Indian Airlines Sushma Chawla
The first woman IPS officer Mrs. Kiran Bedi
The first and last Muslim woman ruler of India Razia Sultan
The first woman to receive Ashoka Chakra Nirja Bhanot
The first woman to receive Jnanpith Award Ashapurna Devi
The first woman to cross English Channel Aarti Saha
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General Knowledge Made Easy - by Karthik M
The first woman to receive Nobel Prize Mother Teresa

The first woman to receive Bharat Ratna Mrs Indira Gandhi
The first woman to receive Jnanpith Award Ashpurna Devi
First in the World (Male & Female)

First men to climb Mt. Everest Sherpa Tenzing Norgay & Sir Edmund
Hillary (29th May ,1953)
First man to reach North Pole Robert Peary
First man to reach South Pole Ronald Amundsen
First religion of the world Santosh Dharma
First country to print books China
First country to issue paper currency China
First country to start Civil Services Competition China
First President of United States of America George Washington
First prime Minister of great Britain Robert Walpole
First secretary general of United Nations Trigve Li
First country to make education compulsory Prussia
First country to win the world cup Football Uruguay (1930)
First country to make a constitution United States of America
Pakistan’s fist Governor General Mohammed Ali Jinnah
First Summit of NAM was organized in Belgrade (former Yugoslavia)
First European to visit China Marco Polo
First men to fly an aeroplane Wright Brothers
First person to sail around the world Ferdinand Magellan
First country to send human to Moon United States of America
First country to launch satellite into space Russia (former USSR)
First country to host the modern Olympic games Greece
First President of the Republic of China Dr. Sun Yat-sen
First city to be attacked with Atom bomb Heroshima (Japan)
First Radio Telescope Satellite was launched into space by Japan
First Russian (Soviet) Prime Minister to visit India V.I. Bulganin
First University of the world Taxila University
First man to set foot on the Moon Nell Armstrong (U.S.A)
First man to go into space Major Yuri Gagarin (USSR)
First Space Shuttle Launched Columbia
First space ship landed on mars Viking –I (July,1976)
First woman Prime Minister of England Margaret Thacher
First woman Prime Minister of any Muslim country Benazir Bhutto (Pakistan)
First woman Prime Minister of a country S. Bhandarnayake (Sri Lanka)
First woman cosmonaut in space Valentina Tereshkova (USSR)
First woman to climb Mt. Everest Junko Tabei (Japan )
First deaf and dumb to cross the Srait of Gibraltar Taranath Shenoy (India)
First woman president of UN General assembly Smt. Vijayalakshmi Pandit (1953)
First European Invader of Indian soil Alexander, The Great
First woman to reach the North pole Ms. Fran
First woman to reach Antartica Caroline Michaelson

First man to draw the map of earth Anexemander

First man to compile Encyclopaedia Aspheosis (Athens)
First eldest man to climb Mt. Event Richard Wass
First Asian to win Wimbledon Trophy Arthur Ashe (U.S.A)
First man to win Nobel Prize for Literature Rene F.A. & Suilt Pradhom (France )
First man to win Nobel Prize for Peace Jin F. Dunant (Switzerland) & Frederic
Peiry (France)
First man to win Nobel prize for Physics W.K. Roentgen (Germany)
First man to win Nobel prize for Chemistry J.H. Wenthoff (Howlland)
First man to win Nobel Prize Medicine (Medical Science) A.E. Wonn Behring (Germany)
First man to win Nobel Prize Economics Ranger fish (Norway)& John Tinbergen
(Holland)
First woman President of a country Maria Estela Peron (Argentina)
First Space Tourist (Male) Dennis Tito
First Space Tourist (Female) Mrs. Anousheh Ansari
Superlatives of India
The longest river Bridge Mahatma Gandhi Setu Patna (5.575 km.)
The largest animal Fair Sonepur (Bihar)
The largest Auditorium Sri Shanmukhanand Hall (Mumbai)
The largest Lake Wular Lake (J & K)
The highest Dam Bhakhra Dam, on Sutlej River (Punjab)
The largest Desert Thar (Rajastan)
The largest cave Temple Kailash Temple (Ellora, Maharashtra)
The largest Zoo Zoological Garden (kolkatta)
The largest Mosque Jama Masjid (Delhi)
The highest peak Godwin Austin/ K-2 (8611m)
The longest Tunnel Jawahar Tunnel, Banihal Pass (J & K)
The largest Delta Sundarbans (W. Bengal)
The State with maximum forest area Madhya Pradesh
The longest Corridor Corridor of Ramanathaswamy Temple of
Rameswaram (Tamil Nadu)
The highest Waterfall Jog or Garsoppa (Karnataka)
The longest Road Grand Trunk Road (Kolkatta to Delhi)
The highest Gate way Buland Darwaza, Fatehpur Sikri (U.P)
The longest River The Ganga (2640 km. long)
The largest museum Indian museum, Kolkatta
The largest Dome Gol Gumbaz, Bijapur (in Karnataka)
The Tallest Statue Gomateswara (Karnataka)
The largest Public sector Bank State Bank of India
The Biggest Canti lever Bridge Rabindra Setu or Howrah Bridge (Kolkatta)
The longest Canal Indira Gandhi Canal or Rajasthan Canal
(Rajasthan)
The longest Railway platform Kharagpur (W. Bengal)
The Biggest Stadium Yuva Bharti (Salt Lake) Stadium Kolkatta
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Pavithran.Net
The most popular city Mumbai (Maharastra)

The largest Sea Bridge Anna Indira Gandhi Bridge (Tamil Nadu)
The Longest Passenger Train Route Jammu Tawi to Kanyakumari
The Oldest Church St. Thomas Church at palayer, Thrissur (Kerela)
The longest National Highway N.H-7 (Varanasi to Kanyakumari)
The State with longest Coast Line Gujarat
The Highest Lake Devtal Lake, Gadhwal (Uttrakhand)
The largest Saline water Lake Chilka Lake (Orissa)
The largest fresh water Lake Kolleru Lake (Andhra Pradesh)
Largest Cave Amarnath (J & K)
The longest river of Southern India Godawari
The longest Dam Hirakud Dam (Orissa)
The highest Gallantry Award Param vir Chakra
The highest Award Bharat Ratna
The largest Gurudwara Golden Temple, Amritsar
The biggest Church Saint Cathedral at old Goa (goa)
The Tallest T.V Tower Pitampura (New Delhi)
The Southern Indian State with Longest Coat line Andhra Pradesh
The Longest Sea Beach Marina Beach (Chennai)
The Highest Road Road at Khardungla, (in Leh –Manali Sector)
The largest artificial Lake Govind Sagar (Bhakhra Nangal)
The deepest River Valley Bhagirathi and Alaknanda
The largest River without Delta Narmada and Tapi
The highest Battle field and the Longest Glacier Siachen Glacier
The biggest river Island Majuli Brahmputra river, (Assam)
The largest Planetarium Birla Planetarium
The Highest Airport Leh Airport (Ladakh)
Largest state in area Rajasthan(3,42,239 sq.km)
Smallest state in area Goa(3,702sq.km)
Largest Union Territory in Area Andaman and Nicobar islands
Smallest Union Territory in Area . Lakshadweep(32 sq.km)
Most populated union Territory Delhi(1,37,82,976)
Most populated State Uttar Pradesh (16,60,52,859)
Least populated state Sikkim (5,40,493)
State having highest literacy rate Kerala ( 93.11%)
State having lowest literacy rate Bihar (63.82%)
Union Territory having highest literacy rate Lakshadweep (92.28%)
Superlatives of World
Tallest Animal on (land) Giraffe
Biggest Bell Great Bell at Moscow
Fastest Bird Swift
Largest Bird Ostrich
Smallest Bird Humming Bird
Longest Bridge (Railway) Lower Zambeji (Africa )
Tallest Building Burj khalifa, Dubai (U.A.E)

Tallest office Building Patronas Twin Towers Kuala Lampur

(Malaysia)
Longest Big Ship Canal Seuz Canal (Linkin red sea &
Mediterranean)
Busiest Canal (Ship) Baltic White Sea Canal (152 miles)
Biggest Cinema House Roxy (New York)
Highest city Wen Chuan (Tibet, China) 16,732 ft.
Largest City (in population) Tokyo [(3,42,00000), Est. population in
2006]
Biggest City in (area) Mount Isa, Queensland, Australia (41225
sq. km.)
Largest Continent Asia
Smallest continent Australia
Largest Country (in population) China
Largest country (in area) Russia
Largest Coral Formation The Great Barrier Reef (Australia)
Largest Dam Grand Coulee- Concrete Dam (U.S.A)
Longest Day June 21 (in Northern Hemisphere)
Shortest Day Dec. 22(in Northern Hemisphere)
Largest Delta Sundarbans, India (8000 sq. miles)
Longest Desert (World) Sahara, Africa (84, 00,000 sq. km.)
Largest Diamond The Cullinan (over 1 ½ 1b.)
Biggest Dome Gol Gumbaz (Bijapur), (Old archi) 144 ft.
diameter.
Biggest Dome (New Archi) Astrodome, Sports
Longest Epic The Mahabharata
Largest Island Greenland (renamed kalaatdlit Nunaat)
Largest Lake (Artificial) Lake mead (Bouler)
Deepest Lake Baikal (Siberia); average depth2300 ft.
Highest Lake Titicaca (Bolivia) 12645 ft. above sea level.
Largest Lake (Fresh Water) Lake Superior, U.S.A
Largest Lake (Salt Water) Caspian Sea 3, 71,000 sq. km.)
Largest Mosque Jama Masjid, Delhi, (area 10,000 sq. ft.)
Biggest Library National Kiev Library,Moscow & Library of
the Congress, Washington)
Highest Mountain peak (World) Himalayas
Longest Mountain Range Andes (S.America) 5,500 miles in length
Biggest Museum British Museum (London)
Tallest Minaret (Free Standing) Qutub Minar, Delhi 238 ft.
Tallest Minaret Great Hassan Mosque, Casablanca,
Morocco
Deepest & Biggest Ocean The Pacific
Largest Palace Imperial Palace (Gugong), Beijing (China)
Largest Park Yellow stone national park(USA).
Largest Peninsula Arabic (32,50,000 sq. km.)
7
Coldest Place or Region Verkhoyansk (Syberia), Temperature – 85`

C
Driest Place Death Valley (California); rainfall 1 ½ inch.
Hottest Place (World) Al-Aziziyah (Libya, Africa) 136`F
Largest Planet Jupiter
Brightest and Hottest Planet (also nearest to Earth) Venus
Farthest planet (from the Sun) Neptune
Nearest Planet (to the Sun) Mercury
Smallest Planet Mercury
Highest Plateau Pamir (Tibet)
Longest Platform (Railway) Kharagpur W.B, India (833m)
Largest Platform (Railway) Grand Central terminal, New York (U.S.A)
Largest sea Port Ningbo-zhoushan,china.
Busiest container Port Shangai ,china.
Longest Railway Trans-Siberian Railway (6,000 miles Long)
Longest River Nile (6690 km), Amazon (6570 km.)
Longest River Dam Hirakund Dam (Orissa), India 15.8 miles.
Largest sea-bird Albatross
Largest Sea (inland) Mediterranean
Brightest Star Sirius (also called Dog star)
Tallest statue Spring temple Budha,china(128m)
Tallest Statue (Bronze) Bronze Statue of Lord Buddha, Tokyo
(Japan).
Longest Swimming Course English Channel
Tallest Tower Skytree ,Tokyo,japan.(634m)
Longest train nonstop Flying Scoutsman
Longest Tunnel (Railway) Seikan Rail Tunnel (Japan), (53.85 km.)
Longest & Largest Canal Tunnel Le Rove Tunnel (South of France)
Longest Tunnel (Road) Laerdal, Norway
Highest Volcano Ojos Del Salado, Andes Argentine-Chile
(6,885 m.)
Largest Volcano Mauna Lao (Hawaii)
Longest Wall Great Wall of China (1500 miles)
Highest Waterfall Salto Angel Falls (Venezuela)
Longest Strait Tartar Strait (Sakhalin Island & the Russian
mainland)
Broadest Strait Davis Straits (Greenland & Baffin Island,
(Canada)
Narrowest strait Chaliks-45 yards (Between the Greek
mainland the island of Euboea in the
Aegean Sea)
Largest Bay Hudson Bay, Canada (Shore line 7623
miles)
Largest Gulf Gulf of Mexico,( shoreline 2100 miles)
Largest Archipelago Indonesia (over 3,000 Islands)
Tallest Active Geyser Giant (Geyser ) yelowstone park U.S.A

200 ft. high

Largest River Basin Amazon Basin- 27, 20,000 sq. mile.
World rainiest spot Cherrapunji (Mawsynram), India
Largest Gorge Grand Canyon, on the Colorado River,
U.S.A
Lightest gas Hydrogen
Lightest Metal Lithium
Highest Melting Point Tungsten, 3,410`C
Hardest Substance Diamond
Longest Animal Blue Whale, (recorded length 106 ft.
weight-195 tons)
Longest Life Span of an Animal 190 to 200 years, (Giant tortoise)
Largest Land Animal African Bush Elephant
Fastest Animal Cheetah (Leopard ) 70 m.p.h
Longest Jump Animal Kangaroo
Longest wing Spread Bird Albatross
Slowest Animal Snail
Domestic Dog Irish Wolf Hound
Fastest Dog Persian Grey Hound (speed 43 m.p.h)
Longest poisonous snake King cobra
Biggest Flower Raffesia (Java)
Largest Stadium Strahov stadium in Prague, (the Czech
Republic)
Largest Church Basilica of St. Peter, Vatican city, Rome
Italy
Largest Temple Angkor Vat (Combodia)
Largest Diamond mine Kimbarley (S.Africa)
Largest River in volume Amazon, Brazil
Longest Corridor Rameshwaram Temple’s Corridor (5000 ft.)
Highest Straight Dam Bhakhra Dam
Highest Capital City La Paz (Bolivia)
Largest Asian Desert Gobi, Mongolia
Largest Democracy India
Longest Thoroughfare Verazano-Narrows, New York City Harbour
Largest Neck Animal Giraffe
Largest Animal of the Cat Family Lion
Most Intelligent Animal Chimpanzee
Bird, that never makes its nests Cuckoo
Wingless Bird Kiwi
Reptile which changes its colors Chameleon
Largest Mammal Whale
Important Places in India

Monuments Place Founded
Akbar Tomb Agra, Uttar Pradesh Akbar and Jahangir
9
Akshardham Delhi Bochasanwasi Akshar-Purushottam

Swaminarayan Sanstha
Amaravati Stupa Andhra Pradesh An emissary of Emperor Ashoka
Amer Fort Rajasthan (Jaipur) Raja Man Singh I
Arjuna Penance Mahabalipuram, (Tamil Nadu)
Aurangabad Caves Aurangabad, (Maharashtra )
Bara Imambara Lucknow, (Uttar Pradesh)
Gurudwara Bangla New Delhi Sardar Baghel Singh
Sahib
Basilica of Bom Jesus Near Panaji, (Goa)
Bekal Fort Kasargod District, (Kerala)
Bolgatty Palace Bolghatty Island, Kochi (Kerala)
Brihadeeswarar Temple Thanjavur, (Tamil Nadu) Rajaraja Chola I
Buland Darwaza Fatehpur Sikri, near Agra (Uttar Mughal Emperor, Akbar
Pradesh)
Cellular Jail Port Blair, Andaman & Nicobar Islands The British
Charminar Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh Sultan Muhammed Quli Qutub Shah
Chettinad Palace Chettinad, Tamil Nadu Dr Annamali Chettiyar
Chittorgarh Fort Udaipur, Rajasthan
City Palace Jaipur, Rajasthan Maharaja Sawai Jai Singh
Dhamekh Stupa Sarnath, Uttar Pradesh
Dilwara Temples Near Mount Abu, Rajasthan
Dutch Palace Mattancherry, Kochi (Kerala) The Portuguese
Elephanta Caves Near Mumbai, Maharashtra
Ellora Caves Near Aurangabad, Maharashtra
Fateh Prakash Palace Udaipur, Rajasthan
Feroz shah Kotla Bahadur Shah Zafar Marg, Delhi
Fort St George Chennai, Tamil Nadu The British
Gangaikondacholapuram Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu King Rajendra Chozhan
Gateway of India Mumbai, Maharashtra Sir George Sydenham Clarke
Gingee Fort Villupuram District, near Chennai Chola Dynasty and then,
(Tamil Nadu) Vijayanagar Empire
Golconda Fort Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh Mohammed Quli Qutub Shah
Golden Temple Amritsar, Punjab
Gol Gumbaz Vijayapura , Karnataka Muhammad Adil Shah
Gomateshwara Statue Karnataka
Hampi Ruins Karnataka
Hawa Mahal Jaipur, Rajasthan Maharaja Sawai Pratap Singh
Humayun Tomb New Delhi
India Gate Near Connaught Place, Delhi
Jagannath Temple Puri, Orissa Anantavarman Chodaganga Dev
Jaigarh Fort Jaipur, Rajasthan
Jaisalmer Fort Jaisalmer, Rajasthan
Jama Masjid Chandni Chowk, Old Delhi Shah Jahan
Murud-Janjira Maharashtra
Jantar Mantar Delhi (New Delhi

Jantar Mantar Jaipur Jaipur, Rajasthan Maharaja Jai Singh II

Paradesi Synagogue Mattancherry, Kochi (Kerala)
Junagarh Fort Bikaner, Rajasthan Raja Rai Singh
Khajuraho Temples Madhya Pradesh Rulers of Chandela Empire
Kumbhalgarh Fort Near Udaipur, Rajasthan Rana Kumbha
Lake Palace Udaipur, Rajasthan Maharana Jagat Singh
Lalgarh Palace Bikaner, Rajasthan Maharaja Lal Singh
Leh Palace Leh, Ladakh Valley
Lodi Tomb Lodi Gardens, New Delhi
Lotus Temple Kalkaji, South Delhi
Mahabodhi Temple Gaya, Bihar Ashoka
Meenakshi Temple Madurai, Tamil Nadu
Mehrangarh Fort Jodhpur, Rajasthan Rao Jodha
Moti Masjid Red Fort, Agra (Uttar Pradesh) Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan
Mysore Palace Mysore, Karnataka
Padmanabhapuram Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala Iravi Iravi Varma Kulasekhara
Palace Perumal
Palitana Temples Palitana, near Bhavnagar (Gujarat)
Pattadakal Temple Pattadakal, Karnataka
Patwon ki Haveli Jaisalmer Rajasthan
Purana Qila Near Pragati Maidan, Delhi
Qutub Minar New Delh Qutub-ud-Din Aibak
Rashtrapati Bhavan New Delhi
Red Fort New Delhi Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan
Rock Fort Temple Trichy, Tamil Nadu The Nayaks
Rumi Darwaza Near Bada Imambara, Lucknow (Uttar Nawab Asaf-ud-Daula
Pradesh)
Safdarjung Tomb Near Safdarjung Airport (New Delhi) Nawab Shuja-ud-Daulah
Sanchi Stupa Sanchi, Madhya Pradesh Maurya Emperor Ashoka
Shore Temple Mahabalipuram, Tamil Nadu Rajasimha
Sun Temple Konark, Orissa King Narsingha Deva
Taj Mahal Agra, Uttar Pradesh Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan
Thirumalai Nayak Palace Madurai, Tamil Nadu King Thirumalai Nayak
Tughlaqabad Fort Qutub-Badarpur Road, Delhi Ghiyas-ud-Din Tughlaq
Umaid Bhawan Palace Jodhpur, Rajasthan Maharaja Umaid Singh
Valluvar Kottam Chennai, Tamil Nadu
Velankanni Church Nagapattinam, (Tamil Nadu)
Victoria Memorial Kolkata, West Bengal The Prince of Wales
Vivekananda Memorial Kanyakumari Vivekananda Rock Memorial
Committee
Akshardham Gandhinagar, near Ahmedabad Bochasanwasi Akshar-Purushottam
Gandhinagar (Gujarat) Swaminarayan Sanstha
Agra Fort Agra, Uttar Pradesh Emperor Akbar
Ajanta Caves Aurangabad District, Maharashtra
11
Monuments World
The Statue of Liberty New York, USA
The Eiffel Tower Paris, France
St Basil’s Cathedral Moscow, Russia
Blue Domed Church Santorini, Greece
The Great Sphinx Giza, Egipt
The Pyramids Giza Egypt
The Little Mermaid Copenhagen, Denmark
Neptune and the Palace of Versailles France
Windmills at Kinderdijk Holland/ Netherlands
The Great Chinese Wall China
The Taj Mahal Agra, India
Machu Picchu Peru
Big Ben London
The Burj al Arab Hotel Dubai
Tower of Pisa Italy
Christ the Redeemer Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Lascaux caves France
Mecca Saudi Arabia
Loch Ness Scotland
Mont St Michel France
Bran Castle Transylvania, Romania
Hagia Sophia Istanbul, Turkey
Brandenburg Gate Berlin, Germany
Acropolis of Athens Greece
Sagrada Familia Barcelona, Spain
Uluru in the Northern Territory (Ayers Rock) Australia
Neuschwanstein Bavaria, Germany
Mount Fuji Japan
Mount Eden crater New Zealand
Easter Island the Polynesian Triangle, Pacific Ocean
Capitol Hill Washington DC
Al Aqsa Mosque Jerusalem
Niagara Falls the border of Ontario ( Canada ) and New York
(USA)
Angkor Wat Cambodia
Manneken Pis Brussels, Belgium
Mount Everest on the border of Tibet and Nepal
St Peter’s Basilica Vatican City, Rome
St Peter’s Cathedral Adelaide, Australia
Mount Rushmore South Dakota, USA
Victoria Falls Zambia (On the border of Zambia and Zimbabwe)
The Grand Canyon Arizona, USA
Nevado Mismi Peru
The Great Buddha of Kamakura Japan
Petra Jordan

Trevi Fountain Rome, Italy

Auschwitz Poland
Cape of Good Hope Cape Town, South Africa
North Cape Norway
Chichen Itza Mexico
Inukshuk Canada
Table Mountain Cape Town, South Africa
Golden Gate Bridge San Francisco, California
Sydney Opera House Australia
Parc Guell Barcelona, Spain
Kilimanjaro Tanzania
Forbidden City Beijing
Iguazu Falls Argentina (the border of Brazil and Argentina)
The Colosseum Rome, Italy
Twyfelfontein Namibia
Tower Bridge London
The Blue Mosque Istanbul, Turkey
The Sphinx Bucegi, Romania
Millau Bridge France
Luxor Temple Egypt
Berliner Dom (Berlin Cathedral) Berlin, Germany
Faisal Mosque Islamabad, Pakistan
Kremlin Moscow, Russia
The Empire State Building New York
Hermitage Saint Petersburg, Russia
Newgrange Ireland
Waterloo Belgium
Carnac France
Tilicho Lake Nepal
Temple of Besakih Bali, Indonesia
Pompeii Italy
The Wailing Wall Jerusalem
Konark Sun Temple Odisha, India
Abu Simbel Egypt
Middle of the Earth Ecuador
The Prophet’s Mosque(Al-Masjid an Nabawi) Medina, Saudi Arabia
Jin Mao and SWFC Shanghai, China
Sacré Coeur Paris, France
American Cemetery Normandy
Potala Palace Lhasa, Tibet
Skellig Michael the coast of Ireland
Angel Falls Venezuela
The Louvre Paris, France
Atomium Brussels
White Cliffs of Dover Coast of England
13
Minaret of Jam Afghanistan

Golden Temple Amritsar in India
The Palace of Parliament Bucharesti, Romania
Rock of Gibraltar Gibraltar
Lotus Temple New Delhi, India
Half Dome Yosemite Valley in California
CN Tower Canada
Hollywood Sign Los Angeles
Ephesus Turkey
Twelve Apostles Australia
Piazza San Marco Venice, Italy
Vinson Massif Antarctic
IMPORTANT MONUMENTS PLACE

Ancient City of Polonnaruwa Polonnaruwa District, North Central Province,
Sri Lanka
Ancient City of Sigiriya Matale District,Central Province, Sri Lanka
Archaeological Ruins at Moenjodaro Sindh, Pakistan
Buddhist Ruins ofTakht-i-Bahi and Neighbouring City Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan
Remains at Sahr-i-Bahlol
Central Highlands of Sri Lanka Sri Lanka
Chitwan National Park Chitwan District,Narayani Zone, Nepal
Fort and Shalamar Gardens in Lahore Punjab, Pakistan
Golden Temple of Dambulla Matale District,Central Province, Sri Lanka
Historical Monuments at Makli, Thatta Sindh, Pakistan
Historic Mosque City of Bagerhat Bagerhat District,Khulna Division, Bangladesh
Kathmandu Valley Kathmandu Valley,Nepal
Lumbini, the Birthplace of the Lord Buddha Rupandehi District,Lumbini Zone, Nepal
Minaret and Archaeological Remains of Jam Ghor, Afghanistan
Old Town of Galle and its Fortifications Galle, Southern Province, Sri Lanka
Rohtas Fort Jhelum, Punjab, Pakistan
Ruins of the Buddhist Vihara at Paharpur Naogaon District,Rajshahi Division, Bangladesh
Sacred City of Anuradhapura Anuradhapura District, North Central Province,
Sri Lanka
Sacred City of Kandy Central Province, Sri Lanka
Sagarmatha National Park Solukhumbu District,Sagarmatha Zone, Nepal
Sinharaja Forest Reserve Sabaragamuwaand Southern Province, Sri
Lanka
Taxila Punjab, Pakistan
The Sundarbans Khulna Division, Bangladesh
Chilzina Mausoleum of Ahmad Shah Durrani and Afghanistan
Shrine of Baba Wali.
Angkor Siem Reap Province, Cambodia
Archaeological Heritage of the Lenggong Valley Perak, Malaysia
Ban Chiang Archaeological Site Udon Thani Province, Thailand
Baroque Churches of the Philippines Philippines

Borobudur Temple Compounds Central Java, Indonesia

Central Sector of theImperial Citadel of Thang Long Hanoi, Vietnam
Complex of Hué Monuments Vietnam
Citadel of the Hồ Dynasty Vietnam
Cultural Landscape of Bali Province: the Subak Bali, Indonesia
System as a Manifestation of the Tri Hita Karana
Philosophy
Dong Phayayen-Khao Yai Forest Complex Thailand
Gunung Mulu National Park Northern Sarawak,Borneo, Malaysia
Hạ Long Bay
Historic City of Ayutthaya Ayutthaya province, Thailand
Historic Town of Sukhothai and Associated Historic Thailand
Towns
Historic Town of Vigan Philippines
Kinabalu Park Sabah,Borneo, Malaysia
Temple of Preah Vihear Preah Vihear Province, Cambodia
Important Cups and Trophies Associated With Sports
National
Agarwal Cup Badminton
Agha Khan Cup Hockey
All-India Women's Guru Nanak Hockey
Championship
Bandodkar Trophy Football
Bangalore Blues Challenge Cup Basketball
Barna-Bellack Cup Table Tennis
Beighton Cup Hockey
Bombay Gold Cup Hockey
Burdwan Trophy Weight-Lifting
Charminar Trophy Athletics
Chadha Cup Badminton
C. K. Naydu Trophy Cricket
Chakoia Gold Trophy Football
Divan Cup Badminton
Deodhar Trophy Cricket
Duleep Trophy Cricket
D. C. M. Cup Football
Durand Cup Football
Dhyan Chand Trophy Hockey
Dr. B. C. Roy Trophy Football (Junior)
Ezra Cup Polo
F. A. Cup Football
G. D. Birla Trophy Cricket
Ghulam Ahmed Trophy Cricket
Gurmeet Trophy Hockey
Gura Nanak Cup Hockey
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Gyanuati Devi Trophy Hockey

Holkar Trophy Bridge
Irani Trophy Cricket
I. F. A. Shield Football
Indira Gold Cup Hockey
Jawaharlal Challenge Air Racing
Jaswant Singh Trophy Best Services Sportsman
Kuppuswamy Naidu Trophy Hockey
Lady Rattan Tata Trophy Hockey
MCC Trophy Hockey
Moinuddaula Gold Cup Cricket
Murugappa Gold Cup Hockey
Modi Gold Cup Hockey
Narang Cup Badminton
Nehru Trophy Hockey
Nixan Gold Cup Football
Obaid Ullah Gold Cup Hockey
Prithi Singh Cup Polo
Rani Jhansi Trophy Cricket
Ranjit Trophy Cricket
Rangaswami Cup Hockey
Ranjit Singh Gold Cup Hockey
Rajendra Prasad Cup Tennis
Ramanujan Trophy Table Tennis
Rene Frank Trophy Hockey
Radha Mohan Cup Polo
Raghbir Singh Memorial Football
Rohinton Baria Trophy Cricket
Rovers Cup Football
Sanjay Gold Cup Football
Santosh Trophy Football
Sir Ashutosh Mukherjee Football
Subroto Cup Football
Scindia Gold Cup Hockey
Sahni Trophy Hockey
Sheesh Mahal Trophy Cricket
Todd Memorial Trophy Football
Tommy Eman Gold Cup Hockey
Vittal Trophy Football
Vizzy Trophy Cricket
Vijay Merchant Trophy Cricket
Wellington Trophy Rowing
Wills Trophy Cricket
International
American Cup Yacht Racing

GENERAL SCIENCE
Ashes Cricket
Benson And Hedges Cricket
Canada Cup Golf
Colombo Cup Football
Corbitton Cup Table Tennis (Women)
Davis Cup Lawn Tennis
Derby Horse Race
Grand National Horse Steeple Chase Race
Jules Rimet Trophy World Soccer Cup
King's Cup Air Races
Merdeka Cup Football
Rydet Cup Golf
Swaythling Cup Table Tennis (Men)
Thomas Cup Badminton
U. Thant Cup Tennis
Uber Cup Badminton (Women)
Walker Cup Golf
Westchester Cup Polo
Wightman Cup Lawn Tennis
World Cup Cricket
World Cup Hockey
Reliance Cup Cricket
Rothman's Trophy Cricket
William's Cup Basketball
European Champions Cup Football
Eisenhower Cup Golf
Essande Champions Cup Hockey
Rene Frank Trophy Hockey
Grand Prix Table Tennis
Edgbaston Cup Lawn Tennis
Grand Prix Lawn Tennis
World Cup Weight-Lifting
Important Geographical Discoveries  Island of Tasmania and New Zealand -

 America - Christopher Columbus (Italian) Tasman (Dutch)
 Sea Route to India - Vasco Da Gama  Hawaiian Islands - Captain Cook (Britain)
(Portuguese)  North Pole - Robert Peary (USA)
 New Foundland - John Cabot (British)  South Pole - Amundsen (Norway)
 Brazil - Pedro Alvarez Cabral  Suez Canal - Ferdinand De Lesseps
(Portuguese)  Victoria Falls - David Livingston (British)
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 Cape of Good Hope - Bartholomew Diaz along the Order and Neisse rivers,
(Portuguese) adopted at the Poland Conference (Aug
 Greenland - Norseman Eric 1945) after World War II.
 North America - Leif Ericsson  Radcliffe Line was drawn up by Sir
 Niger River - Mungo Park Cyril Radcliffe, demarcating the
 Lake Tanganyika - Richard Francis Burton boundary between India and Pakistan.
 Hudson Bay - Henry Hudson Siegfried Line is the line of
 New Foundland - Gobot Sebastian fortification drawn up by Germany on
 China - Marco Polo  its border with France.
Important Boundary Lines 17th Parallel defined the
 Durand Line is the line demarcating the boundary between North Vietnam
boundaries of Pakistan and Afghanistan. It and South Vietnam before two were
was drawn up in 1896 by Sir Mortimer united.
Durand.
 Hindenburg Line is the boundary  24th Parallel is the line which Pakistan
dividing Germany and Poland. The claims for demarcation between India and
Germans retreated to this line in 1917 Pakistan. This, however, is not recognized
during World War I by India26th Parallel south is a circle of
 Mason-Dixon Line is a line of latitude which crosses through Africa,
demarcation between four states in the Australia and South America.
United State.  30th Parallel north is a line of latitude

that stands one-third of the way between
 Marginal Line was the 320 km line of
the equator and the North Pole.
fortification on the Russia-Finland border.
 33rd Parallel north is a circle of latitude
Drawn up by General Mannerheim.
which cuts through the southern United
 McMahon Line was drawn up by Sir
States, parts of North Africa, parts of the
Henry McMahon, demarcating the frontier
Middle East, and China.
of India and China. China did not
 35th Parallel north forms the boundary
recognize the McMahon line and crossed it
between the State of North Carolina and
in 1962.
the State of Georgia and the boundary
 Medicine Line is the border between
between the State of Tennessee arid the
Canada and the United States.
State of Georgia, the State of Albama,
 Order-Neisse Line is the border
and the State of Mississippi.
between Poland and Germany, running

GENERAL SCIENCE
 36th Parallel forms the southernmost formed the northern border of the historic
boundary of the State of Missouri with the and extralegal Territory of Jefferson.
State of Arkansas.  The Parallel 44o north is an imaginary
 36o30' Parallel north forms the boundary circle of latitude that is 44 degrees north
between the Tennessee and the of the Earth's equatorial plane.
Commonwealth of Kentucky between the  45th Parallel north is often the halfway
Tennessee River and the Mississippi River, point between the Equator and the North
the boundary between Missouri and Pole. The 45th parallel makes up most of
Arkansas west of the White River, and the the boundary between Montana and
northernmost boundary between the Wyoming.
Texas and the Oklahoma.  49th Parallel is the boundary between
 37th Parallel north formed the southern USA and Canada.
boundary of the historic and extralegal Important Tribes of World
Territory of Jefferson.  Aleuts: Alaska
 38th Parallel is the parallel of latitude  Ainus: Japan
which separates North Korea and South  Bedouin: Sahara and Middle East
Korea.  Bindibu or Aborigins: Australia
 39th Parallel north is an imaginary circle  Bushman: Kalahari
of latitude that is 39 degrees north of  Chukchi: NE Asia, USSR, North
Earth's equatorial plane. Siberia
 40th Parallel north formed the original  Eskimos: Greenland, North Canada,
northern boundary of the British Colony of Alaska, N Siberia
Maryland.  Fulani: Western Africa
 41st Parallel north forms the northern  Gobi Mongols: Gobi
boundary of the State of Colorado with  Guicas: Amazon forest area
Nebraska and Wyoming and the southern  Hausa: North Nigeria
boundary of the State of Wyoming with  Hotten tots: Hot tropical Africa
Colorado and Utah.  Ibanas: Equatorial rain forest region
 42nd Parallel north forms most of the of South-East Asia
New York - Pennsylvania Border.  India Tribes: Amazon basin
 43rd Parallel north forms most of the  Berbers: N. Africa
boundary between the State of Nebraska  Samoyeds: Siberia
and the State of South Dakota and also  Kalmuk: Central Asia
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 Kazakhs: Kazakhistan  Pygmies: Congo basin, Zaire

 Kirghiz: Asiatic steppes  Red Indian: N. America
 Koryakas: N. Siberia, Eurassian  Semangs: East Sumatra
 Lapps: N. Finland, Scandinavian  Tapiro: Papua New Guinea
country  Turregs: Sahara
 Maoris: New Zealand  Yoakuts: Siberia
 Masai: East & Central Africa  Zulus: South Africa
 Meos: Myanmar  Buryak: Central Asia
 Orang Alsi: Malaysia
Transport in India
List of International Airports in India
State City Airport
Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad Rajiv Gandhi International Airport
Assam Guwahati Lokpriya Gopinath Bordoloi International Airport
Bihar Gaya Gaya Airport
Bihar Patna Loknayak Jai Prakash Narayan International Airport
Delhi New Delhi Indira Gandhi International Airport
Gujarat Ahmadabad Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel International Airport
Karnataka Bengaluru Kampagowada International Airport
Karnataka Mangalore Mangalore Airport
Kerala Kochi Cochin International Airport
Kerala Kozhikode Calicut International Airport
Kerala Thiruvananthapuram Trivandrum International Airport
Madhya Pradesh Bhopal Raja Bhoj Airport
Madhya Pradesh Indore Devi Ahilyabai Holkar Airport
Maharashtra Mumbai Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport
Maharashtra Nagpur Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar International Airport
Maharashtra Pune Pune Airport
Meghalaya Shillong Zaruki International Airport
Punjab Amristar Guru Ramdasji(Rajasansi) International Airport
Rajasthan Jaipur Jaipur International Airport
Tamil Nadu Chennai Chennai International Airport
Tamil Nadu Coimbatore Civil Aerodrome
Tamil Nadu Tiruchirappalli Tiruchirapalli International Airport
Uttar Pradesh Lucknow Amausi Airport
West Bengal Kolkata Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose International Airport
Andaman Nicobar
Island Port Blair Veer Savarkar International Airport
Waterways in India of 1,620 kilometers (1,010 mi) in
 National Waterway 1: Allahabad– October 1986.
Haldia stretch of the Ganga - Bhagirathi -  National Waterway 2: Saidiya–
Hooghly river system with a total length Dhubri stretch of the Brahmaputra river

GENERAL SCIENCE
system with a total length of 891 along with the East Coast Canal, with a
kilometers (554 mi) in 1988. total length of 623 km (387 mi) in 2007.
 National Waterway 3: Kollam– Ports in India:
Kottapuram stretch of the West Coast  India has a coastline spanning 7516.6
Canal along with Champakara and kilometers, forming one of the
Udyogmandal canals, with a total length biggest peninsulas in the world. It is
of 205 kilometers (127 mi) in 1993. serviced by 13 major ports, 200
 National Waterway 4: Bhadrachalam– notified minor and intermediate ports.
Rajahmundry and Wazirabad–  The total 200 non-major ports are in
Vijaywada stretch of the Krishna– the following States:- Gujarat (42);
Godavari river system along with the Maharashtra (48); Tamil Nadu (15);
Kakinada–Pondicherry canal network, Karnataka (10); Kerala (17); Andhra
with a total length of 1,095 km (680 mi) Pradesh (12); Odisha (13); Goa (5);
in 2007. West Bengal (1); Daman and Diu (2);
 National Waterway 5: Mangalgadi– Lakshadweep (10); Pondicherry (2);
Paradeep and Talcher–Dhamara stretch and Andaman & Nicobar.
of the Mahanadi–Brahmani river system
Major Ports in India
Name of the Coast State
Port
Kandla Western Coast Gujarat
Mumbai Western Coast Maharashtra
Jawaharlal Nehru Western Coast Maharashtra
Marmugoa Western Coast Goa
Manglore Western Coast Karnataka
Cochin Western Coast Kerala
Haldia Eastern Coast West Bengal
Paradip Eastern Coast Odisha
Vishakapatnam Eastern Coast Andhra Pradesh
Chennai Eastern Coast Tamil Nadu
Ennore Eastern Coast Tamil Nadu
Tutikorin Eastern Coast Tamil Nadu
 Panambur is the site of sea port called
Interesting Facts about Major New Mangalore Port.
Ports in India  Paradip Port is an artificial and deep-
 Kandla Port is located on the Gulf of water port.
Kutch. It is the largest port of India by  Ennore Port, officially renamed
volume of cargo handled. Kamarajar Port Limited, is the only
 Mormugao Port is the leading iron ore corporatised major port and is registered
exporting port of India with an annual as a company.
throughput of around 27.33 million  Jawaharlal Nehru Port is the largest
tonnes of iron ore traffic. container port in India. It was formerly
known as Nhava Sheva port.
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GENERAL SCIENCE
 New Mangalore Port is a deep water all  Mumbai Port handles one-fifth of India’s
weather port and the only major port of foreign trade with predominance in dry
Karnataka. cargo and mineral oil from the Gulf
 Tuticorin Port is an artificial deep-sea countries.
harbour of India.  Tuticorin Port is officially known as VO
 Madras Port is the one of the oldest port Chidambaranar Port.
of India and the second largest port in
the country.
Important National Highways
National Highway Route Distance
NH-1 Jalandhar – Uri 663
NH-1A New Delhi-Ambala-Jalandhar-Amritsar 456
NH-2 Delhi-Mathura-Agra-Kanpur-Allahabad-Varanasi-Kolkata 1465
NH-3 Agra-Gwalior-Nasik-Mumbai 1161
NH-4 Thane and Chennai via Pune and Belgaun 1235
NH-5 Kolkata - Chennai 1533
NH-6 Kolkata – Dhule 1949
NH-7 Varanasi – Kanyakumari 2369
NH-8 Delhi-Mumbai-(vai Jaipur, Baroda and Ahmedabad) 1428
NH-9 Mumbai-Vijaywada 841
NH-10 Delhi-Fazilka 403
NH-11 Agra- Bikaner 582
NH-12 Jabalpur-Jaipur 890
NH-13 Sholapur-Mangalore 691
NH-15 Pathankot-Samakhiali 1526
NH-44 Shillong-Sabroom 630
NH-49 Cochin-Dhanshkodi 440
NH-52 Baihata-Junction NH-47 (near Saikhoaghat) 850
NH-58 Delhi-Mana 538
NH-65 Ambala-Pali 690
NH-75 Gwalior-Ranchi 955
NH-205 Ananthapur-Chennai 442
NH-209 Dindigul-Bengaluru 456
NH-217 Raipur-Gopalpur 508
NH-220 Kollam (Quilon)-Teui 265
Major Festivals State/Region

Makar Sankranti or Pongal Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.
Vasant Panchami Saraswati Puja by Bengalis, Oriyas and Biharis
Thaipusam or Kavadi Tamilnadu
Maha Shivaratri Popular throughout India
Holi Popular in North India.
Shigmo Goa

GENERAL SCIENCE
Vasant Navratri Popularly called navarathiri

Rama Navami Throughout India.
Gudi Padwa Celebrated by Marathas and Konkanis
Ugadi Karnataka ,Andrapradesh and Telungana
Vishu Kerala
Tamil New Year Tamil nadu
Hanuman Jayanti Throughout India
Bihu Assam
Sitalsasthi Throughout India
Vat Pournima Maharastra
Bonalu Telangana
Bathukamma Telangana
Rath Yatra Jagannath Temple
Raja Parba Orissa.
Guru Purnima North India
Mahalakshmi Vrata Throughout India
Onam Kerala
Raksha Bandhan Northern India.
Krishna Janmaashtami Throughout India
Gowri Habba Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu.
Ganesh Chaturthi Throughout India
Nuakhai Orissa (Kosal).
Navarathri Throughout India
Vijayadashami Throughout India
Deepavali Throughout India
Bhai dooj Throughout India
Kartik Poornima Varanasi
Chhath Bihar and Terai.
Prathamastami Orissa
Yatra Throughout India in all temples
Karthikai Deepam Tamil nadu
Kumbh Mela Allahabad and 12 years once in a Temple
23
GENERAL SCIENCE
Important Countries and their Parliament Names
United Nations Organization (UNO) 24 October 1945 after World War II in

The United Nations (UN) is order to prevent another such conflict. At its
an intergovernmental organization to founding, the UN had 51 member states;
promote international co-operation. A there are now 193. The headquarters of the
replacement for the ineffective League of United Nations is in Manhattan, New York
Nations, the organization was established on City, and experiences extraterritoriality.

GENERAL SCIENCE
Further main offices are situated  The Security Council (for deciding
in Geneva, Nairobi and Vienna. The certain resolutions for peace and
organization is financed by assessed and security).
voluntary contributions from its member  The Economic and Social
states. Its objectives include maintaining Council (ECOSOC) (for promoting
international peace and security, promoting international economic and social co-
human rights, fostering social and economic operation and development).
development, protecting the environment,  The Secretariat (for providing studies,
and providing humanitarian aid in cases of information, and facilities needed by
famine, natural disaster, and armed conflict. the UN).
 The name ‘United Nations’ was  The International Court of Justice (the
adopted of the suggestion of the US primary judicial organ) - English &
president F. D Roosewelt. French – official Languages.
 The preamble to the Charter was the  The United Nations Trusteeship
work of Field Marshal Smuts. Council (inactive since 1994).
 The main office of the UN was built in International Court of Justice sits at
1952, where the first meeting of the The Hague (Netherlands), while all
General Assembly was held in 1952. other organs of the UN are situated in
 Flag of UN: White UN emblem (two New York.
bent olive branches open at the top, UN System agencies include the World Bank
and in between them is world map) on Group, the World Health Organization,
a light blue background. the World Food Programme, UNESCO,
 Languages of UN: Official languages and UNICEF. The UN's most prominent
& Working Languages of General officer is the Secretary-General, an office
Assembly, Economic & Social Council held by South Korean Ban Ki-moon since
and Security Council– English, French, 2007.
Chinese, Russian, Arabic, Spanish. UN The Security Council (Policeman of the
Secretariat has English and French World)
only as its working languages. The Security Council is made up of 15

The UN has six principal organs: member states, consisting of 5 permanent
 The General Assembly (the main members—China, France, Russia, the
deliberative assembly). United Kingdom, and the United
25
GENERAL SCIENCE
States—and ten non-permanent members— to block adoption of a resolution, though not

Angola (term ends 2016), Chad (2015), debate. The ten temporary seats are held for
Chile (2015), Jordan (2015), Lithuania two-year terms, with member states voted
(2015), Malaysia (2016), New Zealand in by the General Assembly on a regional
(2016), Nigeria (2015), Spain (2016), and basis. The presidency of the Security Council
Venezuela (2016). The five permanent rotates alphabetically each month.
members hold veto power over UN
resolutions, allowing a permanent member
International Organizations and their Headquarters and Heads 2015
International Organization Headquarters Heads

Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) Rome, Italy José Graziano da Silva
(Director-General)
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) Vienna, Austria Yukiya Amano (Director-
General)
International Civil Aviation Organization Quebec, Canada Raymond Benjamin
(ICAO) (Secretary-General)
International Labour Organization (ILO) Geneva, Switzerland Guy Ryder (Director-General)
United Nations (UN) New York City, USA Ban Ki Moon (Secretary-
General)
United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) New York City, USA Anthony Lake (Executive
Director)
United Nations Educational, Scientific Paris, France Irina Bokova (Director-
and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) General)
United Nations Industrial Development Vienna, Austria Kandeh Yumkella (Director-
Organization (UNIDO) General)
World Food Programme (WFP) Rome, Italy Josette Sheeran (Executive
Director)
World Health Organization (WHO) Geneva, Switzerland Margaret Chan (Director-
General)
World Meteorological Organization (WMO) Geneva, Switzerland Michel Jarraud (Secretary-
General)
World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) Madrid, Spain Taleb Rifai (Secretary-General)
Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) Singapore Muhamad Noor (Executive
Director)
Association of Southeast Asian Nations Jakarta, Indonesia Surin Pitsuwan (Secretary-
(ASEAN) Generalm)
Commonwealth of Nations London, United Queen Elizabeth II (Head)
Kingdom
Council of Europe Strasbourg Thorbjørn Jagland (Secretary
General)
North Atlantic Treaty Organisation Brussels, Belgium Anders Fogh Rasmussen
26
GENERAL SCIENCE
(Secretary-General)
Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) Beijing, China Bolat Nurgaliyev (Secretary-
General)
South Asian Association for Regional Kathmandu, Nepal Ahmed Saleem (Secretary-
Cooperation General)
World Trade Organization (WTO) Geneva, Switzerland Roberto Azevedo (Director-
General)
African Development Bank Abidjan, Ivory Coast Donald Kaberuka (President)
Asian Development Bank Metro Manila, Haruhiko Kuroda (President)
Philippines
International Monetary Fund Washington, D.C., Christine Lagarde (Managing
United States Director)
World Bank Washington D.C., Jim Yong Kim (President)
United States
Fédération Internationale des Échecs (FIDE) Athens, Greece Kirsan Ilyumzhinov (President)
Fédération Internationale de Football Zürich, Switzerland Sepp Blatter (President)
Association (FIFA)
International Cricket Council (ICC) Dubai, United Arab N. Srinivasan (President)
International Olympic Committee (IOC) Lausanne, Thomas Bach (President)
Switzerland
International Paralympic Committee (IPC) Bonn, Germany Philip Craven (President)
Union of European Football Associations Nyon, Switzerland Michel Platini (President)
(UEFA)
Colombo Plan Colombo, Sri Lanka Patricia Yoon-Moi Chia
(Secretary-General)
EDU - Intergovernmental Organization (EDU) G. Irving Levance (Secretary-
General)
International Committee of the Red Cross Switzerland, Peter Maurer, Switzerland
England (President)
International Criminal Police Organization Lyon, France Ronald Noble (Secretary-
(Interpol) General)
International Federation of Red Cross and Geneva, Switzerland Tadateru Konoé (President)
Red Crescent Societies
International Maritime Organization London, United Koji Sekimizu (Secretary-
Kingdom General)
International Organization for Migration (IOM) Geneva, Switzerland William Lacy Swing (Director-
general)
International Telecommunication Union Geneva, Switzerland Hamadoun Touré (Secretary-
General)
Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical The Hague, Ahmet Üzümcü (Director-
Weapons (OPCW) Netherlands General)
Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries Vienna, Austria Mohammed S. Barkindo
(OPEC) (Secretary-General)
Universal Postal Union Bern, Switzerland Édouard Dayan (Director-
General)
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World Intellectual Property Organization Geneva, Switzerland Francis Gurry (Director-

(WIPO) General)
Secretaries-General of the United Nations:
No. Name Country of origin Took office Left office

1 Trygve Lie Norway 2 February 1946 10 November 1952
2 Dag Hammarskjöld Sweden 10 April 1953 18 September 1961
3 U Thant Burma 30 November 1961 31 December 1971
4 Kurt Waldheim Austria 1 January 1972 31 December 1981
5 Javier Perez de Cuellar Peru 1 January 1982 31 December 1991
6 Boutros Boutros-Ghali Egypt 1 January 1992 31 December 1996
7 Kofi Annan Ghana 1 January 1997 31 December 2006
8 Ban Ki-moon South Korea 1 January 2007 Incumbent
Language Days at UN:
In 2010, the UN's Department International UN Weeks:
of Public Information announced an initiative February 1st Week World Interfaith
of six "language days" to be observed Harmony Week
throughout the year, one for each official 19–23 April Global Soil Week
language, with the goal of celebrating 24–30 April World Immunization
linguistic diversity and learning about the Week
importance of cross-cultural communication. 4–10 May 2015 UN Global Road
 UN Arabic Language Day: 18 December Safety Week
(the date on which the United Nations 1–7 August World Breastfeeding
General Assembly designated Arabic as Week
the sixth official language of the United 4 -10 October World Space Week
Nations in 1973). 24 – 30 October International
 UN Chinese Language Day: first Disarmament Week
celebrated 12 November, now set on 20 9 – 15 November International Week of
April ("to pay tribute to Chang Jie). Science and Peace
 UN English Language Day: 23 April ("the
date traditionally observed as the United Nations International Years:
birthday of William Shakespeare"). 2016
 UN French Language Day: 20 March.  International Year of Pulses
 UN Russian Language Day: 6 June (the 2015
birthday of Alexander Pushkin)  International Year of Light and Light-
 UN Spanish Language Day: 12 October. Based Technologies

GENERAL SCIENCE
 International Year of Soils 2005-2015: International Decade for Action,

2014 “Water for life”.
 International Year of Small Island List of Important Summits of the World
Developing States G-20 Summits (1999)
 International Year of Crystallography The Group of Twenty Finance Ministers and
 International Year of Family Farming Central Bank Governors is a group of finance
2013 ministers and central bank governors from
 International Year of Water Cooperation 20 major economies: 19 countries plus the
 International Year of Quinoa European Union, which is represented by the
2012 President of the European Council and by the
 International year of Cooperatives European Central Bank. Chairperson- Tony
 International Year of Sustainable Energy Abott, Total Countries- 20
for All Countries= BRICS + G7 + Argentina,
2011 Australia, Indonesia, Mexico, South Korea,
 The International Year of Forests Saudi Arabia, Turkey
 The International Year of Chemistry • 9th G 20 Meeting 2014 – Brisbane,
 The International Year for People of Australia
African Descent • 10th G 20 Meeting 2015 – Antalya, Turkey
2010 • 11th G 20 Meeting 2016 – Hangzhou,
 The International Year of Biodiversity China
 The International Year for the • 12th G 20 Meeting 2017 – Germany
Rapprochement of Cultures • 13th G 20 Meeting 2018 – India
 The International Year of Youth BRICS Summits (2009)
United Nations International Decades: Countries (5)- Brazil, Russia, India, China
2015-2024: International Decade for People and South Africa
of African Descent. • 6th BRICS Summit 2014 – Fortaleza, Brazil
2014-2024: United Nations Decade of • 7th BRICS Summit 2015 – UFA, Russia
Sustainable Energy for all. • 8th BRICS Summit 2016 – New Delhi,
2011-2020: United Nations Decade on India
Biodiversity. G-7 Annual Summits (Earlier it was G8,
2010-2020: United Nations Decade for Now Russia suspended Temporarily)
Deserts and the flight against (1975)
Desertification.
29
GENERAL SCIENCE
Group of Seven Countries – France, • 24th ASEAN Summit 2014 (May)– Nay Pyi
Germany, Italy, Japan, United Kingdom, Taw, Myanmar
United States of America, Canada. • 25th ASEAN Summit 2014 (November)–
• 40th G8 Summit 2014 – Brussels, Belgium Nay Pyi Taw, Myanmar
• 41st G8 Summit 2015 – Schloss Elmau, • 26th ASEAN Summit 2015 (April)–
Germany Langkawi, Malaysia
• 42nd G8 Summit 2016 – Shima, Japan • 27th ASEAN Summit 2015 (November)–
• 43rd G8 Summit 2017 – Italy Manila, Philippines
• 44th G8 Summit 2018 – Canada East Asia Summit (EAS)
• 45th G8 Summit 2019 – France EAS meetings are held after annual ASEAN
SAARC Summits (South Asian leaders’ meetings.
Association for Regional Cooperation) • 9th East Asia Summit 2014 – Nay Pyi Taw,
(1985) Myanmar
HQ- Nepal , Secretary General- Arjun • 10th East Asia Summit 2015 – Kuala
Bahadur Thapa and Indian Representative at Lumpur, Malaysia
SAARC- Lakshmi Savithri • 11th East Asia Summit 2016 – Vientiane,
Countries (8)- Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Laos
Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri IBSA Summits (2003)
Lanka IBSA Dialogue Forum – India, Brazil, South
Theme of 18th SAARC Summit – ‘Deeper Africa.
Integration for Peace, Progress and • 7th IBSA Summit 2015 – New Delhi, India
Prosperity’ BIMSTEC Summits (Bay of Bengal
• 18th SAARC Summit 2014 – Kathmandu, Initiative for Multisectoral Technical and
Nepal Economic Cooperation(1997)
• 19th SAARC Summit 2016 – Islamabad, Total Countries (7)- Bangladesh, India,
Pakistan Myanmar, Nepal, Srilanka, Thailand, Bhutan.
ASEAN Summits (Association of South Chairmanship- Nepal
East Asian Nation) • 3rd BIMSTEC Summit 2014 – Nay Pyi Taw,
HQ- Jakarta, Indonesia , Total Countries- 10 Myanmar
and Secretary General- Le Luong Minh • 4th BIMSTEC Summit 2015 – Nepal
(Vietnam) APEC Summits (Asia Pacific Economic
INDIA IS NOT IN ASEAN COUNTRIES. Cooperation) (1989)

GENERAL SCIENCE
Total Countries- 21 , HQ- Singapore and 5. 18th BASIC Ministerial Meeting, 2014–
Executive Director- Alan Bolard New Delhi, India (Basic- Brazil, South Africa,
INDIA IS NOT IN APEC COUNTRIES. India, China)
• 26th APEC Summit 2014 – Beijing, China 6. 6th International Nuclear Energy Forum
• 27th APEC Summit 2015 – Philippines, ATOMEXPO 2014– Moscow, Russia
Manila 7. World Economic forum 2014– Abuja,
• 28th APEC Summit 2016 – Peru, Lima Nigeria (Sunil Bharti Mittal was the CO-
• 29th APEC Summit 2017 – Vietnam, Hanoi Chairperson this year)
Nuclear Security Summit (NSS) (2010) 8. Internet Governance Forum 2014–
Total Countries participated in the 2nd NSS Istanbul, Turkey
2012 summit was 53 countries. 9. NAM (Non Aligned Movement) Summit
• 3rd NSS 2014 – Hague, Netherlands 2015 – Venezuela.
• 4th NSS 2016 – Washington, USA 10. 83rd Interpol General Assembly–
NATO Summit (North Atlantic Treaty Monaco
Organization) (1949) Important Days in a Year
Total Countries- 28 , HQ- Belgium and January 01 : Global family day.
Secretary General- Jenus Stoltenberg (newly January 09 : NRI Day.
elected from Norway) January 10 : World laughter day.
INDIA IS NOT IN NATO SUMMIT January 12 : National Youth Day.
COUNTRIES. January 15 :Army Day.
• NATO 2014- Cardiff, UK January 23: Netaji Subhash Chandra bose
• NATO 2016- Warsaw, Poland birthday
OTHER SUMMITS:- January 26 : India's Republic Day
1. 16th International OPEC Summit, 2015– January 26 : International Customs day.
Paris, France January 28 : Lala lajpat rai birthday
2. 48th ADB Meeting, 2015– Baku, January 28 : Data protection day
Azerbaijan January 30 : Martyrs' Day
3. United Nations Climate Change Meeting, January 30 : World leprosy eradication day
2015– Paris, France February 04 : World Cancer day
4. 9th WTO Ministerial Conference, 2013– February 06 : International day against
Bali, Indonesia (10th WTO Ministerial female genital mutilation
Conference, 2014 Venue not yet decided) February 12 : Darwin day

February 12 : World day of the sick.
February 13 : Sarojini Naydu's birthday 31
GENERAL SCIENCE
February 14 : Valentine’s day April 2 : World autism day

February 20 : World day of social justice April 5 : National Maritime Day.
February 21 : International mother language April 7 :World Health Day.
day April 17 : World haemophilia day
February 22 : World scout day April 18 :World Heritage Day.
February 23 : World peace and April 22 :Earth Day.
understanding day April 23 : World book and copyright day
February 24 : Central Excise Day. April 25 : World Malaria day
February 28 : National Science Day. April 29 : International Dance day
Also check out: list of All Countries, their May 1 : International Labour Day (Workers
Capital and Currency Day)
March 4 : World day of fight against sexual May 3 :Press Freedom Day.
exploitation, National Security day. May 4 : Coal miner’s day
March 8 : International Women's Day May (2nd Sunday) : Mother's Day
March 13 : World kidney day May 8 :World Red Cross Day.
March 15 :World Disabled Day May 9 : Victory day
March 15 : World consumer right day. May 11 : National Technology Day.
March 20 : World day of theatre for children May 12 : International Nurses day
and young people. May 14 : World Migratory day
March 20 : International day for May 15 : International Day of the Family.
Francophonie May 17 :World Telecommunication Day
March 20 : World Sleep day (Information society day)
March 21 : World Forestry Day. May 21 : Anti-terrorism day
March 21 :International Day for the May 24 :Commonwealth Day.
Elimination of Racial Discrimination. May 31 :Anti-Tobacco Day.
March 22 : World water day June 4 :International Day of Innocent
March 23 :World Meteorological Day. Children Victims of Aggression.
March 24 : World T.B. day June 5 : World Environment Day.
March 24 : International day for achievers June 7 : International level crossing
March 25 : International day of awareness day
remembrance-victims of slavery and June 8 : World ocean day
transatlantic slave trade June 12 : World day against child labour
March 27 : World Drama day June(2nd Sunday) : Father’s Day.

GENERAL SCIENCE
June 14 : World blood donor day September 14 : Hindi day, World first aid
June 17 : World day to combat day
desertification and drought September 16 :World Ozone Day. Engineer's
June 20 : World Refugee day. day in India
June 21 : Father's day, World Music day. September 21 :Alzheimer's Day,
June 23 : United Nation’s public service day International day of peace
June 23 : International Widow’s day September 25 : Social justice day
June 26 : International day against Drug September 26 : Day of the Deaf.
abuse & Illicit Trafficking. September 27 : World Tourism Day.
June 27 : World Diabetes Day. October 1 : International day of the Older
July 1 : National Doctor’s day. person
July 6 :World Zoonosis Day. October 2 : Mahatma Gandhi birthday,
July 11 : World Population Day. International day of non-violence
July 12 : World Malala day October 3 :World Habitat Day, World nature
July 18 : Nelson Mendela International day day
July 28 : World Nature conservation day October 4 :World Animal Welfare Day.
August 2 : International Friendship Day. October 5 : World Teacher’s day.
August 3 : Independence day of Niger October 8 : Indian Air Force Day.
August 5 : Independence day of upper volta October 9 : World Post Office day.
August 6 : Hiroshima Day October 10 : National Post Day.
August 9 : International day of World’s October 11 : International girl child day
indigenous people October 12 : World Arthritis day.
August 9 : Quit India Day and Nagasaki Day. October 13 :UN International Day for
August 12 : International Youth day National disaster reduction.
August 15 : Independence Day of India October 14 :World Standards Day.
August 23 : International day for the October 15 : World White Cane Day( guiding
remembrance of the slave trade and its the Blind)
abolition October 16 : World Food Day.
August 29 : National Sports Day. October 17 : International day for the
September 5 : Teachers' Day (Dr. eradication of poverty.
Radhakrishnan’s birthday) October 20 : World statistics day
September 5 : Forgiveness day October 24 : UN Day, World development
September 8 :World Literacy Day. information Day.
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GENERAL SCIENCE
October 30 :World Thrift Day. December 10 :Human Right Day.
November 1 : World vegan day December 11 : International Mountain day.
November 5 : World Radiography day. December 14 : International Energy day.
November 9 : World services day December 18 : International Migrants day.
November 14 : Children's Day in India, December 19 : Goa’s liberation day.
Jawaharlal Nehru birthday December 20 : International Human
November 16 : International day for solidarity.
Endurance December 23 :Kisan Divas Farmer's Day).
November 17 : World Student day, National December 29 : International Bio-diversity
Journalism day day
November 18 : World Adult day. Important Research Centres in India

Research Institute Centre
November 19 : World Citizen day.
Indian Agricultural Research New Delhi
November 20 : Africa Industrialization Day, Institutes
Universal children day. Central Rice Research Institute Cuttack
Central Sugarcane Research Coimbatore
November 21 : World Television day, World
Institute
Fisheries day. Central Potato Research Shimla
Institute
November 25 : World Non-veg day.
Central Tobacco Research Rajamundry
November 26 : Law day Institute
November 29 : International Day of Central Forest Research Dehradun
Institute
Solidarity with Palestinian People.
National Sugar Research Kanpur
November 30 : Flag day. Institute
Indian Lac Research Institute Ranchi
December 1 : World Aids Day.
National Dairy Research Karnal
December 2 : World Computer literacy day, Institute
International day of abolition of slavery Central Fuel Research Institute Dhanbad
Central Leather Research Chennai
December 3 : International day of People Institute
with disabilities, World conservation day Central Mining Research Dhanbad
Institute
December 4 : Navy Day.
Central Drug Research Lucknow
December 5 : International volunteer day for Institute
economic and social development. Indian Meteorological Pune and Delhi
Observatory
December 7 :Armed Forces Flag Day, Raman Research Centre Banglore
International civil aviation day. Central Scientific Instruments Chandigarh
Organization
December 9 : The International day against
National Metallurgical Jameshedpur
corruption. Laboratory

GENERAL SCIENCE
Central Salt & Marine Chemical Bhavnagar Research Institute

Research Institute Centre for Cellular and Hyderabad
Archaeological Survey of India, Kolkata Molecular Biology
India Museum
Central Jute Technological Kolkata
Health and Medicinal Research Centres
Research Institutes
Central Coconut Research Kasergod, in India
Institute Kerala Health and Medicinal Centres
Taxtile Research Institute Ahmedabad Research
All India Institute of Medical New Delhi All India Malaria New Delhi
Science (AIIMS) Research Institute
National Aeronautical Bangalore National Tuberculosis Bangalore
Laboratory Institute
National Institute of Panaji Indian Cancer Research Mumbai
Oceannography Centre
National Geophysics Research Hyderabad Indian Veterinary Mukteshwar(H.P),
Institute Research Institute Izzatnagar (U.P)
Indian Institute of Petroleum Dehradun Institute of Ayuvedic Jamnagar (Gujarat)
Central Building Research Roorkee Studies and Research
Institute Vallabh Bhai Patel Chest Delhi
Central Road Research New Delhi Institute
Institute Haffkine Institute Mumbai
Tata Institute of Fundamental Mumbai National Institute of Delhi
Research Communicable Diseases
High Altitude Research Gulmarg School of Tropical Kolkata
Laboratory Medicine
National Botanical Research Lucknow Central Leprosy Chengelpet
Institute Training and Research
Central Food Technological Mysore Institute
Research institute P.G.I. Medical Education Chandigarh
Central Glass AND Ceramic Kolkata and Research
Research Institute National Institute of Hyderabad
National Environmental Nagpur Nutrition
Engineering Research institute National Institute of Ahmedabad
Central Electro-Chemical Karaikudi Occupational Health
Research Institute King Institute of Guindy (Chennai)
Indian Institute of Chemical Kolkata Preventive Medicine
Biology All India Institute of Kolkata
Industrial Toxicology Research Lucknow Hygiene & Public Health
Centre
Centre Mechanical Engineering Durgapur
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GENERAL SCIENCE
Important Indian Musicians and their Instruments
Flute Hari Prasad Chaurasia, Raghunath Seth, Pannalal Ghosh, B. Kunjamani,

N. Neela, Rajendra Prasanna, Rajendra Kulkarni, Prakash Saxena
Ghatam T.H. Vinayakaram
Guitar Vishwamohan Bhatt, Jatin Mazumdar, Brij Bhushan Kabra, Sri Krishna Nalin,
Keshav Jalegaonkar
Harmonium Jnan Prakash Ghosh, Shri Purushottam Walawalkar, Appa Jalgaonkar
Israj Alauddin Khan
Jal Tarang Himanshu Biswas, Jagdish Mohan, Ghasiram Nirmal, Ram Swaroop Prabhakar
Mandolin U. Sriniwas, Khagen Dey, Nagen Dey
Mohan Veena Pt. Vishwa Mohan Bhatt
Mridang Thakur Bhikam Singh, Palghat Raju, Dr. Jagdish Singh, T.K. Moorthy, U.K.
Sivaram, K.R. Mani
Nadaswaram Sheikh Chinna Maulana, Rajaratna Pillai, Niru Swami Pillai, N. Krishna
Pakhawaj Ustad Rehman Khan, Gopal Das, Chhatrapati Singh, Ramakant Pathak, Arun
Saiwal
Piano V. Balsara
Rudra Veena Ustad Sadiq Ali Khan, Zia Moinuddin Dagar Asad Ali Khan
Santoor Pt. Shiv Kumar Sharma, Tarun Bhattacharya, Bhajan Sopori
Sarangi Ustad Bendu Khan, Pt. RAmnarayanji, Aruna Kale, Santosh Mishra, Indralal,
Ashiq Ali Khan
Sarod Ustad Amjad Ali Khan, Ustad Ali Akbar Khan, Ustad Aluddin Khan, Hafiz Khan,
Zarin Daruwala, Mukesh Sharma, Chandan Rai, Biswajit Roy Chaudhury, Sharan
Rani
Shehnai Ustad Bishmillah Khan, Daya Shankar, Jagannath, Hari Singh,Shailesh Bhagwat,
Ali Ahmed Hussain Khan
Symphony Zubin Mehta
Sitar Pt. Ravi Shankar, Nikhil Banerjee, Ustad Vilayat Khan, Shujaat Khan, Jaya
Biswas, Debu Choudhary, Nishaat Khan, Bande Hasan, Shahid Parvej, Uma
Shankar Mishra, Buddhaditya Mukherjee, Anushka Shankar
Surbahar Imrat Khan, Anapurna Devi
Tabla Ustad Shafat Ahmed Khan, Sapan Choudhry, Zakir Hussain, Latif Khan, Allah
Rakha Khan, Gudai Maharaj, Kishan Maharaj, Payaz Khan, Sukhbinder Singh
Veena S. Balachandran, Badruddin Dagar, Kalyan Krishna Bhagavatar, B. Doraiswami
Iyengar Gopal Krishna, Ashad Ali
Vichitra Veena Ahmed Raja khan, Abdul Aziz Khan
Violin Dr. N. Rajan, Vishnu Gobind (VG) Jog, L. Subramaniam, Sangitha Rajan,
Kunakkadi Baidyanathan, Shishir Choudhry, Lagudi Jayaraman, R.P. Shastri,
Suryadev Pawar, Govind Swami Pillai, T.N. Krishnan
Various Forms of Dances in India: steps, and poses. 8 Classical Dances in
Classical Dance: A classical dance form India.
characterized by grace and precision of
movement and by elaborate formal gestures,

GENERAL SCIENCE
Folk Dance: Folk dancing is a simple dance a reason like harvest of food.
form meant for group performance based on
State Classical Dance Folk Dance
Kerala Kathakali, Mohiniyattum Chakyar koothu, Theyyam, kaikotti kalai,
Mudiyettu, Chavittu nadagam, Koodiyattam
(UNESCO recognised), Krishna aattam., Thullal,
Thirayattam
Andra Pradesh Kuchipudi Kolattam, Dhimsa, Veera natyam.
Assam Sattriya Ojapali, Bihu, Ankia Naat, Jhumur Naach,
Bayurumba, Ali ai ligang
Arunachal - Lion and peacock dance, Cardo chham, Aji
Pradesh lamu.
Bihar - Jata jatin, Bikhari.
Chattisgarh - Panthi, Raut Nacha.
Gujarat - Dandya Ras, Garba, Bhavi, Tippani
Goa - Fugdi, Tarangamel, Dhala, Dekhni(Going to be
Classical recognised), Dhangar
Haryana - Saang, Khoria, Gugga Dance, Teej, Phag
Punjab - Luddi, Pandass, Kikkli, Giddha, Bhangra(Going
to be Classical recognised)
Jammu and - Hikat, Rouf, Kud, Dumhal

Kashmir
Jharkhand - Karma or Munda
Karnataka - Bayalata, Dollu Kunitha, Veeragase,
Yakshagana(Going to be Classical recognised)
Lakshadeep - Lava
Madhya Pradesh - Teratali, Charkula, Jawara, Matki, Maanch,
Grida Dance.
Mizoram - Cheraw Dance(Bamboo Dance)
Manipur Manipuri Dhol Cholom, Thang Ta(form of martial art)
Maharastra - Tamasha, Pavri Nah, Lavani.
Odisha Odissi Ghumura Dance, Chau Dance, Baagh
Naach(Tiger Dance), Dalkhai, Karma Naach.
Puducherry - Garadi
Rajasthan - Kalbelia, Bhavai, Kach hi Ghodi, Ghoomar
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Tamilnadu Bharathanatyam Kamandi, Devarattum, Kummi, Kollatum,

Karagattum, Mayil attum, Paambattum,
Puliyattum, Poikal kudirai, Bommalattum,
Therukoothu.
Tripura - Hojagiri, Goria, Labang Boomani.
Sikkim - Singhi Chham, Yak Chaam, Rechungma.
Telangana - Perini Thandavam, Dappu, Lambadi.
Himachal - Kinnauri Nati, Namgen
Pradesh
Nagaland - Chang Lo or Sua Lua
Uttarakhand - Chholiya, Thali Jadda, Jhainta
Uttar Pradesh Kathak Rasiya, Swang , Nautanki, Naqual
West Bengal - Chau, Gumbhira, Kalikapatadi, Alkap, Gaundiya
Nritya(Going to be Classical recognised)
Calude Bernard
Important Fathers of Various Fields
Father of Genetics : Rev. Gregor Mendel
Father of Biology : Aristole
Father of Modern Genetics : Bateson
Father of Modern Biology: Linnaeus
Father of Human Genetics/ Biochemical
Father of Antibiotics : Alexander Fleming
genetics : Arachibald Garrod
Father of Taxonomy : Carolus Linnaeus
Father of Experimental Genetics : T.H.
Father of Immunology : Edward Jenner
Morgan
Father of Microbiology : Anton van
Father of Haploid Genetics / Neurospora
Leenuwenhoek
Genetics : Dodge
Father of Modern Microbiology : Louis
Father of Ecology : Theophrastus
Pasteur
Father of Cloning : Ian Willmut
Father of Medical Microbiology : Robert Koch
Father of Plant anatomy : Grew
Father of Pathology : Rudolph Virchow
Father of Histology (Microscopic anatomy) :
Father of Bacteriology : Robert Koch
Malpighi
Father of Virology : W.M.Stanley
Father of Cytology : Robert Hooke
Father of Embryology : Aristotle
Father of modern Cytology : Swanson
Father of Modern Embryology : Ernst Von
Father of Paleontology : Leonard da Vinci
Baer
Father of modern Paleontology : Cuvier
Father of Physiology : Stephan Hales
Father of Concept of Evolution: Empedocles
Father of Modern experimental physiology :
Father of Botany: Theophrastus

Father of Modern Botany : Bauhin Father of Phycology: Wilhelm Wundt
Father of Zoology : Aristotle Father of ATP cycle: Lipmann
Father of Biochemistry : Liebig Father of Chemotherapy :Paul Ehrlich
Father of Epidemiology : John Snow Father of Anatomy : Herophilus
Father of Plant Pathology : de Bary Father of Modern Anatomy : Andreas
Father of Modern Pathology : Rudolf Virchow Vesalius
Father of Genetic Engineering : Paul Berg Father of actinobiology / radiation biology :
Father of Gene therapy : Anderson HJVS Muller
Father of Ethology : Konard Lorentz Father of Homeopathy : Hahnemann
Father of Endocrinology : Thomas Addison Father of Ayurveda : Charka
Father of Eugenics : Galton Father of Surgery and Plastic Surgery :
Father of Gerantology : Korenchevsk Susruta
Father of Palynology : Erdtman Father of Blood circulation : William Harvey
Father of Stress physiology : Hans Selye Father of Medicine : Hippocrates
Father of Electrocardiography : Einthoven Father of Blood Group : Landsteiner
Father of DNA Fingerprinting : Alec Jeffery Father of Polio Vaccine : Jonas Salk
Father of Mycology : Micheli Father of Green Revolution: Norman Borlau
Father of Bryology : Hedwig
39
GENERAL SCIENCE
40
Blood (a) Plasma (b) Blood Corpuscles
 Blood is a fluid connective tissue. Plasma
 The quantity of blood in the human's This is the liquid part of blood. 60% of the
body is 7% of the total weight. blood is plasma. Its 90% parts is water, 7%
 This is a dissolution of base whose pH protein, 0.9% salt and 0.1% is glucose.
value is 7.4. Remaining substances are in a very low
 There is an average of 5-6 litres of quantity.
blood in human body. Function of plasma - Transportation of
 Female contains half litre of blood less digested food, hormones, excretory product
in comparison to male. etc. from the body takes place through
 Blood consists of two parts:- plasma.
41
GENERAL SCIENCE
Serum - When Fibrinogen & Protein is and spleen. Its life span is from 1 to 2 days.
extracted out of plasma, the remaining Nucleus is present in the White Blood
plasma is called serum. Corpuscles. Its main function is to protect
Blood Corpuscles (40% part of the blood) the body from the disease. The ratio of RBC
This is divided into three parts: and WBC is 600:1.
 Red Blood Corpuscles (RBC) Blood Platelets or Thrombocytes:
Red Blood Corpuscles (RBC) of a mammal is  It is found only in the blood of human
biconcave. There is no nucleus in it. and other mammals.
Exception - Camel and Lama. RBC is formed  There is no nucleus in it.
in Bone Marrow ( At the embroynic stage its  Its formation takes place in Bone
formation takes place in liver.) Its life span is marrow.
from 20 days to 120 days. Its destruction  Its life span is from 3 to 5 days.
takes place in liver & spleen. Therefore, liver  It dies in the Spleen.
is called grave of RBC. It contains  Its main function is to help in clotting
haemoglobin, in which haeme iron containing of blood.
compound is found and due to this the colour Function of Blood
of blood is red. Globin is a proteinous  To control the temperature of the body
compound which is extremely capable of and to protect the body from diseases.
combining with oxygen and carbon dioxide.  Clotting of blood.
The iron compound found in haemoglobin, is  Transportation of oxygen, Carbon
haematin. The main function of RBC is to dioxide, digested food, conduction of
carry oxygen to all cells of the body and hormones etc.
bring back the carbon dioxide. Anaemia  To help in establishing coordination
disease is caused due to the deficiency of among different parts.
haemoglobin. At the time of sleeping RBC is Blood Group of Human
reduced by 5% and people who are at the  Blood group was discovered by
height of 4200 metres RBC increases by 30% Lansteiner in 1900.
in them.  For this, he was awarded with Nobel
 White Blood Corpuscles (WBC) or Prize in the year 1930.
Leucocytes  The main reason behind the difference
In shape and constitution this is similar to in blood of human is the Glyco protein
Amoeba. Its formation takes place in Bone which is found in Red Blood Corpuscles
Marrow, lymph node and sometimes in liver
42
GENERAL SCIENCE
called antigen. Antigen are of two Some important Minerals necessary for
types- Antigen A and Antigen B. Human Body are:
 On the basis of presence of Antigen or Calcium
Glyco Protein, there are four group of Sources: Milk, dairy foods, cereals (Ragi),
blood in human: meat, vegetables, fruits (Sitaphals)
 That contains Antigen A - Blood Group Properties: Component of bones and teeth,
A. helps in blood clotting, Muscle contraction,
 That contains Antigen B- Blood Group Conduction of nerve impulses etc. Acts as
B. cofactor of Myosin ATPase.
 That contains both the Antigen A and Deficiency: Defective bones and teeth,
B - Blood Group AB. Tetany and rickets, Loss of muscle
 That contains neither of the Antigens- coordination
Blood Group O. Phosphorous
 An opposite type of protein, is found in Sources: Milk, dairy foods, Cereals, eggs,
blood plasma. This is called antibody. fish, meat etc.
This is also of two types- Antibody "a" Properties: Formation of bones and teeth,
and Antibody "b". Component of nucleic acids, energy
 Blood Group O is called the Universal molecules and coenzymes
Donor because it does not contain any Deficiency: Poor body growth, weak bones
antigen. and teeth.
 Blood Group AB is called Universal Sodium
Receptor because it does not contain Sources: Table salt, vegetables
any antibody Properties: Maintains water balance, blood
Minerals and Deficiency Diseases pressure and nervous system.
Minerals are specific kinds of nutrients that Deficiency: Improper muscle contraction;
the body needs in order to function properly. nervous depression; loss of Na+ in urine,
A mineral deficiency occurs when the body dehydration
doesn’t obtain the required amount of a Potassium
mineral. Minerals helps in building strong Sources: Vegetables, molasses, banana, date
teeth and bones, skin, hair, proper function etc
of nerves, muscle contraction, maintains Properties: Osmotic balance; muscle
heart functions, etc. contraction; nerve impulse conduction
43
GENERAL SCIENCE
Deficiency: Nervous disorder; poor muscle Iodine

control leading to paralysis Sources: Sea foods, leafy vegetables, water,
Magnesium iodized salt etc.
Sources: Green leafy vegetables, soyabean Properties: Normal functioning of thyroid;
etc component of thyroxin so controls BMR
Properties: Cofactor for enzymes e.g. of Deficiency: Goiter, Cretinism, Myxoedema
hexokinase Zinc
Deficiency: Heart and vascular irregularities; Sources: Beet, cheese
dilated blood vessels, loss of muscle Properties: Cofactor of carbonic anhydrase so
coordination. helps in CO2 transport, Vitamin A
Chlorine metabolism
Sources: Common salt Deficiency: Reduced respiration
Properties: Main anion of ECF, Acid- base Copper
balance Sources: Liver, spleen, kidneys, peanuts,
Deficiency: Vomiting and hypochloremic beet etc
alkalosis Properties: Cofactor for enzymes e.g.
Iron oxidases and tyrosinase, Component of
Sources: Liver, eggs, molasses, cereals, haemocyanin.
pulses, leafy vegetables, apple, guava etc. Deficiency: Anaemia
Properties: Formation of Hb so help in O2 Fluorine
transport, Component of cytochromes of Sources: Water, sea fish, cheese
ETS, Cofactor of catalase enzyme. Properties: Maintains enamel and prevents
Deficiency: Anaemia; skin problems dental caries.
Deficiency: Dental caries.
44
GENERAL SCIENCE
45
GENERAL SCIENCE
46
GENERAL SCIENCE
47
GENERAL SCIENCE
Miscellaneous Facts: ER) or otherwise (Smooth ER). Involved in

1. Prokaryotes have no definite membrane protein & macro-molecule synthesis. Golgi
bound nucleus. A cell wall is present only in complex is another system of membranes
plants & not in animal cells. Plasma generally observed in the form of flattened
membrane is composed of phospholipids. sacs. It primarily acts as a processing center
Enclosed within the plasma membrane is the for complex macromolecules like
cytosol in which are embedded the various glycoproteins.
organelles. 3. Chloroplasts are centers of photosynthetic
2. Endoplasmic Reticulum is a network of activity & found only in photosynthetic cells.
flattened membranes forming tunnels & They are bound by a double membrane,
generally have ribosome attached (Rough enclosing another system of membranes, the
48
GENERAL SCIENCE
lamellae or thylakoids & the matrix (Stroma). 9. The chiasmata or crossover formation
Chlorophylls & carotenoids are localized in takes place during the pachytene stage. The
the thylakoids. Mitochondria have double distinctive feature of Anaphase I of meiosis I
membrane. is that it involves the sepration of the whole
4. Peroxisomes function to get rid the cell of chromosomes & not chromatids as in case of
toxic substances & are found in high number mitosis. The second meiotic division is almost
in liver. identical to the mitotic division except that
Glyoxysomes contain oxidative enzymes 10. A particular virus has either DNA or RNA
including those for fat metabolism. never both which is protected by a protein
5. Each ribosome is made up of RNAs & coat called capsid.
proteins. Lysosomes are bags of hydrolyzing 11. Plants consist of three types of Simple
enzymes. A vacuole is surrounded by tissue. The first, called parenchyma, is found
tonoplast. Animal cells have few small throughout the plant and is living and
vacuoles or none at all. Centrioles help in capable of cell division at maturity. The cells
organizing the mitotic spindle are generally of parenchyma tissue carry out many
absent in plant cells. specialized physiological functions—for
6. The individual molecules with their example, photosynthesis, storage, secretion,
associated proteins are called chromosomes. and wound healing. They also occur in the
These chromosomes consist of two xylem and phloem tissues. Collenchyma, the
chromatids. The two chromatids intersect at second type of ground tissue, is also living at
a knot like structure called centromere. maturity and is made up of cells with
7. The stages of mitosis are prophase, unevenly thickened primary cell walls.
metaphase, anaphase & telophase. In mitosis Collenchyma tissue is pliable and functions
the chromatids are separated & hence the as support tissue in young, growing portions
numbers of chromosomes remain the same. of plants.
8. Meiosis involves tow divisions, meiosis I & Sclerenchyma tissue, the third type, consists
meiosis II. The prophase I of Meiosis I is of cells that lack protoplasts at maturity and
divided into five substages: leptotene, that have thick secondary walls usually
zygotene, pachytene, diplotene & diakenesis. containing lignin. Sclerenchyma tissue is
Then comes metaphase I, anaphase I, important in supporting and strengthening
telophase I, prophase II, metaphase II, those portions of plants that have finished
anaphase II & telophase II. growing.
49
12. Complex tissues are xylem & phloem. 16. A nucleotide is a chemical compound that
Xylem is meant for the transport of water & consists of a heterocyclic base, a sugar, and
mineral elements. one or more phosphate groups. In the most
Phloem is meant for the transport of food common nucleotides the base is a derivative
material from the leaves to the consumption of purine or pyrimidine, and the sugar is
organs. The epidermis is the outermost layer pentose - deoxyribose or ribose. Nucleotides
& is primarily protective in function. The are the structural units of RNA & DNA.
epidermis of leaves is interrupted by fine Groups of three nucleotides, known as
pores called stomata which are guarded by a codons, code for the 20 amino acids that
pair of guard cells. The guard cells together form the foundation of proteins. The triplet
with the adjacent epidermal cells constitute code results in 64 codons. UAA, UAG & UGA
the stomata. do not code for any amino acid & are called
13. Eight essential amino acids are needed to non sense codons. They are in fact the stop
maintain health in humans: leucine, signals. AUG is likewise the start signal but it
isoleucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, also codes for methionine if it falls in the
theonine, tryptophan, and valine. middle. The code is universal & is identical in
14. The process of development of an all organisms.
embryo, & subsequently the whole plant 17. The indirect flow of information from DNA
from an unfertilized egg is called to proteins is called the Central Dogma.
parthenogenesis. However HIV virus has a reverse
15. There are three types of RNA: mRNA transcriptase mechanism of RNA to DNA
(carries message from the DNA for protein synthesis.
synthesis), rRNA 18. Adenine pairs with thymine & guanine
(ribosomes attached) & tRNA (transfer of with cytosine. Uracil is found in RNA only &
amino acids to the site of protein synthesis). Thiamine in DNA only. Except for the mature
All the three types of RNA are synthesized RBCs all human cells contain the complete
from DNA, one of whose stand act as a genome. The human genome is estimated to
template. This process is called transcription. contain 20,000-25,000 genes & 3.2 billion
The process of decoding the transcribed chemical nucleotides bases. Less than 2% of
information is called translation during which genome codes for proteins.
the genetic code is converted to language of 19. The outermost layer of the kidney is
proteins. called the cortex. Beneath the cortex lies the
medulla. Nephrons, extend between the
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GENERAL SCIENCE
cortex and the medulla. The primary

is diastole. The right atrioventricular valve is
structure of nephrons is the glomerulus, a
formed from three flaps of tissue and is
network of extremely thin blood vessels
called the tricuspid valve, while the left
called capillaries. The glomerulus is
atrioventricular valve has two flaps and is
contained in a cuplike structure called
called the bicuspid or mitral valve. The other
Bowman’s capsule, from which extends a
two valves are located between the
narrow vessel, called the renal tubule. This
ventricles and arteries. They are called
tube twists and turns until it drains into a
semilunar valves. The right semilunar valve
collecting tubule that carries urine toward the
is called the pulmonary valve. The left
renal pelvis. Part of the renal tubule, called
semilunar valve, between the left ventricle
Henle’s loop, becomes extremely narrow,
and aorta is called the aortic valve. The first
extending down away from Bowman’s
heart sound Lub is caused by the closure of
capsule and then back up again in a U shape.
atrio-ventricular vales & Dub by closure of
20. The right side of the heart is responsible
aortic & pulmonary valves.
for pumping oxygen-poor blood to the lungs,
22. Diabetes insipidus (DI) is characterized
while the left side of the heart is responsible
by excretion of large amounts of severely
for pumping oxygen-rich blood to the body.
diluted urine due to deficiency of vasopressin
The oxygen-poor blood feeds into two large
& is not characterized by high sugal level.
veins, the superior vena cava and inferior
Diabetes Milletus is caused by deficiency of
vena cava, which empty into the right atrium
insulin.
of the heart. The right atrium conducts blood
23. About 55 percent of the blood is
to the right ventricle, and the right ventricle
composed of a liquid known as plasma. The
pumps blood into the pulmonary artery. The
rest of the blood is made of three major
pulmonary artery carries the blood to the
types of cells: RBCs (erythrocytes – 44% by
lungs, where it picks up a fresh supply of
volume), WBCs (leukocytes 1%), and
oxygen and eliminates carbon dioxide. The
platelets (thrombocytes).
blood, now oxygen-rich, returns to the heart
24. There are several varieties of white blood
through the pulmonary veins, which empty
cells, including neutrophils, monocytes, and
into the left atrium. Blood passes from the
lymphocytes. A foreign substance which,
left atrium into the left ventricle, from where
when introduced into the body, stimulates
it is pumped out of the heart into the aorta.
the production of an antibody is called an
21. Contraction of ventricles is known as
antigen.
systole & the muscular relaxation that follows
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GENERAL SCIENCE
25. In classification the sequence is kingdom, 29. Lathyrism - prevalent in some areas of
phylum, class, order, family, genus & India and Africa, where grass pea (Lathyrus
species. For eg. In Homo Sapiens, Homo is sativus) is consumed (used as an adulterant
the genus & sapiens is the species. in flour). If used for 2-6 months it causes
26. Whittaker’s classification which divides spastic paralysis of the legs.
the organisms into five kingdoms is the most Pollutant
popular. The kingdoms are: Monera (blue A pollutant is substance or energy introduced
green algae), Protista (Diatoms), Fungi, into the environment that has undesired
Plantae & Animalia. effects, or adversly affects the usefulness of
27. Amphibians & reptiles have 3 chambered a resource. The pollutants may be inorganic,
hearts. However crocodiles have four biological or radiological in nature.
chambered heart.
28. Interferon refers to any of a group of
antiviral proteins produced by animals.
Air Pollution (x) Freon

Major Air Pollutants Photochemical pollutants: The nitrogen
The major air pollutants are following: dioxide by absorbing sunlight in blue and U.
(i) Carbon monoxide (CO) V. region decomposes into nitric oxide and
(ii) Sulphur dioxide (SO2) atomic oxygen followed by a series of other
(iii) Oxides of nitrogen (NO2 and NO ) reactions producing O3, formaldehyde,
(iv) Smoke, dust acrolein and peroxyacylnitrates.
(v) Ammonia Smog
(vi) Chlorine and hydrogen chloride It is a mixture of smoke and fog in
(vii) Chlorinated hydrocarbons suspended droplet form. It is of two types :
(viii) Mercaptans (a) London smog or classical smog : It is
(ix) Zn and Cd coal smoke plus fog.
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GENERAL SCIENCE
(b) Photochemical smog or Los Angeles Water Pollution

smog : The oxidised hydrocarbons and The contamination of water by foreign
ozone in presence of humidity cause substances which would constitute a health
photochemical smog. hazard and make it harmful for all purposes
Acid Rain (domestic, industrial or agriculture etc.) is
The oxides of C, N and S present in the known as water pollution.
atmosphere, dissolve in water and produce Sources of Water Pollution
acids which lowers the pH of water below (i) Domestic sewage
5.5. (ii) Industrial waters
The acids are toxic to vegetation, react with (iii) Suspended particles
marble and damage buildings. (iv) Wastes from fertilizer
Green House Effect Control of Water Pollution
The retention of heat by the earth and (i) Recycling of waste water
atmosphere from the sun and its prevention (ii) Special techniques
to escape into the outer space is known as (iii) Waste-water reclamation
green house effect. Global warming refers to Aerobic and Anaerobic Oxidation
an increase in average global temperature. The oxidation of organic compounds present
(i) Global warming would result in rise in sea in sewage in presence of good amount of
level due to increased rate of melting of dissolved or free oxygen (approx. 8.5 ml/l)
glaciers and floods. by aerobic bacterias is called aerobic
(ii) Increase in infectious diseases like oxidation. When dissolved or free oxygen is
Malaria, Dengue etc. below a certain value the sewage is called
Ozone Layer and its Depletion stale anaerobic bacterias bring out
The ozone layer, existing between 20 to 35 purification producing H2S, NH3, CH4,
km above the earth’s surface, shield the (NH4)2S etc. This type of oxidation is called
earth from the harmful U. V. radiations from anaerobic oxidation. The optimum value of
the sun. The U. V. radiations cause skin D.O. for good quality of water is 4-6 ppm (4-
cancer, cataract of eye, and are harmful to 6 mg/l). The lower the concentration of D.O.,
vegetation. Depletion of ozone is caused by the more polluted is the water.
oxides of nitrogen The presence of Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD)
chlorofluorocarbons also increase the It is defined as the amount of free oxygen
decomposition of O3 . required for biological oxidation of the
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GENERAL SCIENCE
organic matter by aerobic conditions at 20°C (b) These days, aspirin is used for the
for prevention of heart attack as it prevents
a period of five days. Its unit is mg/l or ppm. clotting of blood.
An average sewage has BOD of 100 to 150 (c) In case of severe pain, narcotics like
mg/l. morphine, codeine and heroin can also be
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) used.
It is a measure of all types of oxidisable Antipyretics
impurities (biologically oxidisable and It brings down body temperature during high
biologically inert organic matter such as fever. e.g.-
cellulose) present in the sewage. COD values
are higher than BOD values.
Soil or Land Pollution
The addition of substances in an indefenite
proportion changing the productivity of the
soil is known as soil or land pollution. Antimalarials
Sources of Soil Pollution These are drugs which cure malaria e.g-
(i) Agricultural pollutants Quinine, Chloroquine.
(ii) Domestic refuge Antiseptics and Disinfectants
(iii) Radioactive wastes Antiseptics
(iv) Farm wastes • prevents growth of microorganisms or may
Pesticides even kill them.
The chemical substances used to kill or stop • Not harmful for humans
the growth of unwanted organisms are called Example:
pesticides. (i) Dettol (chlorohexenol+ terpeneol)
Chemotherapy (ii) Bithional
Branch of chemistry dealing with treatment (iii) Salol
of diseases by suitable chemicals. Disinfectants
Analgesics • kills and prevents growth of
Drugs used for relieving pain. microorganisms.
(a) Aspirin (2-acetoxy benzoic acid) is the • Harmful for humans.
most common analgesic. It has antipyretic Examples:
(temperature lowering) properties also. (1% of solution of phenol)
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GENERAL SCIENCE
Tranquilizers level in stomach. These are mainly weak

Used to treat mental diseases and stress. bases. Examples– Mg(OH)2,KHCO3
They act on central nervous system and Antifertility Drug
reduce anxiety. The drugs which are used to control the
e.g.- Barbituric acid, luminal, seconal. pregnancy are known as antifertility drugs or
Antibiotics oral contraceptives. These are essentially a
Chemicals which are produced by some mixture of estrogen and progesterone
specific micro-organism and are used to kill derivatives. Examples – Ormeloxifene, mix
other micro-organism. e.g.- Penicillin, pristone
Streptomycin (for tuberculosis), Artificial Sweeteners
Chloroamphenicol (for typhoid). The chemical compounds that are added to
Broad spectrum antibiotics can kill all range foods to make them sweet.
of micro-organisms. e.g.- Tetracyclin, (a) Saccharin is the first artificial sweetener
Sulphadrugs used as it is water soluble sodium or calcium
These are derivative of sulphanilamide and salt.
have antibacterial powers. (b) Nowadays aspartame is used as artificial
Antihistamines sweetener, but it is unstable at cooking
Drugs used to treat allergy such as skin temperatures.
rashes. They are called so because allergic (c) Alitame, another sweetener is more
reactions are caused due to the liberation of stable than aspartame at cooking
histamine in the body. temperature.
(a) These drugs are also used for treating Food Preservatives
conjunctivitis (inflammation of conjuctiva) The chemical substances that are added to
and rhinitis (inflammation of nasal mucosa). the food to prevent their decaying and to
(b) The commonly used antihistamines drugs retain their nutritive value for long periods.
are diphenyl hydraamine, chloropheniramine, • Sodium benzoate is the most commonly
promethazine and cetrizine. used preservative.
Antacids Soaps and Detergents
Antacids are the drugs which neutralize Soaps
excess acid in the gastric Juices and give Sodium or potassium salts of long chain fatty
relief from acid indigestion. They remove the acids, e.g., stearic oleic and palmitic acids.
excess acid and raise the pH to appropriate Soaps containing sodium salts are formed
55
by heating fat (i.e., Glyceryl ester of fatty (c) Non-ionic detergents are esters of high
acid) with aqueous sodium hydroxide molecular mass.
solution. This process is called Cell and Tissue
saponification. The cell is the basic living unit of all
• Soaps do not work in hard water. Hard organisms. The simplest organisms consist of
water contains Ca+2 and Mg+2 ions. These a single cell whereas humans are composed
ions form insoluble calcium and of trillions of cells. The cell theory proposed
magnesium soaps respectively when sodium by J. M. Schleiden and T. Schwann, states
or potassium soaps are dissolved in hard that organisms are composed of cells and cell
water. These insoluble soaps separate as is the basic unit of life. Rudolf Virchow
scum in water and are useless as cleansing proposed that all cells arise by division of pre
agent. existing cells. Every cell is surrounded by a
Synthetic Detergents plasma membrane that forms a cytoplasmic
Sodium salts of Alkylbenzene Sulphonic compartment. The plasma membrane is
acids. They are better cleansing agents than selectively permeable and serves as a
soap. These are of three types: selective barrier between the cell and its
(a) Anion detergents are those detergent surrounding environment.
which contain large part of anion. Prokaryotic Cells:
(i) For preparing anionic detergent, long Prokaryotic cells are bounded by a
chain alcohols are first treated with plasma membrane but have little or no
concentrated H2S, giving alkyl hydrogen internal membrane organization. They have a
sulphates. These are neutralized with alkali nuclear area rather than a membrane-
to give anionic detergent. bounded nucleus. Prokaryotes typically have
(ii) They are also effective in slightly a cell wall and Ribosomes and may have
acidic solutions. In acidic solution, they form propeller like flagella. Prokaryotes lack
alkyl hydrogen sulphate which is soluble in membrane bound organelles. Thus cell
water whereas soaps form insoluble fatty organelles like mitochondria, Golgi bodies,
acids. endoplasmic reticulum are all absent in
(b) Cationic detergents are mostly prokaryotes.
acetates or chlorides of quaternary amines. Eukaryotic Cells
These detergents have germicidal properties Eukaryotic cells have a membrane-bounded
and are extensively used as germicides. nucleus and cytoplasm, which is organized
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GENERAL SCIENCE
into organelles; the fluid component of the (iv) Cells produce and receive chemical and
cytoplasm is the Cytosol. electrical signals that allow them to
• Plant cells differ from animal cells in that communicate with one another.
they have rigid cell walls, plastids, and large (v) Each cell contains a copy of the genetic
vacuoles; cells of most plants lack Centrioles. information of the individual within the
• Membranes divide the cell into membrane- nucleus. Specialized cells (Gametic cells) are
bounded compartments; this allows cells to responsible for transmitting that genetic
conduct specialized activities within small information to the next generation.
areas of the cytoplasm, concentrate
molecules, and organize metabolic reactions. Introduction to the Cell
A system of interacting membranes forms Both living and non-living things are
the endomembrane system. composed of molecules made from chemical
Cytoskeleton is a dynamic internal elements such as Carbon, Hydrogen,
framework made of Microtubules, Oxygen, and Nitrogen. The organization of
microfilaments, and intermediate filaments. these molecules into cells is one feature that
 The cytoskeleton provides structural distinguishes living things from all other
support and functions in various types matter. The cell is the smallest unit of matter
of cell movement, including transport that can carry on all the processes of life.
of materials in the cell. Cell Theory consists of three principles:
 Cilia and flagella function in cell a. All living things are composed of one or
movement. Each consists of a 9 + 2 more cells.
arrangement of microtubules. b. Cells are the basic units of structure and
Functions of the Cell function in an organism.
(i) The cell is the smallest part to which an c. Cells come only from the replication of
organism can be reduced that still retains the existing cells.
characteristics of life. Internal Organization
(ii) Cells produce and secrete various 1. Cells contain a variety of internal
molecules that provide protection and structures called organelles.
support to the body. 2. An organelle is a cell component that
(iii) All the movements of the body occur performs a specific function in that cell.
because of specific cells called muscle cells.
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Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
Lack a nucleus and have no Contain nucleus and membrane
membrane-bound organelles bound organelles
Typical organisms bacteria Protoctista, fungi, plants, animals
Typical size ~ 1-10 µm ~ 10-100 µm (sperm cells) apart
from the tail, are smaller)
DNA circular linear molecules (chromosomes)
with histone proteins
Ribosomes 70S 80S
Cytoplasmatic structure very few structures highly structured by membranes
and a cytoskeleton
Cell movement Flagellae/cilia made of flagellin flagellae and cilia made of tubulin
Mitochondria none 1 - 100 (though RBC’s have none)
Chloroplasts none in algae and plants
Organization usually single cells single cells, colonies, higher
multicellular organisms with
specialized cells
Cell division Binary fission (simple division) Mitosis (normal cell replication)
Meiosis (gamete production)
Parts of the Eukaryotic Cell  The cell membrane is a fluid mosaic of
The structures that make up a Eukaryotic cell proteins floating in a phospholipid bilayer.
are determined by the specific functions  The cell membrane functions like a gate,
carried out by the cell. Thus, there is no controlling which molecules can enter and
typical Eukaryotic cell. Nevertheless, leave the cell.
Eukaryotic cells generally have three main  The cell membrane is constantly being
components: A cell membrane, a nucleus, formed and broken down in living cells.
and a variety of other organelles.
Cell Membrane Cytoplasm
 This "Selectively Permeable" membrane  Everything within the cell membrane
regulates what passes into and out of the which is not the nucleus is known as the
cell. cytoplasm.
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GENERAL SCIENCE
 Cytosol is the jelly-like mixture in which  Mitochondria are the sites of aerobic
the other organelles are suspended, so respiration, in which energy from organic
cytosol + organelles = cytoplasm. compounds is transferred to ATP. For this
Nucleus reason they are sometimes referred to as the
 The nucleus contains the cell’s ‘Power house’ of the cell.
chromosomes (human-46, fruit fly -6, fern -  Mitochondria are surrounded by two
1260) which are normally uncoiled to form a membranes, the smooth outer membrane
chromatinic network, which contain both serves as a boundary between the
linear DNA and proteins, known as histones. mitochondria and the cytosol & the inner
These proteins coil up (dehydrate) at the membrane has many long folds, known as
start of nuclear division, when the cristae.
chromosomes first become visible.  Mitochondria have their own DNA, and
 Whilst most cells have a single nucleus new mitochondria arise only when existing
some cells (macrophages, phloem companion ones grow and divide. They are thus semi-
cells) have more than one and fungi have autonomous organelles.
many nuclei in their cytoplasm – they are
coenocytic Ribosomes:
 The nucleus is surrounded by a double  Ribosomes are not surrounded by a
membrane called the nuclear envelope, membrane.
which has many nuclear pores through which  Ribosomes are the site of protein
mRNA, and proteins can pass. synthesis in a cell. They are the most
 Most nuclei contain at least one nucleolus. common organelles in almost all cells.
 Some are free in the cytoplasm
The nucleoli are where ribosomes are
(Prokaryotes); others line the membranes of
synthesised. Ribosomes translate mRNA into
rough endoplasmic reticulum (rough ER).
proteins.
 When a nucleus prepares to divide, the  They exist in two sizes: 70s are found in
nucleolus disappears. all Prokaryotes, chloroplasts and
Mitochondria mitochondria, suggesting that they have
 Mitochondria are found scattered evolved from ancestral Prokaryotic
throughout the cytosol, and are relatively organisms. They are free-floating. 80s found
large organelles (second only to the nucleus in all eukaryotic cells – attached to the rough
and chloroplasts). ER (they are rather larger).
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 Groups of 80s ribosomes, working  Lysosomes are common in the cells of

together, are known as a polysome. Animals, Protoctista and even Fungi, but rare
Endoplasmic Reticulum: in plants.
 The ER is a system of membranous Centriole:
tubules and sacs.  This consists of two bundles of
 The primary function of the ER is to act as microtubules at right-angles to each other
an internal transport system, allowing  At the start of mitosis and meiosis, the
molecules to move from one part of the cell centriole divides, and one half moves to each
to another. The endoplasmic reticulum end of the cell, forming the spindle.
(ER) is a network of folded internal  The spindle fibres are later shortened to
membranes in the cytosol. pull the chromosomes apart.
 Rough ER is studded along its outer Plant Cell Structures:
surface with ribosomes that manufacture Most of the organelles and other parts of the
proteins. cell are common to all Eukaryotic cells. Cells
 Smooth ER is the site of lipid synthesis from different organisms have an even
and detoxifying enzymes. greater difference in structure.
Golgi Apparatus: Plant cells have three additional structures
 The Golgi apparatus is the processing, not found in animal cells:
packaging and secreting organelle of the cell, • Cellulose cell walls
so it is much more common in glandular • Chloroplasts (and other plastids)
cells. • A central vacuole.
 The Golgi apparatus is a system of
membranes, made of flattened sac-like Cellulose Cell Wall
structures called cisternae.  One of the most important features of all
Lysosomes: plants is presence of a cellulose cell wall.
 Lysosomes are small spherical organelles.  Fungi such as Mushrooms and Yeast also
 Lysosomes are the site of protein digestion have cell walls, but these are made of chitin.
– thus allowing enzymes to be re-cycled  The cell wall is freely permeable (porous),
when they are no longer required. They are and so has no direct effect on the movement
also the site of food digestion in the cell, and of molecules into or out of the cell.
of bacterial digestion in phagocytes.  The rigidity of their cell walls helps both to
 Lysosomes are formed from pieces of the support and protect the plant.
Golgi apparatus that break off.
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 Plant cell walls are of two types: a). Chloroplasts (and other plastids)
Primary (cellulose) cell wall. b). Secondary  A characteristic feature of plant cells is the
(lignified) cell wall. presence of plastids that make or store food.
Vacuoles  The most common of these are
 The most prominent structure in plant chloroplasts – the site of photosynthesis.
cells is the large vacuole.  Each chloroplast encloses a system of
 The vacuole is a large membrane-bound flattened, membranous sacs called
sac that fills up much of most plant cells. thylakoids, which contain chlorophyll.
 The vacuole serves as a storage area, and  The thylakoids are arranged in stacks
may contain stored organic molecules as well called grana.
as inorganic ions.  The space between the grana is filled with
 The vacuoles of some plants contain cytoplasm like stroma.
poisons (eg tannins) that discourage animals Comparison of Structures Between
from eating their tissues. Animal and Plant Cells
 Whilst the cells of other organisms may
also contain vacuoles, they are much smaller
and are usually involved in food digestion.
Typical Animal Cell Typical Plant Cell
Organelles Rough ER
Nucleolus (within nucleus)
Smooth ER
Rough ER
80S Ribosomes
Smooth ER
Cytoskeleton
80S Ribosomes
Golgi apparatus
Cytoskeleton
Cytoplasm
Golgi apparatus
Mitochondrion
Cytoplasm
Vesicle
Mitochondria
Chloroplast and other
Vesicles
plastids
Vacuoles
Lysosomes
Centrioles
Additional structures Flagellae Cellulose cell wall
Plasma membrane Plasmodesmata
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Multicellular Organization Colonial Organizations

In a unicellular organism, one cell carries out  A colonial organization is a collection
all of the functions of life. In contrast, most of genetically identical cells that live
cells in a multicellular organism are together in a closely connected group.
specialized to perform one or a few functions  Many of the cells of the colony carry
– more efficiently. Because of cell out specific functions that benefit the
specialization, the cells of multicellular whole colony.
organisms depend on other cells in the  Colonial organisms (e.g. sponges,
organism for their survival. coral) appear to straddle the border
Tissue, Organs, and Organ Systems between a collection of unicellular
1. In most Multicellular Organisms, we find organisms and a true multicellular
the following organization: organism. They lack tissues and
 Cellular Level: The smallest unit of life organs, but do exhibit the principle of
capable of carrying out all the cell specialization.
functions of living things. Transport of Substances across the
 Tissue Level: A group of cells that Membrane
performs a specific function in an The transport of substances across the
organism. plasma membrane can be of two types
 Organ Level: Several different types depending upon the expenditure of energy.
of tissue that function together for a 1. Passive transport: The transport of
specific purpose. substances across the membrane which does
 Organ System Level: Several organs not require expenditure of energy is called
working together to perform a Passive transport. It is of two types-
function. The different organ systems (i) Diffusion: The process of movement of
in a multicellular organism interact to substances from the region of higher
carry out the processes of life. concentration to the region of lower
2. Plants also have tissue and organs, concentration so as to spread the substance
although they are arranged somewhat uniformly in the given space is known as
differently from those of animals – e.g. diffusion.
vascular tissue. For example: Transport of CO2 and O2
3. The four plant organs are: Roots, Stems, across the membrane.
Leaves and Flowers (ii) Osmosis: Diffusion of water from a
region of higher concentration to a region of
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GENERAL SCIENCE
lower concentration across the semi example of micro organisms are bacteria,
permeable membrane is called osmosis. For virus, protozoa, fungi and algae.
example: Movement of water across • Microorganisms range in size from 0. 015m
selectively permeable membrane. to more than 100 micron.
Types of Osmosis: • Microorganisms can be unicellular or
(a) Endosmosis: Movement of water inside Multicellular. Bacteria, Protozoans and some
a cell. algae are unicellular while most of the algae
(b) Exosmosis: Movement of water out of and fungi are Multicellular.
the cell. • Microorganisms can be autotrophic or
2. Active transport: The process of heterotrophic. Some bacteria, few fungi and
transport of molecules across the plasma viruses are heterotrophes while algae and
membrane against the concentration some fungi are Autotrophes.
gradient requires energy and is known as • Microorganisms can reproduce sexually,
active transport. For example: The
asexually or both.
transport of glucose, amino acids and ions
Viruses
occurs through active transport.
Viruses term is a Latin word which means
Tissues
venom or poison. Viruses are minute
• Group of cells having a common origin and
microorganisms much smaller than bacteria
performing similar functions are called
(size ranges from 0.015 – 0.2 micron) and
tissues.
can be seen only with the help of an electron
• A Meristematic tissue is a group of similar
microscope. M.W. Beijerinck (1898)
cells that are in a continuous state of demonstrated that the extract of infected
division. These tissues are in general called plants of tobacco causes infection in healthy
Meristems. plants and called the fluid as contagium
• The Meristematic cells when lose their
vivum fluidum.
power of division differentiate into
W.M. Stanley (1935) showed that viruses
Permanent tissues. The cells of these
could be crystallised and crystals consist of
tissues are either living or dead, thin walled
proteins.
or thick walled.
Characteristics of Viruses
Microorganisms • They are not free living.
• Microorganisms are very tiny organisms • They grow and multiply only inside other
which can be seen under microscope. Some living cells.
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• Outside a living system, a virus is like a • Saprophytic bacteria obtain their food from
non-living substance. It neither respires nor organic remains such as corpses; animal
reproduces outside the host. excreta, fallen leaves etc. e.g. Pseudomonas.
• They are a link between living and non- • Symbiotic bacteria form mutually beneficial
living things. association with other organisms. E.g.
• A virus is a nucleoprotein and the genetic Rhizobium forms association with different
material is infectious. legumes.
• The protein coat is called Capsid that • Escherichia coli lives in human intestine
protects the DNA/RNA. and synthesises vitamin B and K.
• Antibiotics have no effect on viruses as • Parasitic bacteria draw their nourishment
they do not have a metabolism of their own. from other living organisms called hosts eg.
• Viruses found in plants are known as plant Vibrio cholerae (causes cholera), Salmonella
viruses. Similarly, they are categorised as typhi (causes typhoid) etc.
animal viruses or bacterial viruses or • Bacteria reproduce asexually by binary
Bacteriophages. fission under favourable conditions. The cell
Disease Causing Viruses (Harmful division is of simple type called amitosis.
Viruses) During unfavourable conditions, bacteria
Many human diseases like influenza, reproduce by endospore formation.
common cold, measles, mumps, chicken pox, • Bacteria reproduces sexually by
rabies, etc., are caused by viruses. One of conjugation. It was first discovered by
the most fatal disease caused by a HIV Lederburg and Tatum in Escherichia coli.
(Human Immunodeficiency Virus) virus is • Bacteria Rhizobium help in N2 fixation in
AIDS (Acquired Immuno Deficiency soil, they occur in root nodules of leguminous
Syndrome). It spreads through sexual plants.
contact with an infected person. In 1971, Cyano bacteria
T.O. Diener discovered very simple smallest • They are also known as blue green algae.
infections agents called Viroids. They contain They made the earth’s atmosphere oxygenic.
only RNA, Capsid is absent. They are autotrophs and many of them fix
Bacteria atmospheric nitrogen as Ammonia with the
• Bacteria have Autotrophic as well as help of structure called heterocyst.
Heterotrophic nutrition. • Representatives of this group are
• Bacteria show both aerobic and anaerobic Anabaena, Oscillatoria, Nostoc, Spirulina etc.
respiration.
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Bacteria are not only harmful to us or to saprophytes or parasites causing diseases in

plants but these are very useful for human plants and animals.
beings, animals and plant life. • Mycoplasmas are known to cause pleuro-
1. Antibiotics are prepared from bacteria like pneumonia in cattle and witche's broom in
streptomycin is prepared from Streptomyces plants.
grisiens. Chloromycin is prepared from S. Protozoa
venezuelae. Terramycin is prepared from S. • Protozoa are a group of single celled
rimosus. Penicillin was the first antibiotic eukaryotic organisms which are classified as
discovered by Alexander Fleming in 1929. animals. The mode of nutrition is
2. Some bacteria are called nitrifying bacteria heterotrophic and show motality. Some
as they convert nitrogen of ammonia (NH3) examples are: Amoeba, Paramecium,
into nitrates. Trypanosoma, Entamoeba and Plasmodium.
3. Bacterium lactic acid (Lactob a cillus sp) Some protozoans like Amoeba, Paramecium,
are found in milk, which convert lactose Euglena etc have contractile vacuoles for
sugar of milk into lactic acid, because of osmoregulation.
which milk becomes sour. • Asexual reproduction is by binary fission
4. Bacteria are useful in vinegar industry. (e.g Amoeba, Paramecium, Euglena) or
Vinegar is made from sugar solution in the by multiple fission (e.g Plasmodium and
presence of Acetobacter aceti. Amoeba)
5. In Gobar Gas plants cow-dung as well as • Paramecium is known as slipper
other excreta are collected and subjected to animalcule.
bacterial action. The bacterial degradation of • Sir Ronald Ross (1896) was the first to
cellulose releases inflammable gases observe oocytes of Plasmodium in female
consisting mainly of methane. The gas is Anopheles (mosquito).
used for domestic cooking. • Laveran (1880) discovered that malaria is
Mycoplasma caused by a protozoan parasite, Plasmodium
Simplest and smallest known microbes, next vivax.
to virus, are the Mycoplasmas. Mycoplasmas Useful effects of Protozoa
are bacteria that lack cell wall. Due to • Protozoa help considerably in the
absence of cell wall they are not affected by treatment of waste and sewage because they
many common antibiotics. They do not have feed on fungi and bacteria which decompose
any particular shape and grow as organic matter.
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• Being simplest animal they are used as 2. Some medicines are prepared from fungi.
laboratory animals for research. These medicines are penicillin, ergot,
• Entamoeba lives in the large intestine of chaetomin and griseoflavin.
humans and feeds on the lining and causes 3. Alcohol and alcoholic drinks are produced
amoebic dysentery (pain in the abdomen and by a process called fermentation of cereals
repeated motions). by yeast Saccharomyces.
• Trypanosoma lives in the blood stream of 4. Yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) is used
human beings, cattle and wild animals cause in making bread, cakes, idli and dosa, etc.
a disease known as sleeping sickness. Yeast is rich in vitamin B (Riboflavin) and
Fungi protein.
 Fungi are non-green hence heterotrophic 5. Some fungi are decomposers and are
in their mode of nutrition. They may be helpful in decomposing organic waste. This
saprophytes (growing on dead organic helps in recycling of nutrients in the
matter) or parasites (drawing food from biosphere.
living plants and animals as their hosts) or a • Rhizopus stolonifer is the common bread
few are symbiotic (living with co-host in mould fungus.
symbiosis), as in lichens. • Some parasitic fungi cause diseases in
 Fungi are eukaryotes with cell walls plants. For example. Puccinia causes rust
containing chitin. Most fungi reproduce both diseases in wheat, Ustilago causes smut
sexually and asexually by means of spores. disease in wheat.
When a fungal spore lands in a suitable spot, • Albugo causes white rust in mustard
it germinates. family.
Imperfect fungi (deuteromycetes) lack a • Aspergillus causes a disease called
sexual stage. Most reproduce asexually by aspergillosis in humans.
forming conidia. A lichen is a symbiotic • Aspergillus flavus produces a toxin
combination of a fungus and a phototroph aflatoxin which is carcinogenic and can
(an alga or cyanobacterium). potentially contaminate food such as nuts.
Economic importance of fungi Algae
1. Mushrooms and Morels are edible fungi Algae are water loving green plants
used as delicious vegetables all over the found growing in almost all water places.
world. Agaricus campestris is common edible The algal growth floats on water surface and
mushroom. looks like foam or soap lather. It is called
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water bloom : For example Microcystics, • Algae growing inside the body of animals
Anabaena, Oscillatoria, etc. are called Endozoic. For example Chlorella
grows within the tissue of Hydra.
Green algaes: Algae are plants because
• Cephaleuros virescens grows as a parasite
they have chlorophyll, cellulosic cell wall and on tea leaves causing red rust disease of tea.
contain chlorophyll a, b and starch as Useful Algae: 1. Algae are major source of
food for organisms. A popular vegetable of
reserve food. Examples are
Japan is prepared from Laminaria. Chlorella
Chlamydomonas, Volvox, Spirogyra. is an alga which contains more protein than
Blue green algae (Cyanobacteria): the egg. Spirulina is also a good source of
protein.
Contain phycocyanin (cyanin = blue)
2. Agar is obtained from red algae. This
pigment in addition to chlorophyll. Examples product is used in laboratory for various
are Nostoc, Anabena, Oscillatoria. experiments.
Red algae: Contain phycoerythrin (erythrin • Laminaria digitata and Fucus sp. are largely
known for extraction of iodine hence used to
= red) pigment in addition to chlorophyll a
treat goitre.
and d and phycocyanin. • Certain marine brown algae and red algae
Example : Polysiphonia. produce large amount of hydrocolloids (water
Brown algae: Include fucoxanthin, carotene holding substances). For example alginic acid
and xanthophylls in addition to chlorophyll to extracted from Laminaria
give brown colour to the plants. Life Processes
Examples are Fucus and Laminaria. Brown Plants and animals both have important parts
algae yields iodine. called organs that enable them to live.
Diatoms: Contain a golden brown pigment Organs are complex structures that have a
called diatoxanthin in addition to chlorophyll specific function.
a and c. Unicellular algae may be oval, Respiration
spherical or elongated in shape and are Respiration is a process where the body
microscopic in size. breaks down glucose with the help of
• Several algal forms grow on other plants oxygen. It is a part of metabolic process
(algae, angiosperms) as Epiphytes. For where energy molecule is released while
example Oedogonium, Cladophora, carbon dioxide and water are produced.
Vaucheria, etc. Energy contained in food is ‘unlocked’ or
Some blue-green algae grow as Endophytes transferred to the organism by the process of
inside other plants. For example Anabaena respiration. Respiration takes place in the
growing inside the leaf of Azolla (fern), mitochondria of the cell.
Nostoc inside the thallus of Anthoceros Respiration may be divided into two
(hornwort) and Anabaena, Nostoc and categories :
Oscillatoria inside the coralloid root of Cycas. (i) Aerobic respiration: It is a process of
• Algae growing on the bodies of animals are cellular respiration that uses oxygen in order
described as Epizoic. For example to break down respiratory substrate which
Cladophora crispata grows on snail shell.
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then releases energy. Glycolysis occurs in This cycle takes place in mitochondria and
cytoplasm of the cell. In this process, glucose only in presence of oxygen yielding NADH
undergoes partial oxidation to form two and FADH2.
molecules of pyruvic acid.
(ii) Anaerobic respiration: It is a process

of cellular respiration that takes place in
absence of oxygen, there is incomplete
breakdown of respiratory substrate and little
energy is released.
Endocrine System in Human Beings
The chemical carrying the message is called
hormone and the group of specialised cells
Krebs cycle or citric acid cycle : It was
which secrete these hormones is called
discovered by Hans krebs in 1937. This is
endocrine glands.
also known as tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA
cycle).
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Transportation Blood
 The coordinated process of carrying out Blood is liquid connective tissue.
proper distribution of materials as oxygen,
water, minerals and organic food among Composition of Blood
the cells is called transportation. Plasma: It is the pale yellowish fluid with a
 Transport system in animals is called the total volume of 2-3 litres in a normal adult.
circulatory system. Its contents are 90% water and the rest 10%
Blood Circulatory System includes protein, inorganic ions and organic
There are two types of blood circulatory substances.
systems: Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes): These are
(i) Open Circulatory System: The blood red in colour, due to the presence of
enters and circulates in the interstitial spaces haemoglobin. They do not have a nucleus.
(space between the tissues). The blood White Blood Cells (Leucocytes): They are
vessels are open-ended as they open into the responsible for the defense system in the
common cavities called the haemocoel, e.g. body. WBCs are colourless, without
insects. haemoglobin
(ii) Closed Circulatory System: The blood White Blood cells are categorised in the
always remains inside the blood vessels and following types –
never comes in direct contact with the cells.
Blood Platelets: They facilitate blood Disorder of Circulatory System

clotting so as to prevent loss of body fluids. Hypertension: Increase in the blood
Heart pressure. Normal b.p., must be 120/80 mm
The human heart is a muscular, cone shaped Hg. A continuous or sustained rise in the
organ about the size of a fist. Heart is arterial blood pressure is known as
situated behind the sternum, between the hypertension
lungs in the thoracic cavity. The human heart Atherosclerosis: It refers to the deposition
is four chambered. In human beings the of lipids (especially cholesterol) on the walls
blood circulation is called double lining the lumen of large and medium.
circulation because the blood passes twice Arterio Sclerosis: Calcium salts precipitate
through the heart during one round of with cholesterol to harden the deposition and
circulation. thickening of arteries. It may lead to rapture
of wall, blood clot formation or thrombosis.
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Thrombosis may lead to heart attack and environment of the body, interpreting the
even death. stimuli and producing the appropriate
Heart Failure: Loose in effective blood response to these stimuli.
pumping by heart. It is also called congestive Neuron - The unit of nervous system. The
heart failure. neuron is a special cell which can receive and
Cardiac Arrest: Sudden damage of heart conduct impulses, sized arteries. This results
muscles, which cause stopping of heart beat. in heart attack or stroke.
Also known as heart attack.
Angina: Also called Angina pectoris. It is Vitamin Malnutrition:
caused due to unavailability of enough Vitamin form very little part of diet but are
oxygen to the heart muscles. very important from functional point of view.
Nervous System Deficiency of one or more vitamins can be
The nervous system is concerned with seen in the form of clear symptoms.
receiving stimuli from the external or internal 1. Vitamins and Health
2. Bulk Minerals in the Human Diet
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3. Trace Minerals important to Human Health
Protein Malnutrition environmental services for the

Due to poverty, people can’t include importance of health of community.”
appropriate quantity of protein in their diets  Disease may also be defined as
and suffer from malnutrition. morphological (structural),
• Protein deficiency causes Kwashiorkar physiological (functional) or
disease in children in which body swells due psychological disturbance in the body
to inflammation. Patient does not feel hungry or body parts caused by some
and becomes irritated. Skin becomes yellow, external agencies which may be non-
dry and fragile with black spots. parasitic (e.g. deficiency of nutrients)
Health & Hygiene or may be parasitic (caused by
 According to World Health Organisation viruses, bacteria, fungi, etc.). Disease
(WHO) health is defined as “a state of causing micro-organisms are known as
complete physical, mental and social well Pathogens.
being and not merely the absence of Types of Diseases
disease. Diseases are broadly classified into two
 Hygiene is defined as the science and categories, congenital (genetic) and
practice of maintaining good health. acquired.
It requires caring of one’s own body and (i) Congenital Diseases: Congenital
the immediate surroundings. The major diseases are caused due to defective
aspects of personal hygiene are development of embryo or defective
cleanliness, physical exercise, rest, sleep inheritance, e.g. haemophillia, colour
and healthy habits. blindness.
 Community and Personal health: (ii) Acquired Diseases: These diseases
Community health can be defined as “all develop after birth. Acquired diseases are of
the personal health along with the two kinds, infectious and noninfectious.
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(a) Infectious/Communicable Diseases: coughing, sneezing, speaking and spitting,

These diseases are caused by e.g., whooping cough, tuberculosis,
pathogenes/infectious agents such as diphtheria, common cold.
bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoans, worms,
etc. These diseases can spread from (ii) Indirect Transmission
diseased person to healthy person by means This embraces a variety of
of air (droplet method), water, food, insects, mechanisms including the traditional five F’s
physical contact, etc. e.g., tuberculosis, – flies, fingers, fomites, food and fluid.
malaria, diarrhoea, etc. (a) Transmission of micro-organism
(b) Non-infectious/Non-communicable through water and food (vehicle-borne
Diseases: They are diseases which remain transmission), e.g., acute diarrhoea, typhoid,
confined to a person. They are neither cholera, polio, hepatitis A, food poisoning
present at birth nor spread form one person and intestinal parasites all are transmitted by
to another. The diseases are caused due to water and food.
some specific factors. They many be caused (b) Fomites include contaminated
due to improper functioning of an organ inanimate object. For example soiled clothes,
(short sightedness, hypertension, arthritis), towels, handkerchiefs, cups, spoons, toys.
hormonical imbalance (diabetes, dwarfism), Diseases transmitted by fomites–diptheria,
allergy, cancer, inadequate diet (anaemia, eye and skin infection.
goitre), etc. (c) Vector borne transmission
occurs when the infectious agent is conveyed
Means of Spread by an insect to a susceptible host, Mechanical
Communicable diseases may be transmitted transmission of the infectious agent through
from the source of infection to susceptible an insect occurs by houseflies. In some cases
individual in many different ways: the infectious agent multiples in the insect
(i) Direct Transmission (biological transmissions) and then is
(a) Direct contact: Infection may be transported to susceptible host. For example
transmitted by direct contact from skin to transmission of malaria by mosquito. Another
skin, e.g.,diseases transmitted by direct way is dissemination of microbial agent by
contact include leprosy, skin diseases and air to a suitable portal of entry, usually the
eye infections (like conjunctivitis) respiratory tract. Dust is responsible for this
(b) Droplet infection: Direct project kind of transmission.
of a spray of droplets of saliva during
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General Preventive Measures acquired form of active immunity. Vaccine

(a) Safe drinking water: Drinking water acts as antigen which stimulates the
should be filtered to remove suspended inoculated person to produce antibodies
particles and boiled, ozonized and treated which prevents healthy person from the
with chlorine before drinking to avoid water disease against which he has been
borne diseases like typhoid, cholera, inoculated. The ability to make antibodies is
hepatitis etc. retained for many years though not for life.
(b) Proper disposal of waste: Garbage Children are regularly vaccinated
should not be dumped here and there rather against diptheria, tetanus, whooping cough,
it should be thrown in covered garbage cans polio and small pox. Vaccines for cold,
and burnt or buried for disposal. Sewage influenza, measles and rabies have been
carrying drains should be covered. developed. All vaccines whether they contain
(c) Control of vectors : Growth and germs or their toxins are antigens, there
breeding of animals like mosquitoes, rats, main purpose is to stimulate the body to
flies, cockroaches should be controlled by produce antibodies.
keeping surroundings clean, spraying Viral Diseases
insecticides, removing stagnant water from (a) Jaundice or hepatitis
populated areas. Hepatitis or liver inflammation is a disease
Immunity related to liver. The cause of this diseases is
It involves circulatory system. It is the hepatitis virus, it propagate through
strongest of the body’s defence mechanisms. contaminated water, food or injected
(a) Natural Immunity: Natural immunity needle. Hepatitis may be of A, B, C, D, E or
can be acquired by recovering from the G type but A and B are more infectious.
attack of a disease. Once the body has Incubation period for this disease is 15 to 80
suffered an infection and has learned to days. High fever, cold, headache, nausea,
make antibodies against it, the body retains vomiting and weakness are the symptoms.
this ability even though it ceases making the Dark yellow urine and light yellow faeces are
antibodies. Thus when infection occurs again, main symptoms of this disease.
the body quickly resumes making antibodies (b) Rabies: The cause of this disease is a
against it. Rhabdo virus. This disease propagates by
(b) Acquired Immunity: Transmitting mild biting of infected dog, cat, wolf, monkey
form of microbes of a disease to a healthy etc. High fever, intense headache,
person is vaccination. It gives an artificially contraction of throat and chest muscles with
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pain, excessive secretion of saliva and mosquito Aedes aegypti. Main symptoms are
restlessness are the primary symptoms of high fever, headache, soreness of eyes and
the diseases. Since patient develops fear for joints and pain in stomach due to
water, the disease is also called as convulsions. On growing intensity of disease
Hydrophobia. bleeding starts from nose, mouth, and gums.
(c) Polio: The cause of this disease is a Patient may vomit with or without blood.
Entero virus. It is propagated through (g) Ebola virus Disease: Ebola is a severe
contaminated food, milk and water. Polio or and often deadly disease caused by a virus
poliomyelitis is a dangerous disease of called Ebola virus. It can occur in humans
children. Child suffers paralysis due to and other primates (monkey, chimpanzee
damage of central nervous system. Oral and gorillas).
polio vaccine is the best preventive measure Symptoms: Fever, chills, severe headache,
of polio. muscle pain, weakness, diarrhea, vomiting,
(d) Chicken Pox: The cause of this disease bleeding and often death.
is a Virus, known as Varicella zoster. It Occurrence: Ebola was discovered in 1976
propagates through contact with a patient near the Ebola River in the Democratic
or scab. Patient suffers fever, headache and republic of the Congo. Since then several
loss of appetite. Dark red spots appear on outbreaks have occurred in Africa. The 2014
back and chest, soon these spots get filled outbreak is the largest. The countries
up with water and convert into blisters. affected in this recent outbreak include
Blisters dry after some days and scabbing Guinea, Liberia, Sierra, Leone. In 2014
get started. This is the infectious stage of the (October) WHO declared both Nigeria and
disease. Senegal free of Ebola virus transmission.
(e) Measles: This is a highly infectious Transmission: Spread by direct contact with
disease of children. It propagates through infected body fluids including but not limited
indirect contact or through air. The cause of to urine, saliva, sweat, feces, vomit, breast
this disease is Rubella virus. Patient gets milk and semen. The virus can enter the
sore throat due to cold. Red grains appear on body through a break in the skin or through
face after 4-5 days and after wards spread mucous membranes, including the eyes,
on entire body. For prevention MMR nose and mouth. It can also spread by
vaccination should be done. contact with any surface, objects and
(f) Dengue: This is a dangerous disease materials that have been in contact with
caused by Dengue virus. It spreads by body fluids from a sick person such as
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-HIV drug to reduce transmission of virus to

clothing bandages, medical equipment,
the foetus of pregnant mothers.
needles, syringes etc.
Drugs used
AIDS
(1) AZT (Azido thymidine)
Full name is Acquired Immuno Deficiency
(2) DD I (Dideoxyinosine)
Syndrome. It is a severe, life threatening
These drugs inhibit the enzyme reverse
disease, first recognized in 1981. The
transcriptase of HIV.
causative organism of this disease is (HIV-1
Diseases caused by BACTERIA
and HIV-2). “Human immuno deficiency
(a) Tuberculosis (T.B): Tuberculosis (T.B)
virus” which is a ‘Retro virus’. HIV attacks
was first discovered by Robert Koch in 1882.
the immune system by destroying CD4+ T
It is an infectious disease which is
cells, a type of white blood cell that is vital to
communicated from one human being to
fighting off infection. The destruction of these
another directly or indirectly. Tuberculosis
cells makes people vulnerable to other
may also be contracted from animals. It is
diseases and infections and may ultimately
caused by a bacterium called Mycobacterium
lead to death of the patient.
tuberculosis. The bacterium releases a toxin
A person is diagnosed with AIDS when the
called Tuberculin. In T.B., the patient feels
count of CD4+ T cells goes below 200 cells
sick and weak. There is a loss of appetite and
per ml3 of blood.
weight. Typical fever pattern and night
The virus is transmitted from an infected
sweats are also common. Child must be
person to a healthy person mainly through
vaccinated for B.C.G. within few hours after
sexual contact and exposure to blood or
birth. Antituberculosis (ATT) and DOTS
tissues, or transplacental transmission from
treatment methods are available.
an infected mother to the foetus. lst case in
(b) Typhoid: Typhoid is caused by the
1981 America; lst case in India 1986,
bacteria Salmonella typhi commonly found in
Chennai.
intestine of man. Human infection is direct
Symptoms: Swollen lymph nodes,
and the bacteria are spread through faecal
Decreased count of blood platelets causing
matter by house flies, etc. Symptom of this
hemorrhage and fever, severe damage to
disease is continuous increase in body
brain which may lead to loss of memory,
temperature for a week. Second week
ability to speak and even think.
temperature remains constant. Meanwhile
Treatment: Their is no specific treatment.
red grains appear on stomach. Body
Foetal infection can be reduced by using anti
temperature decreases during 3rd and 4th
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weeks. TAB-vaccination provides immunity used. Patient can be given drugs like quinine,
for three years. Oral Typhoid Vaccine chloroquine, primaquine, peludrine etc. on
(OTV) is also available. Patient can take advice of a doctor.
antibiotics drugs on advice of a doctor. Antibiotic Antibiotic is a substance produced
(c) Tetanus: It is fatal disease caused by by a living organisms which is toxic
bacterium Clostridium tetani. These bacteria (poisonous) for other living organisms,
grow on fertile soil, dung etc. and enter specially for the germs (Bacteria). In the
human body through wounds or cuts on year 1928, Sir Alexander Fleming while
body. The cause of the disease is a toxic studying bacteria in a culture being prepared
secretion from bacteria known as in his laboratory found that bacteria did not
Tetanospasmin. grow around a green mould, Penicillium
Due to this cramps start on back, jaws and notatum, which was also present in the
neck. In intense condition entire body culture. This was the first antibiotic
contracts in shape of a bow. In the end discovered and extracted and named as
patient can’t respire due to cramps in neck penicillin.
muscles and dies painfully. For prevention Antiseptic: Joseph Lister, an English
D.P.T. vaccine dose is given to infants. To surgeon found that pus formation in a wound
save infants from infection mothers should is reduced or checked when it is immediately
be vaccinated compulsorily. cleaned with carbolic acid. He named carbolic
DISEASE CAUSED BY PROTOZOA acid as antiseptic. He also introduced the
Malaria: Malaria is caused by a protozoan system of boiling and washing surgical
parasite Plasmodium. This spreads through instruments with carbolic acid and cleaning
the bite of an insect vector-female anopheles hands with carbolic soap. This practice killed
mosquito which feeds on human blood. (male germs and it was termed as 'sterilization'.
anopheles mosquito feeds upon plant juices). Later alcohol, chlorination and solution of
Headache, nausea, muscular pains and high potassium permanganate also came into use
fever are the main symptoms of malaria. for sterilization.
Malaria may also secondarily cause Vaccine: It was British Physician, Edward
enlargement of spleen and liver. Jenner who noticed that milkmaids often
Larvivorous fishes like Gambusia, Minnows, contracted mild infection of ‘cow pox’ and
Trouts should be kept in large water bodies. also found that once a maid has suffered
These fishes feed on mosquito larvae and from cow pox gets immune to cowpox and
help us. Mosquito repellents can also be small pox. Jenner collected cow-pox fluid
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from one patient and pushed it into the blood effectively used to control a number of
of a healthy cowboy. The infected cowboy diseases. For eg: Influenza, measles,
got ill for 2 to 3 days only and had become rubella, cholera, polio
immune to small pox for life. The fluid from Second generation Vaccine: These
cow-pox was termed as vaccine (vacca vaccines use only the specific part (the
meaning cow in latin). The process of antigen) of the pathogen. Antigenic
injecting vaccine in a healthy person is polypeptides of pathogens are produced with
termed as vaccination. Resistance to disease recombinant DNA technology. For eg:
for the future is called immunisation. Hapitites B
Types of vaccines Third generation Vaccine: These are the
First Generation Vaccines: These vaccines most recent vaccines called DNA vaccines in
are prepared by inactivating the whole which either naked DNA is used directly or
pathogen. These vaccines have been packaged in a recombinant virus or bacteria.
Biodiversity Rauwolfia vomitoria growing in different

Biodiversity is the term popularised by Himalayan ranges might be in terms of the
the sociobiologist Edward Wilson to describe potency and concentration of the active
the combined diversity at all the levels of chemical (reserpine) that the plant produces.
biological organisation. India has more than 50,000 genetically
The most important of them are– different strains of rice, and 1,000 varieties
(i) Genetic Diversity: A single species of mango.
might show high diversity at the genetic level (ii) Species Diversity: The diversity at the
over its distributional range. The genetic species level. For example, the Western
variation shown by the medicinal plant
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Ghats have a greater amphibian species provide a record of animals and plants
diversity than the Eastern Ghats. which are known to be in danger.
(iii) Ecological Diversity: At the ecosystem  In India the Wildlife(Protection) Act,
level, India, for instance, with its deserts, 1972 provides four schedules
rain forests, mangroves, coral reefs, categorising the fauna of India based
wetlands, estuaries, and alpine meadows has on their conservation status. Schedule
a greater ecosystem diversity than a 1 lists the rare and endangered
Scandinavian country like Norway. species which are afforded legal
Biodiversity Conservation protection. For the purpose of
Biodiversity conservation may be in situ as conservation species are categorized
well as ex situ. In in situ conservation, the as below:
endangered species are protected in their Threatened (T): The term is used in
natural habitat so that the entire ecosystem context with conservation of the species
is protected. Recently, 34 ‘biodiversity which can be anyone of the above 3
hotspots’ in the world have been proposed categories.
for intensive conservation efforts. Of these, Threatened = Endangered + Vulnerable
three (Western Ghats- Sri Lanka, Himalaya + Rare
and Indo-Burma) cover India’s rich 1. Endangered (E): Those species which
biodiversity regions. Our country’s in situ are in the immediate danger of extinction
conservation efforts are reflected in its 18 and whose survival is unlikely, whose
biosphere reserves, 112 national parks, > number have been reduced to a critical level,
515 wildlife sanctuaries and many sacred if the casual factors continue to be operating.
groves. Ex situ conservation methods include 2. Vulnerable (V): The species likely to
protective maintenance of threatened species move into the endangered category in the
in zoological parks and botanical gardens, in near future if the casual factors continue to
vitro fertilisation, tissue culture propagation operate. Their population is still abundant
and cryopreservation of gametes. but are under threat throughout their range.
Threatened Species Concept 3. Rare (R): These are species with small
 The International Union for population in the world. These are not at
Conservation of Nature and Natural present endangered and vulnerable, but are
Resources (IUCN), have its head at risk due to their less number. These
quarters at Morgis in Switzerland and species are usually localised within restricted
maintains a Red Data Book that geographical areas or habitats.
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Biosphere Reserves 17. Seshachalam hills (2010) - Andhra

It is a specified protected area in which Pradesh
multiple use of the lands are permitted. 18. Pauna (2011) - Madhya Pradesh
There are 3 zones of biosphere reserve. National Parks and Main Sanctuaries In
1. Core zone: It lies at the centre where no India
human activity is allowed. National Parks: In national parks both
2. The Buffer zone: Where limited human plants and animals are protected. There are
activity is allowed. 112 National Parks which occupy about
3. Manipulating zone or Transition zone: 1.21% of the country's total surface area.
Where a large number of human activities Sanctuaries: There are 515 wildlife
would go on. Sanctuaries.
Note: In India following 18 sites have been India's Famous Tiger Reserve:
identified as potential biosphere reserves * Jim Corbett National Park – Nainital
together with their locations (Uttaranchal)
Biosphere Reserve States * Dudhwa National Park – Lakhimpur Kheri
1. Nanda Devi - Uttaranchal (U.P.)
2. Nokrek - Meghalaya * Kanha National Park – Mandala and
3. Manas - Assam Salghat (Madhya Pradesh)
4. Dibru Saikhowa - Assam * Indrawati National Park – Chattishgarh
5. Dehang Debang - Arunachal Pradesh * Simli National Park – Orissa
6. Sunderbans - West Bengal Genetically Modified Crops:
7. Gulf of Mannar - Tamil Nadu  Plants, bacteria, fungi and animals whose
8. Nilgiri - Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu genes have been altered by manipulation
9. Great Nicobar - Andaman & Nicobar are called Genetically Modified Organisms
10. Simlipal - Orissa (GMO).
11. Kanchanjunga - Sikkim  A transgenic crop is a crop that contains
12. Pachmarhi - Madhya Pradesh and expresses a transgene (genetically
13. Agasthyamalai - Kerala modified gene). This crop is known as
14. Achankamar - Madhya Pradesh, genetically modified crops or GM crops.
Chattisgarh Two unique Advantages:
15. Great Rann of Kutch (2008) - Gujarat (i) Any gene (from any organism or a gene
16. Cold desert (2009) - Himachal Pradesh synthesised chemically) can be used for
transfer, and
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GENERAL SCIENCE
(ii) The change in genotype can be precisely The fungus and plant root association is
controlled since only the transgene is added called mycorrhiza. Some of these fungi are
into the crop genome. For example - Hirudin present on root surface only, whereas others
is a protein that prevents blood clotting. The enter into the roots as well. These fungi
gene encoding hirudin was chemically solubilise phosphorus, produce plant growth
synthesized and transferred into Brassica promoting substances and protect host
napus, where hirudin accumulates in seeds. plants from soil pathogens.
The hirudin is purified and used in medicine. Biofertilisers are a low-cost input and they do
A soil bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis, not pollute the environment. They also
produces crystal [Cry] protein. This Cry reduce the dependence on chemical
protein is toxic to larvae of certain fertilisers and also help to use organic
insects.The gene encoding cry protein is farming.
called cry gene. This Cry protein is isolated Achievements of Genetic Engineering
and transferred into several crops. A crop The DNA recombinant technology or genetic
expressing a cry gene is usually resistant to engineering provides great benefits for
the group of insects for which the concerned advancement of science and society.
Cry protein is toxic. (1) A new system of medicine gene therapy,
Biofertilizers may develop to treat hereditary diseases
Micro-organisms (bacteria, fungi and such as haemophilia. Genetic disorder can be
cyanobacteria) employed to enhance the over come by introducing specific gene.
availability of nutrients like nitrogen (N), and (2) Bacteria may be used as "living factories"
phosphorus (P) to crops are called for synthesizing vitamins, hormones and
biofertilisers. Several microorganisms fix antibodies.
atmospheric nitrogen and make them  Human insulin (Humulin) was first
available to plants. genetically engineered product
Examples of nitrogen-fixing micro- produced by an American firm Eli Lilly
organisms are bacteria and cyanobacteria - 5th July 1983.
(blue-green algae); some of these are free-  Charles Weismann of university of
living, while others form symbiotic Zurich, obtained interferon through
association with plant roots. Rhizobia form recombinant E.coli (1980) Microbes
root nodules in legume crops and some have been engineered to produce
cyanobacteria (bluegreen algae) form human growth hormone (HGH) for
symbiotic association with the fern Azolla. curing dwarfism.
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GENERAL SCIENCE
 Vaccines which are produced by gene from Bacillus thuringiensis (bt-2

genetic engineering e.g., for Hepatitis- gene encoding Bt-toxin). Bacillus
B and Herpes virus. thuringiensis produces a toxic protein
 Nitrogen fixation genes may be called crystal protein (Cry-Protein) this
transferred from bacteria to the major protein is toxic for larva of certain
food crops to boost food production insect. This protein kills the insect by
without using expensive fertilizers. inhibiting ion transport in midgut (bt 2
 Transgenic plant obtained through gene is called cry-gene)
recombinant DNA technology. First  In pollution control, microbes have
transgenic plant was tobacco. It been engineered to break up the crude
contains resistant gene against oil spills. Dr. Ananda Mohan
weedicide (Glyphosate). Chakraborthi introduced plasmid
 First transgenic animal was mouse from different strains in to single cell
containing gene for growth hormone. of Pseudomonas putida. The result
 First introduced transgenic crop in was new genetically engineered
India (2002) is Bt-cotton. It is bacterium which would be used in
resistant for boll worm (Helicoperpa cleaning oil spills called “Super bug”
armigera – Larva of insect). It is (oil eating bug)
formed by transfer of pest resistant
83
GENERAL SCIENCE
CHEMISTRY condensates or BEC (a gas at super low

Matter temperatures with extremely low density).
In general it exists in 3 states i.e., Boiling Point
(i) Solid The temperature at which liquid
(ii) Liquid converts in to vapours is called its boiling
(iii) Gas. point. Boiling point of water is 100°C.The
Now-a-days there is a discussion on two boiling point increases in the presence of
more states of matter i.e., Plasma (Ionised impurities. That's why boiling point of sea
gases containing super energetic and super water is more than the boiling point of pure
excited particles and Bose-Einstein water (as the former contains impurity).It
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GENERAL SCIENCE
usually decreases at high altitudes, that's Uranium dating is used to determine the age
why at high altitudes, the boiling point of of Earth, minerals and rocks.
Battery
water is less than 100°C and more time is
Battery is a device, used to convert
required to cook a food. chemical energy into electrical energy and is
Melting point of two types
(i) Primary batteries (non-rechargeable) act
Melting Point It is a temperature at
as galvanic cell, e.g., dry cell, mercury cell
which a substance converts from its solid etc.
state to liquid state. Meling point of ice is (ii) Secondary Batteries: (rechargeable) Act
as galvanic as well as voltaic cell Eg: lead
0°C; It decrease in the presence of impurity.
storage battery, nickel cadmium battery etc.
Atom, Molecule and Element Corrosion
Atom is the smallest particle of a The oxidative deterioration of a metal
matter that takes part in chemical reactions, surface by the action of environment is called
but cannot exist in free state. Atom is made corrosion, an electrochemical process. When
43 of electrons, protons and neutrons. iron exposed in to air, iron surface turns
Protons and neutrons reside in the nucleus(at brown due to the formation of hydrated ferric
the centre of atom) whereas electrons oxide (Fe203.xH20) which is also called rust,
revolve around the nucleus. Atoms combine Silver - Surface turns black due to the
to form molecules, the smallest part of formation of silver sulphide (Ag2S)
matter which can exist in free state. Renewable Non-renewable Natural
Isotopes and Isobars Resources
Isotopes have the same number of Renewable resources are available in large
protons (i.e., atomic number), but different excess, i.e., never ends, e.g, air, sunlight
number of neutrons and mass number etc. Non-renewable resources are available
(atomic number + number of neutrons), in limited quantity and end, if used
e.g., 1H1, 1H2. excessively, after a limited period of time.
Isobars have the same mass number but e.g., mineral, coal, petroleum, natural gas
different atomic number. etc.
40 40
Example: 18Ar , 19K Fuels: The substance, which produce heat
Dating Techniques and light on combustion are called fuels.
Radiocarbon dating is used to
determine the age of carbon bearing
materials like wood, animal fossils etc.
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GENERAL SCIENCE
Physical and Chemical Changes Coal

 Physical changes are the change, which Coal is obtained by carbonization of
only affect the physical properties like colour, vegetable matter and is available in different
hardness, density, melting point etc. of varieties:
matter, but do not affect the composition  Peat- 60% C
and chemical properties of matter.  Lignite or Brown Coal – 70% C
 A physical change is temporary, while a  Bituminous – 60 to 80 % C
chemical change is permanent.  Anthracite Coal – 90% C
 Crystallisation, sublimation, 'boiling,
melting, vaporisation, cutting of trees, Flame contains three parts
dissolving sugar or salt in water etc. are  Innermost Part- which is black due to the
physical changes. presence of unburned carbon particles- has
 Chemical changes affect the composition lowest temperature.
as well as chemical properties of matter and  Middle part – is yellow due to incomplete
result in the formation of a new substance. combustion of fuel.
 Burning of fuel, burning of candle and  Outermost part- which is blue due to
paper, electrolysis of water, photosynthesis, complete combustion of fuel is the hottest
ripening of fruits etc, are examples of and used by goldsmith to heat the gold.
chemical changes.
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GENERAL SCIENCE
Fire Extinguishers Bases

 Water extinguishes fire because as it  These are the substances, which have
evaporates, the vapours surround the bitter taste and turn red litmus, blue.
burning substance, cutting off the oxygen  They give different colours in acid and
supply, thus inhibiting burning process. base solutions.
 In case of electrical or oil (petrol) fires, Salts
water cannot be used as extinguisher. This is  These are the product of neutralisation
because water is a conductor of electricity reaction between an acid and a base.
and heavier than oil. Thus, oil floats over it  pH is the measure of acidity/basicity.
and continues to burn. Inorganic and Organic Chemistry
 Carbon dioxide, which is generated by the Carbon Dioxide
reaction of baking soda with acid, is used  It is an acidic oxide of carbon and is used
extinguish electrical or oil fires. Quality of by green plants for photosynthesis. It does
petrol is measured in terms of octane not help in burning.
number and that of diesel in terms of cetane  Air and our breath contain carbon dioxide.
number. Thus, when lime water is kept in air or we
Safety Matches pass our breath into it, the lime water turns
In safety matches, the stick consists of milky.
mixture of antimony trisulphide and Carbon Monoxide
potassium chlorate at its one end. The box It is a neutral oxide of air and has more
side contains a mixture of powdered glass affinity towards haemoglobin than oxygen
and phosphorus. (about 200 times more). That’s why in the
ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS environment of carbon monoxide – which is a
Acids non- poisonous gas - people die for the need
 These are the substance, which have sour of oxygen.
taste and turn blue litmus red.  It is dangerous to sleep in an unventilated
 These are good conductor of electricity in room with fire burning inside because the fire
aqueous solution. produces carbon monoxide and carbon
 Pickels are always kept in glass jar dioxide gases.
because acid present in them reacts with Plaster of Paris
metal to produce hydrogen gas.  It is chemically calcium sulphate
hemihydrate (CaSO4.1/2H2O) and is
prepared by heating gypsum – which is
General Knowledge Made Easy - by Karthik M 87

GENERAL SCIENCE
calcium sulphate dehydrate (CaSO4.2H2O) at Glass

373 K. Glass—an amorphous solid or super- cooled
 On Mixing with water, plaster of Paris liquid—contains maintz silica (SiO2).
further sets into a hard solid, called gypsum.
Thus, it is used to plaster fractured bones, Different substances are added to obtain
for making toys, materials for decoration and glass of different colours
for making surfaces smooth. Colour Substance added
Portland Cement Red Copper oxide (CuO)
 It is a complex mixture of silicates and Green Chromium
aluminates of calcium with small amount of oxide(Cr203)
gypsum. Raw materials used for the Blue Cobalt oxide (CoO)
manufacture of Portland cement are Brown Iron oxide (Fe203)
limestone and clay.
 The composition of Portland cement is Heavy water
calcium oxide (50-60%), alumina (5-10%),  Heavy water is water that contains heavy
and magnesium oxide (2-3%). Gypsum is hydrogen or deuterium.
added to cement to decrease its rate of  Deuterium differs from the hydrogen
setting. usually found in water, protium, in that each
 In cement, if line is in excess, cement atom of deuterium contains a proton and a
cracks during setting and if lime is less, neutron.
cement is of weak strength.  Heavy water may be deuterium oxide,
 Mortar a mixture of sand, cement and D2O or it may be deuterium protium oxide,
water is used for joining bricks and plastering DHO. Note: Heavy water occurs naturally,
walls. although it is much less common than
 Concrete—a mixture of gravel, sand, regular water. Approximately one water
cement and water is used for flooring and molecule per twenty million water molecules
making roads is heavy water.
 Reinforced Concrete Cement (RCC)— Hard Water
which is concrete with steel bars and wires is  The water in which soluble bicarbonates oil
used for constructing roofs, bridges and calcium and magnesium are present, is
pillars called temporary hard water and in which
soluble sulphates and chlorides of
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GENERAL SCIENCE
magnesium and calcium are present is called Copper (Cu) Copper CuFeS2
permanent hard water. Pyrite Cu2S
 The temporary hardness of water is Copper 2CuCO2Cu(OH)2
removed by boiling or by adding calcium Glance
hydroxide, Ca(OH)2—the Clark's process Malachite
.The permanent hardness of water is
removed by adding sodium carbonate Zinc (Zn) Zinc Blende ZnS
(Na2CO3), or calgon (sodium Calamine ZnCo3
hexametaphosphate, Na2[Na4(P03)
Hardening of Oil (Hydrogenation) Sodium (Na) RockSalt NaCl
Oil, an unsaturated fat when heated with Sodium Na2CO3
nickel catalyst and hydrogen gets converted Carbonate
into a solid mass, called ghee, a saturated
fat. This process is called hardening of oil Potassium Karnalite KClMgCl6H2O
and is carried out through hydrogenation in (K) Salt Petre KNO3
the presence of nickel as a catalyst.
Some Important Ores of Metals Lead (Pb) Galena PbS
Ores - Those minerals from which the metals Anglesite PbCl2
are extracted commercially and economically
and with minimum effort are called Ores of Tin (Sn) Tin Pyrites Cu2FeSnS4
Metals. Classiterite SnO2
Name of Ores Chemical
Elements Formulae Silver (Ag) Silver Ag2S
Glance
Aluminum Bauxite Al2O2H2O
(Al) Corundum Al2O3 Gold (Au) Calverite AuTe2
Kryolite Na3AlF6 Sybarite AgAuTe2
Iron (Fe) Hematite Fe2O3 Mercury Cinnabar HgS

Magnetite Fe3O4 (Hg) Calomel Hg2Cl2
IronPyrite FeS2
Siderite FeCO3 Magnesium Dolomite MgCO3CaCO3
(Mg) Karnalite KClMgCl26H2O

GENERAL SCIENCE
 Generally transition metals and their

compounds are coloured.
Phosphorous Phosphorite Ca3(PO4)CaFe2  Zeolite is used to remove hardness of
(P) Floreopetite 3Ca3(PO4)CaFe2 water.
 In cytochrome iron (Fe) is present.
Calcium Lime Stone CaCO3  Selenium metal is used in photo electric
(Ca) Dolomite MgCO3CaCO3 cell.
 Gallium metal is liquid at room
temperature.
FACTS ABOUT SOME METALS  Palladium metal is used in aeroplane.
 Zinc phosphide is used for killing rats.  Radium is extracted from pitchblende.
 Wood furniture are coated with zinc  World famous Eiffel Tower has steel and
chloride to prevent termites. cement base.
 Excess of copper in human beings causes  Actinides are radio-active elements.
disease called Wilson.  Cadmium rod is used in nuclear reactor
 Galvanised iron is coated with zinc. to slow down the speed of neutron.
 Rusting of iron is a chemical change  Sodium peroxide is used in submarine
which increases the weight of iron. and also to purify closed air in hospital.
 Calcium hydride is called hydrolith.  Co (Cobalt) is used in cancer treatment.
 Calcium hydride is used to prepare fire  Onion and garlic odour due to potassium.
proof and waterproof clothes.  Oxides of metals are alkaline.
 In flash-blub, magnesium wire is kept in  Silver and copper are the best conductor
atmosphere of nitrogen gas of electricity.
 Titanium is called strategic metal  Gold and Silver are the most malleable
because it is lighter than iron. metal.
 Babbitt metal contains 89% Sn (Tin),Sb  Mercury and iron produces more
(Antimony) and 2% Cu (Copper). resistance in comparison to the other during
 Chromium trioxide is known as chromic the flow of electricity.
acid.  Lithium is the lightest and the most
 Nichrome wire is used in electrical reductant element.
heater.  In fireworks, crimson red colour is due to
 Potassium carbonate (K2CO3) is known presence of strontium (Sr). Green colour is
as pearl ash.
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GENERAL SCIENCE
due to the  Non-stick utensil is made up of Teflon.

presence of Barium in fireworks.  Chlorine is used to prepare PVC,
 Barium sulphate is used in X-ray of insecticides herbicides etc. Bromine is used
abdomen as barium meal. in ethylene bromide synthesis which is mixed
 Barium hydroxide is known as Baryta with added petrol.
water.  In the preparation of AgBr which is used
 Osmium is the heaviest metal and the in photography.
Platinum is the hardest. CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS AND USES
 Zinc oxide is known as flower of zinc. It is 1. Compound Name: calcium carbonate
also known as Chinese white and used as Formula: CaCO3
white paint. Uses: Non-prescription drug for relief from
 Silver chloride is used in photo chromatic acid indigestion and heartburn. Also
glass. considered a calcium supplement.
 Silver iodide is used in artificial rain. 2. Compound Name: sodium chloride
 Silver nitrate is used as marker during Formula: NaCl
election. It is kept in coloured bottle to avoid Uses: Used to season food (during food
decomposition. preparation and at the table), also used in
 Silver spoon is not used in egg food the past as a method of food preservation.
because it forms black silver sulphide. 3. Compound Name: Methane
 To harden the gold, copper is mixed. Pure Formula: CH4
gold is 24 carat. Iron Pyrites (FeS2) is known Uses: natural gas, fuel (also called Marsh
as fool's gold. Gas)
 Mercury is kept in iron pot ,because it 4. Compound Name: Aspirin
doesn't form amalgum with iron. Formula: C9H8O4
 In tube light there is the vapour of Uses: Pain Reliever
mercury and argon. 5. Compound Name: Potassium tartrate
 Tetra-Ethyl lead is used as anti knocking Formula: K2C4H4O6
compound. Uses: cream of tartar, cooking
 Lead-pipe is not used for drinking water 6. Compound Name: Baking soda
because it forms poisonous lead hydroxide. Formula: NaHCO3
 Fuse wire is made up of lead and tin. Uses: cooking
 Chlorofluoro carbon is known as Freon 7. Compound Name: Acetaminophen
used as refrigerant Formula: C8H9NO2

GENERAL SCIENCE
Uses: Pain Reliever 18. Compound Name: Carbon dioxide

8. Compound Name: Acetic acid Formula: CO2
Formula: C2H4O2 Uses: carbonating agent in soda
Uses: Active ingredient in vinegar 19. Compound Name: Hydrochloric acid
9. Compound Name: Caffeine Formula: HCl
Formula: C8H10N4O2 Uses: production of batteries, photoflash
Uses: stimulant in coffee, tea, some soda bulbs and fireworks. It's even used to
10. Compound Name: Propane process sugar and make gelatin.
Formula: C3H8 20. Compound Name: calcium oxide
Uses: fuel for cooking Formula: CaO
11. Compound Name: Sodium carbonate Uses: Less common in modern homes than
Formula: Na2CO3 in the past. Glows when heated; was used in
Uses: washing soda theatres before invention of electric lighting.
12. Compound Name: Phosphoric acid Health risks on skin contact or inhalation.
Formula: H3PO4 21. Compound Name: Sucrose
Uses: flavouring in soda Formula: C12 H22O11
13. Compound Name: Ascorbic acid Uses: Used in cooking.
Formula: C6H8O6 Use as a sweetener.
Uses: Essential vitamin (vitamin C) 22. Compound Name: potassium
14. Compound Name: Ammonia carbonate
Formula: NH3 Formula: K2CO3
Uses: fertilizer, household cleaner when Uses: Potash is the common name for
dissolved in water various mined and manufactured salts that
15. Compound Name: Ethylene glycol contain potassium in water-soluble form.
Formula: C2H6O2 23. Compound Name: Plaster of Paris
Uses: antifreeze Formula: 2CaSO4·½H2O
16. Compound Name: Calcium carbonate Uses: used for casts to hold broken limbs in
Formula: CaCO3 place, modelling casts, sculptures and in
Uses: antacid plasterboard walls and ceilings
17. Compound Name: Ethanol 24. Compound Name: Gypsum
Formula: C2H5OH Formula: CaSO4.2H2O
Uses: disinfectant, alcoholic beverages Uses: Use to manufacture dry wall, plaster,
joint compound.
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GENERAL SCIENCE
25. Compound Name: sodium Centrifugation

bicarbonate It is the process used to separate the cream
Formula: NaHCO3 from full-cream milk by the use of milk
Uses: Used in baking where it reacts with churner.Toned and double toned varieties of
other ingredients, releasing carbon dioxide milk are obtained by this method
(CO2), helping dough rise. Sublimation
26. Compound Name: sulphuric acid It is used to separate sublimable volatile
Formula: H2SO4 substances such as ammonium chloride,
Uses: Used in lead-acid batteries for cars and NH4Cl from non-sublimable substance such
other vehicles. Formerly it was known as as sodium chloride(NaCl). Examples of
vitriol. sublimable substances are iodine,
27. Compound Name: hydrogen peroxide naphthalene, camphor.
Formula: H2O2 Distillation
Uses: Used as a mouth wash (Personal It is used to separate
Hygiene)  Volatile component from non-volatile
Separation of Mixtures component and
Filtration  Liquids having sufficient difference in their
It is used to separate an insoluble solid boiling points. Eg. Chloroform(b.p. 334K)
component of the mixture from the soluble and aniline(b.p.457K) are easily separated
component in a given solvent. by distillation. It is used to prepare distilled
Eg: A mixture of naphthalene and urea is water from ordinary water.
separated by dissolving it in water and Fractional Distillation- It is used when
filtering the solution. difference in boiling points of the liquids is
Crystallization smell. Industrially this process is used in
The salt obtained from the sea water is refining of crude petroleum and
purified by this method. manufacturing of alcoholic beverages such as
Evaporation Rum, Gin, Whisky etc.
It is the process used to separate the volatile Steam Distillation - It is used to
component from its non-volatile solute purify those substances which are steam
Eg: When we heat the blue or black ink volatile and are immiscible with water. Eg.
indirectly,evaporation of the solvent takes Aniline
place and coloured dye is obtained as Vacuum Distillation- It is used to purify
residue. those substances which decompose at or

GENERAL SCIENCE
below their boiling points. Eg.- purification of glycerol
94
GENERAL SCIENCE

GENERAL SCIENCE
Some Important Man Made Materials

Chemistry has helped significantly in meeting
human needs by providing chemical
fertilizers, improved varieties of insecticides
and pesticides to increase the yield of crops
Hard glass: For preparation of hard glass
and fruits. It has given us a large number of
K2CO3 is used in place of Na2CO3. It
life saving drugs. Also chemical industries
consists of a mixture of calcium and
manufacturing polymers, soaps, detergents,
potassium silicates.
glass, ceramics etc.
Physical properties of Glass: Hard, rigid,
Industrially Important Compounds
high viscosity, bad conductor of heat and
1. Glass
electricity, brittle, etc.
It consists of a mixture of two or more
Blowing: It is a method to cast the molten
silicates.
glass into different moulds. There are two
Preparation of Glass:
different methods of glass blowing (i) Free
Common glass (or soft glass): It is used
blowing and (ii) Mould blowing
to make bottles, glass wares etc. and is
Free blowing: It involves the blowing of air
obtained by heating together silica (in the
to inflate the molten glass which is gathered
form of sand), sodium carbonate or sodium
at one end of the blow pipe to give the
sulphate and chalk or lime stone (calcium
desired shape.
carbonate). Some broken glass and a little
Mould blowing: This method was developed
coke are usually added. The glass so
after the technique of free blowing. In this
prepared consists of silicates of sodium and
method, molten glass is inflated into a
calcium.
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GENERAL SCIENCE
wooden or metal carved mould with the help and can be grounded into the required
of blow pipe which gives the molten glass the shape. It generally contains phosphorus, and
shape and design of the interior of the lead silicates with little cerium oxide which
mould. absorbs UV radiations.
Chemical properties of glass (v) Processed glass: The properties and
(1) It is resistant to action of air and acids applications of glass also depend upon the
except hydroflouric acid. processing of glass.
(2) It is alkaline in nature. Some types of processed glass and their
(3) It slowly reacts with water to form applications are given here :
alkaline solution. Processed glass Applications
Types of Glass 1. Laminated glass Used for doors and
(i) Silica glass: For this type of glass the windows of automobiles. (It has high
raw material used is 100% pure form of strength).
quartz. It is quite expensive. It is used in the 2. Fibre glass Used for reinforcing purpose (It
manufacture of laboratory apparatus. It has has enough tensile strength)
low thermal expansion. Its softening point is 3. Foam glass Used for civil construction and
very high and it is resistant to a wide variety insulation purposes (it is light weight).
of chemicals. 4. Opaque glass In it non-transparent glass
(ii) Alkali silicate glass: For it the raw filters the light entering into it. Thus provides
materials used are sand and soda. It is also an aesthetic look.
called water glass because it is soluble in (vi) Borosilicate Glass: It contains silica
water and used only as a solution. It is and Boron oxide and small amount of oxides
generally used to make gums and adhesives. of sodium and aluminium. It is resistant to a
(iii) Lead glass: For this type of glass lead wide variety of chemicals due to this
oxide is added to ordinary glass. The addition property it is used in the manufacture of
of lead oxide increases the density and also laboratory ware.
the refractive index. This type of glass is 2. Fertilizers
used for the manufacture of ornamental Fertilizers are chemical compounds
glass ware, decorative articles etc. which when added to the soil increase their
(iv) Optical glass: This type of glass is used fertility and directly supply the need of
in the manufacture of optical instruments like essential elements [N, P, K] of primary
binoculars, spectacles, lenses, prisons, importance.
telescopes, microscopes etc. It is transparent

Classification: Both soaps and detergents are soluble in
Chemical fertilizers are broadly water and act as surfactants which reduce
classified into the following three types: the surface tension of water to a great
(i) Nitrogenous fertilizers: Ammonium extent. This increases the water – fabric
sulphate, urea etc. interaction as a consequence of which dirt
(ii) Phosphatic fertilizers: Super particles, grease spots etc are washed away
phosphate, ammonium phosphate effectively. In other words soaps and
(iii) Potash fertilizers: Potassium chloride, detergents enhance the cleansing action of
potassium sulphate. water.
3. Soaps and detergents 4. Portland Cement: It was first discovered
Soap: Fatty acid salts of sodium and in England. It is essentially a mixture of lime
potassium are known as soaps. These are stone and clay. It was called
prepared by the action of fatty acids with Portland cement because in presence of
sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide. water it sets to a hard stone-like mass
Fatty acid + sodium hydroxide = Soap + resembling with the famous Portland rock.
glycerol. The approximate composition of Portland
Detergents are sodium salt of long cement is Calcium oxide (CaO) 62%
chain sulphonic acids or alkyl hydrogen  Silica (SiO2) 22%
sulphate.  Alumina (Al2O3) 7.5%
Advantages of detergents over soaps  Magnesia (MgO) 2.5%
(i) Detergents can be used for laundering  Ferric oxide (Fe2O3) 2.5%
even with hard water as they are soluble The above compounds are provided by the
even in hard water. two raw materials, namely lime stone (which
(ii) Detergents possess better cleansing provides CaO) and clay (which provides
properties than soaps. SiO2, Al2O3 and Fe2O3). In cement, almost
Disadvantages of detergents over soap: entire amount of lime in present in the
 Detergents are prepared from combined state as calcium silicate (2CaO.
hydrocarbons, while soaps are SiO2 and 3CaO. SiO2) and calcium
prepared from edible fatty oils. Thus aluminates (3CaO. Al2O3 and 4 CaO. Al2O3).
they are non biodegradable.  Cement containing excess amount of
Saponification: lime cracks during setting; while
It is the process of making of soap by cement containing less amount of lime
the hydrolysis of fats and oils with alkalis. is weak in strength.
98
GENERAL SCIENCE
 Cement with excess of silica is slow- amount (2–3%) of gypsum is added to

setting and that having an excess of slow down the setting of the cement
alumina is quick-setting. so that it gets sufficiently hardened.
 Cement containing no iron is white but Setting of cement is an exothermic
hard to burn. process and involves hydration of
 Cement is manufactured by two calcium aluminates and calcium
processes, viz. wet and dry. A small silicates.
Important Biomolecules Vitamins

GENERAL SCIENCE
MISCELLANEOUS FACTS: 9. Oxidation is a process in which a

1. Water gas (CO + H2), Coal gas (H2 + CH2 substance looses electrons & in reduction
+ CO), Producer gas (CO + N2), CNG electron is gained. Oxidising agents are
(methane & ethane) & LPG (Butane + KMnO4, potassium dichromate, nitric acid,
Propane), Natural gas (Methane 75%, Ethane hydrogen peroxide. Reducing agents include
10%, propane 7% & butane 2%). Hydrogen sulphide, hydrogen, carbon,
2. Acetic Acid (CH3COOH), Sodium sulphur dioxide.
bicarbonate (NaHCO3 – baking soda), 10. Some substance loose their water of
Sodium hydroxide (Caustic Soda), Sodium crystallization without heating when exposed
Carbonate (washing soda), Sodium to atmosphere. This phenomenon is called
thiosulphate (Na2S2O3), Ethylene (C2H4), efflorescence. In deliquescence, solid
Acetylene (C2H2 – Fruit Ripener), Quicklime substances absorb water vapour from the
(CaO), Slaked lime [Ca(OH)2], Urea atmosphere. A molar solution contains one
(NH2CONH2), Carborundum (SiC- abrasive), mole of solute per litre of solvent. A normal
Ferric oxide (Fe2O3), Blue Vitriol (Crystalline solution is one that contains one gram
CuSO4). equivalent of solute per litre of solvent.
3. Sublimable compounds are napthaline, Formality is the number of formula weights
iodine, ammonium chloride. in gm dissolved per litre of solution.
4. Avogadro’s hypothesis states that at the 11. Compounds derived from benzene are
same temperature & pressure, equal called aromatic compound. Camallite &
volumes of all gases contain equal number of Epsom salt are ores of magnesium.
particles. One gram molecular mass of all Amphoteric compounds show both acidic &
gases occupy 22.4 litres of volume. basic properties.
5. Each shells are designated as K, L, M, N, 12. Calcination is the process of heating of
O, P, Q & each subshell is further divided into the ore in the absence of air & roasting vice
sub shells (s,p,d,f). versa. The ore usually contains rocky &
6. Isotopes have same atomic number but siliceous matter called gangue. Flux (CaO) is
different mass number. Isomers have same added to combine with gangue & form slag
molecular formula but different structural which is insoluble in metal & forms a
formulae. separate layer.
7. Atomic size decreases from moving left to 13. Cast iron or Pig iron (2-5 % carbon),
right in a period because of the increase in Wrought iron (Purest form - .25 % carbon),
the effective nuclear charge which pulls Steel (.25-2% carbon).
electrons inwards. 14. In colloid state the size of particles is
8. Electropositivity (tendency to form ions by such that it can pass through filter paper but
loosing electrons) increases down the group not through animal or vegetable membrane.
because of increasing atomic size & Tyndall effect is the dispersion of light beams
decreases across the period because of the by colloidal suspension.
decrease in atomic size. 15. Disparlure pheromone has been used
Electronegativity (tendency to accept against the Gypsy moth. Rodents like rats
electrons) decreases down the group & are killed using sodium monochloroacetate,
increases across the period. sodium fluroacetate, zinc phosphide or
thalium sulphate. Alpha napthylthiourea
100
GENERAL SCIENCE
(ANTU) is an organic chemical used to kill 22. Fibrous protein include keratin, collagen,
rodents. myosin. Peptides are formed by interaction
16. Dettol is a mixture of chloroxylenol & between amino goups & carboxyl groups of
terpenol. Serpasil is a powerful tranquilizer amino acids. Adenine & Guanine contain
obtained from the well known medicinal purine ring system & cytosine & thymine
plant, Rauwolfia Serpentia & its chemical contain the pyrmidine ring system.
name is resperpine. 23. Boyle’s Law: volume inversely
17. Antioxidants used in food include proportional to pressure at constant
butylated hydroxyl toluene (BHT) & butylated temperature. Charles law: the volume of a
hydroxyl anisole gas is directly proportional to absolute
(BHA) to prevent the ageing of food. Benzoic temperature. Gas Equation: P1V1/T1 =
acid is commonly used as a food P2V2/T2 (combining Boyle’s & Charles law).
preservative. 24. Annealing is making a metal soft by
18. About 15 lakh species of living organisms heating to very high temperature & then
have been catalogued – 12 lakh animals & 3 cooling slowly. Hardening is making a metal
lakh plants. brittle by heating to very high temperatures
19. Buffers resist pH changes & include & cooling suddenly. Tempering is making
sodium acetate, acetic acid, sodium citrate, metal elastic by heating to moderately high
citric acid, boric acid. They are used in temperature & cooling slowly.
medicines like injections so as not to disturb 25. Ruby is a red form of corundum, which is
the delicate pH of the body. Alumina (Al2O3) with traces of chromium.
20. Bakelite is obtained from formaldehyde Emerald is made up of beryllium. Carbon
(H-CHO) & phenol (C6H5OH). It is a cross tetrachloride is used in fire extinguishers.
linked polymer.Polystyrene is made from the Sapphire is any gem other than ruby
monomer styrene C8H8. Teflon stands for especially of blue colour due to traces of
polytetraflouroethylene (PTFE) & consists of cobalt present in it.
the monomer tetraflouroethylene (CF2= CF2). 26. Eugenics is the science of production of
PVC is made of the monomer vinyl chloride healthy offspring with the aim of improving
(CH2=CHCl). PVA is made of the monomer the human genetic stock.
vinyl acetate (CH2=CH-OCOCH3). Natural 27. According to Aufbau principle, electrons
rubber is a polymer of isoprene. Cellophane fill orbitals starting at the lowest available
is made up of glucose acetate. energy states before filling higher states
21. Monosaccharides cannot be hydrolyzed (e.g. 1s before 2s). The number of electrons
into smaller molecules (E.g pentoses & that can occupy each orbital is limited by the
hexoses). Pauli Exclusion Principle. If multiple orbitals
Oligosaccharides yield 2-10 monosaccharide of the same energy are available, Hund's rule
molecules on hydrolysis. Disaccharides are says that unoccupied orbitals will be filled
divided into reducing sugars (maltose, before occupied orbitals are reused (by
cellobiose & lactose) & non reducing sugar electrons having different spins).
(sucrose). Sucrose is 28. Isotonic solutions have same osmotic
dextrorotatory. The term rayon is used to pressure. Vinegar is acidic due to the
refer to all synthetic or manufactured fibers presence of acetic acid. EDTA is the chemical
from cellulose. compound ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid

GENERAL SCIENCE
which is used as an anti-cougulant. Dissolved fundamental or base quantities are called

oxygen should not be less than 4 mg/litre. fundamental or base units
29. Alkalis are soluble in water & can SI Base Units
neutralize acids. They turn red litmus blue. Basic unit SI unit Symbol
An acid turns blue litmus red. Hypo used in Lenght Meter m
photography is sodium thiosulphate. mass Kilogram kg
30. Invertase hydrolyses sucrose into Time Second s
glucose & fructose. Zymase ferments sugar Electric current Ampere A
into ethanol & carbon dioxide. Lactase Temperature Kelvin K
hydrolyses lactose into constituent galactose
Amount of Mole mol
and glucose monomers.
substance
31. The pH of human blood is around 7.5.
Luminous intensity Candela cd
Ninhydrin, silver nitrate & fuming iodine are
Viscocity Pascal Pa.s
all used in
second
fingerprinting.
Power of lens Dioptre D
32. Containers for carrying strong acids are
Inductance Henry H
made up of lead. Ethylene glycol is used as
Loudness phon
anti-freeze.
Magnetic Tesla T
Gammaxene is also known as Lindane & BHC
inductance
(benzene hexachloride).
Magnetic flux Weber Wb
33. Acetone & methanol are produced by the
Electric charge Coulomb C
destructive distillation of wood.
34. Molecular formula = n x Empirical Electric power Watt W
formula. For a feasible reaction _G = -ve, _H Capacitance Farad F
= -ve & _S = +ve. G is free energy, H is Frequency Hertz Hz
enthalpy & S is entropy. G = H – TS. Electric power Watt W
35. Flint glass (clear glass) consists of lead Angstrom: An angstrom is a unit of length
chromate. Invert sugar is a mixture of used to measure small things such as the
glucose & fructose In equal proportions. wavelengths of light, atoms and molecules.
36. Aqua regia consists of one part of HNO3 Ten billion angstroms equal 1 meter 1 Å =10-
10
& three parts of HCl. Carbamate pesticide is m.
prepared using methyl isocyanate. Fermi: A unit of length used to measure
37. The well known wonder drug against nuclear distances= 10-15 meter.
cancer ‘Taxol’ is extracted from the tree Yew. Some SI Derived Units:
Zeolites are substances used as water  Velocity = m/s
softeners.  Acceleration =m/
Physics  Force = kg m/ (newton)
MEASUREMENT  Work = Nm (Joule)
Each base quantity is in terms of a certain  Power = Joule/s (watt)
basic, arbitrarily chosen but properly Miscellaneous Facts:
standardised reference standard called unit  The distance traveled is given by area
(such as metre, kilogram, second, ampere, under the curve of velocity-time graph.
kelvin, mole and candela). The units for the
102
GENERAL SCIENCE
 The value of G is 6.67 x 10-11 N-m2/ Kg2.  When ice melts in water the level of water
Centripetal Force = mv2/r. remains unchanged as the ice contracts.
 Kinetic Energy = ½ mv2. Potential Energy  Stokes law for determining viscous force, F
= mgh. is F = 6phrv where h is the coefficient of
 Temperature in Celsius = 5/9 ( Tf - 32). viscosity, r is the radius & v is the velocity.
Bimetal strips are used in thermostat. After a stage the object acquires critical
 The equatorial radius is greater than polar velocity which is higher for heavier objects.
radius by 21.5 km. Centrifugal force is zero  Pressure in a fluid decreases with
exactly at the poles. Newton’s first law is increased velocity of the fluid.
regarding inertia. Second law states that the  Surface tension causes the hairs of a paint
rate of change of momentum of a body is brush to contract when it is taken out of
directly proportional to the applied force & water. Also sprinkling kerosene on water
takes place in the direction of the force. reduces its surface tension. Capillarity causes
 Force = mass x acceleration. Momentum = water to rise in a glass tube but mercury to
mass x velocity. Impulse = force x time. drop because of differential cohesion &
 Work = Force x distance in the direction of adhesion.
force. Power = work done/ Time taken.  Latent heat of fusion is the heat required
 Moment of a force = Force x Perpendicular to convert a solid to liquid state.
distance of the line of action of force from  Velocity of a wave V = f , where f is
the axis. frequency & is wavelength. The number of
 Escape Velocity: GMm/r2 = mv2/ r. Solving images formed in case of an inclined mirror
we get: v = . Moreover the = [(360 – 1)/ Angle] – 1. Hence when angle
centripetal force is equal to the gravitational is 90 three images will be formed.
force. Therefore, mv2/r = mg. Solving we get  Concave/convex mirrors are made by
v = , g = GM/r2. From the equation v depositing vaporized aluminium on a glass
surface. A convex mirror & plane mirror
= we see that v is, inversely proportional always form virtual image. A concave mirror
to the square root of r. Thus if a satellite forms a virtual or real image
moves from a higher orbit to a lower one, its  Depending on the position of the object.
speed increases. Since the earth rotates form When the object is at a distance lower than
west to east satellites are launched in a the focal length the image formed is larger &
easterly direction to give them additional virtual. Hence concave mirrors are used in
push. make-up mirror & by dentists. If an object is
 The substances in ascending order of held close to a convex lens then the image
density are aluminium, copper, lead, formed is virtual & vice- versa. In case of a
mercury, gold & platinum. concave or diverging lens all images are
 Pressure is force/area. The pressure P at a virtual.
depth h in a liquid of density , is P = hpg.  Refractive index is the ratio of speed of
 In a hydraulic press the fundamental is light in vacuum to speed in that medium.
that the ratio of the weight & Area should be  The planets do not appear to twinkle due
the same on both the sides when the to lesser refraction of the light coming from
opposite plates are at the same level. For them due to lower distance. Light can always
e.g. 10 N/ 5 = 80 N/ 40 pass from one medium to an optically denser

GENERAL SCIENCE
medium but not vice versa due to total  When a glass rod is rubbed with silk, the
internal reflection. glass rod loose electrons & becomes
 Violet light travels at the slowest speed & positively charged & VV.
red the fastest in transparent medium.  Resistance of a conductor R = L/A where
Rainbow is formed by dispersion & total is a constant called resistivity, L is length & A
internal reflection is area. Resistivity of a good conductor
 Red + Green = Yellow. Red + Blue = increases with temperature whereas for
Magenta & Green + Blue = Cyan. Two semiconductors it decreases.
colours which when mixed give white are  Positive ions collect at cathode & negative
known as secondary colours like blue & at anode.
yellow.  Heat produced by current H = I2Rt, where
 In eye accommodation is achieved by I is current in amperes, R is resistance in
ciliary muscles. Hypermetropia is treated by ohms & t is time.
converging lens & myopia by diverging lens.  An inverter converts DC into AC. In
Power of a lens = 1/ focal length. domestic AC supplies 220 V is the effective
 A compound microscope has two short value. The peak value of voltage is 311 V.
focal length converging or convex lens. The The frequency is 50 Hz. A Fuse is made of
image seen in a microscope is inverted. An tin-lead alloy. A fluorescent tube contains
astronomical telescope has an objective of mercury vapours at low pressure. Infra red
long focal length & an eye lens of short focal signals are used in TV.
length. An astronomical telescope also  Protons & neutrons are 1836 times heavier
produces an inverted image. In terrestrial than electrons. The heaviest natural atom is
telescope an extra lens is placed in between that of Uranium.Artificial transmutation has
to produce an erect image of the object. been used to obtain elements beyond
 In a CD rainbow like colours are produced uranium. X rays are produced when
due to diffraction & reflection & not due to accelerated electrons strike tungsten sheet.
interference. Number of protons is the atomic number &
 Sound waves below 16 Hz are infrasonic & protons +neutrons form the mass number.
above 20,000 Hz ultrasonic. The presence of For short distances nuclear forces are
water vapour increases the speed of sound. stronger than electrostatic repulsive forces.
It travels faster on a hot day than cold day.  In fission Uranium235 splits into Barium56 &
On a warm day the air near the ground is Krypton36 & ejects 3 neutrons. Graphite or
warmer than the air above. This causes Heavy water is used as moderator. Boron or
bending of sound away from the ground. The Cadmium is used as controlling rods.
opposite happens on a cold day causing the  Bright spots which are actually clusters of
sound to bend towards the earth. Thus on a stars & gaseous clouds are called Nebulae.
cold day sounds can be heard over long Orion Nebula is one of them in the Milky
distances. Way. Major constellations are Orion (hunter),
 The angle which a suspended bar magnet Cygnus (swan), Hydra, Hercules etc. Hydra is
makes with the horizontal is called the angle the largest with 68 stars visible to naked eye
of dip of the place. It is zero at equator & & Centaurus has 94 stars.
90o at poles.  Stars with mass less 1.4 times solar mass
(Chandrasekhar Limit) converts into a white
104
GENERAL SCIENCE
dwarf. Bigger than this converts neutron star even by mistake it cannot be inserted in the
(pulsar). Still bigger (mass greater than 5 live hole of the socket.
times solar mass) end up as black holes.  The f-number in a photographic camera is
 The layers of sun are photosphere (core), the focal length divided by the diameter of
chromosphere (surface) & corona (sun’s aperture.
atmosphere). Measuring Instruments
 Ganymede, Callisto, & Titan are bigger Hydrometer Measuring the density or
than planet mercury. Uranus, Neptune & relative density of liquids. Based
Pluto cannot be seen by naked eye. Ceres is on floatation principle
the largest known asteroid. Magnetron Produces microwave. Used in
ovens
 Kepler’s first law states that each planet
Actinometer Used to measure intensity of
moves in an ellipse with the sun at one
electromagnetic radiation
focus. Second law says that a line drawn
Altimeter Aneroid barometer for
form a planet to the sun sweeps out equal measuring altitude.
area in equal times. The third law states that Bolometer For measuring heat radiation
 the ratio of the square of the planets year Dasymeter Measuring density of gas
(T) to the cube of the planet’s mean distance Galvanometer Used for detecting small electric
(A) from the sun is same for all the planets. currents
 An OR gate gives a 1 if either of the input Gyroscope Determine orientation in
signals is 1. NOT gate generates a signal aircraft, ships etc
which is reverse of the original signal. Katharometer Measuring thermal conductivity
 TCP (transfer control protocol), URL Manometer Measuring the pressure of a gas
(universal resource locator), XML (Extensible Nethoscope Determining the speed of
markup language).CGI (common gateway celestial bodies
Rectifier Converts AC into DC.
interface).
Tonometer Measures pitch of sound
 One mile = 1.6 km. One nautical mile =
Venturimeter Measures rate of flow of fluids
1.85 km. One gallon = 4.5 litres. 1 mm Hg =
Udometer Rain guage.
133.3 pascal. One ounce (oz) = 31.1 grams.
WORK AND ENERGY
Parsec = 3.26 light years.
 Work: In physics work is defined if force
 Bessemer process is for making steel from
applied on object displaces the object in
cast iron.
direction of force. We define the work as
 Isotones are nuclei having same number
Product of the force and displacement in the
of neutrons but different number of protons.
direction of applied force or Product of
Isotopes have same number of protons but
displacement and force in the direction of
different neutrons. Isobars are nucleides with
displacement.
the same mass number.
 W = Force × displacement
 Positron is antiparticle of electron.
 Unit of Work: The SI unit of force is
Tachyons are particle supposed to travel at a
newton and the unit of length is a metre (m).
super-luminal velocity.
So the SI unit of work is newton meter which
 According to Ohm’s law, V = IR, & power P
is written as Nm. This unit (Nm) is also called
= VI or P = I2R.
joule (J), i.e. 1 joule = 1 newton. 1 metre
 The earthing pin is longer to ensure that
 Abbreviated, this is 1 J = 1 Nm
the gadget is earthed first & is thicker so that

GENERAL SCIENCE
 When a force of 1 newton moves a body unfavaourable for a liquid to have a surface.
through a distance of 1 metre in its own This property of liquid surface is called
direction the work done is 1 Joule. surface tension. When the water touches the
 Energy: Anything which has the capacity glass, it ‘rises up’ the glass surface then
to do work is said to possess energy. This forms a concave meniscus.
implies that work can be done only at the Mercury behaves in a different manner.
expense (cost) of energy i.e., to do work, we Mercury molecules are attracted more
need to spend energy, whatsoever be its strongly to other mercury molecules than
form. they are attracted to glass molecules. Here,
 Unit of Energy : Same as that of work i.e., the cohesive force is stronger than adhesive
Joules(J) force. That is why, when mercury touches
 Relation between kinetic energy and the glass surface, it ‘rises down’ the glass
momentum: p = where p = forming a convex meniscus.
momentum, k = kinetic energy, m = mass Pascal Law:
 Power: The time rate of doing work is  When pressure is applied to an enclosed
defined as power (P).If equal works are done fluid,it is transmitted equally to all parts of
in different times, power will be different. the fluid. This iscalled Pascal’s law.Pascal’s
More quickly work is done, power will be law holds, both for liquid and gases.
more Buoyancy:
Power=  Every liquid exerts an upwards force on
objects immersed in it. This upward force is
 Unit of Power: The unit of power is the
called Buoyant forcea nd this phenomenon is
joule per second and this is called the watt
called Buoyancy.
(W). When large amounts of power are
 Archimedes’ Principle states that the
involved, a more convenient unit is the
buoyant force is equal to the weight of this
kilowatt (kW) where 1 kW = 1000 W.
displaced liquid. The buoyant force exerted
 1 Megawatt = 106 watt
by a liquid, therefore, depends on the
 Power was also measured earlier in a unit
volume of the object immersed on it. When a
called horse power.Even these days, the unit
body is wholly or partially immersed in a
of horse power is in common use.
liquid, there is apparent loss in weight of the
 1 horse power = 746 watt
body, which is equal to the weight of the
 The unit kilowatt-hour means one kilowatt
displaced liquid by the body.
of power supplied for one hour. It is,
 The rise or depression of liquids in small
therefore, the unit of energy.1 KWh = (1000
diameter tubes is called capillarity.
J/s) × 60 × 60s = 3.6 × 106 J
 The faster the air, the lower the pressure.
MORE ABOUT SOLID, LIQUID AND
Different Temperature Scales:
GASES
Name of Symbol Lower Upper Number
Surface Tension:
the for fixed fixed of
 A molecule of the liquid near the surface scale each point point divisions
is attracted by fewer molecules of the liquid degree (LFP) (UFP) on the
(there is only air on one side) then molecule scale
deep inside. Therefore, the molecule of the Celsius °C 0°C 100°C 100
free surface has less attractive force than the Fahrenheit °F 32°F 212°F 180
deeper one, and so it is energetically Kelvin K 273.15 373.15 100
106
GENERAL SCIENCE
K K producing sensation of hearing in our ears.

The motion of a vibrating source sets up
Specific Heat Capacity: waves in the surrounding medium.
The specific heat capacity of a substance is Types of Waves: On the basis of the
the amount of energy (in joule) that is requirement of medium, waves are of two
needed to raise the temperature of 1 kg of types
the substance by 1°C. (i) Mechanical waves
Sp. heat of water = 1 cal /gm °C = 4200 (ii) Electromagnetic waves
J/kg °C. (i) Mechanical Waves:
Sp. heat of ice = 0.5 cal /gm °C.  A mechanical wave is a periodic
= 2100 J/kg °C. disturbance which requires a material
Latent Heat: medium for its propagation. The properties of
 The latent heat of a substance is that heat these waves depend on the medium so they
which changes the physical state of the are known as elastic waves, such as sound
substance but waves, water waves, waves in stretched
 doesnot rise its temperature. Latent heat string. On the basis of motion of particles the
is of two types : mechanical waves are classified into two
 Latent heat of melting parts.
 Latent heat of vaporisation  Transverse wave
 The amount of thermal energy required to  Longitudinal wave
change the state of substance is given by the (a) Transverse wave: When the particles of
following formula : the medium vibrate in a direction
Q=m×L perpendicular to the direction of propagation
 where, m = mass of the substance of the wave, the wave is known as the
 L = Latent heat of the substance transverse wave. For example, waves
 Newton’s Law of Cooling says that the rate produced in a stretched string, waves on the
of cooling of a body is proportional to the surface. These waves travel in form of crests
excess temperature of the body over the and troughs. These waves can travel in solids
surrounding and liquids only.
Sound: (b)Longitudinal wave:
Sound is a form of energy which produces a  As shown in figure, when the particles of
sensation of hearing in our ears. the medium vibrate along the direction of
Frequency: propagation of the wave then the wave is
 The frequency of an oscillating particle is known as the longitudinal wave. For
the total number of oscillations made by the example sound wave in air, waves in a
pendulum/particle in one second. solid rod produced by scrabbing. These
 Units: Hertz (or) C/s waves travel in the form of compressions
Amplitude: and rarefactions. These waves can travel
The maximum distance travelled by a in solids, liquids and gases.
pendulum towards any one side is from its  Amplitude (A) is defined as the maximum
initial position. displacement.
Sound is emitted by vibrating source and is  The frequency n of the wave is the
transmitted through a material medium reciprocal of its time period T, i.e., n=

GENERAL SCIENCE
 Wave velocity can be defined as the ultrasound for navigation and to locate food
distance covered by a wave in one time in darkness or at a place where there is
period. Therefore, inadequate light for vision (method of search
 Wave velocity = = is called echolocation).
LIGHT
 Wave velocity = Frequency × Wavelength
 Light is that form of energy which enables
 Thus, the wave velocity is the product of
people to ‘see’ things. For a person to see
frequency and wavelength. It holds true
any object, light energy must enter the eye.
for any periodic wave, both for transverse
This energy is converted into a ‘picture’ in a
or longitudinal waves.
 very complex process, but a simplified
Electromagnetic Waves
version is as follows:
An accelerated charge produces a sinusoidal
 light enters the eye through a ‘hole’ in the
time varying magnetic field, which in turn
iris, called the pupil,
produces a sinusoidal time varying electric
 the crystalline lens focusses the light to
field. The two fields so produced mutually
form a real, inverted image on the retina,
perpendicular and are sources to each other.
energy is collected by the rods and cones
“The mutually perpendicular time varying
making up the retina.
electric and
 this energy is transmitted as electrical
Magnetic fields constitute electromagnetic
impulses via the optic nerve to the brain,
waves which can propagate through empty
 the brain re-inverts the image and
space
produces a ‘picture’.
Radar:
 Reflection : When light rays strike the
 In this instrument radio waves of very
boundary of two media such as air and glass,
short wavelength are used to locate the
a part of light is turned back into the same
enemy aircraft or ship. A concave transmitter
direction. This is called reflection of light.
mounted on rotating platform sends radio
 Reflection = Specular reflection (on
waves in all directions. The radiowaves on
smooth surface) and Diffuse reflection (on
striking the aircraft or ship are reflected
rough surface)
back.
REFRACTION
 The reflected radiowaves are received by
Whenever a wave is bounced back into same
concave receiver, which is mounted at a
medium at an interface reflection is said to
small angle with the transmitter. On
have occurred. Transmission of a wave into
receiving the radio waves, the position of
the second medium at an interface is called
enemy air-craft can be located on a monitor
refraction.
screen as a bright spot.
•Twinkling of stars, appearance of sun before
Applications of Ultrasound:
actual sunrise and after actual sunset etc.
 The ultrasound is commonly used for
are due to atmospheric refraction.
medical diagnosis and therapy, and also as a
Rainbow:
surgical tool.
 Rainbows are generated through refraction
 It is also used in a wide variety of
and reflection of light in small rain drops. The
industrial applications and processes. Some
sun is always behind you when you face a
creatures use ultrasound for information
rainbow, and that the center of the circular
exchange and for the detection and location
arc of the rainbow is in the direction opposite
of objects. Also some bats are found to use
108
to that of the sun. The rain, of course, is in (b) Alternating current: The current whose
the direction of the rainbow i.e. rain drops magnitude continuously changes with time
must be ahead of you and the angle between and periodically changes its direction is called
your line-of-sight and the sunlight will be 40° alternating current. It has constant
– 42°. amplitude and has alternate positive and
 Moon is seen red during total lunar eclipse negative halves. It is produced by ac
 Solar radiation will be refracted when dynamo. In India, AC supply is at 50 Hz.
passing through the earth's atmosphere. Resistance: Opposition to electric current
Therefore part of the sunlight can still reach depends on the type of material, its cross-
the shadow of the earth. Besides, the earth sectional area, and its temperature.It is
atmosphere scatters most of the blue light, technically known as resistance. (It can be
so there will be more red light reaching the said thatconductors have low resistance and
moon. The red light will be reflected back to insulators have very high resistance.)
earth. That is the reason why you can see a Ammeter: Determines the value of current
red moon rather than total darkness. flowing in the circuit. The resistance of
Electricity: ammeter is small and it is used in series with
 The electrical devices we encounter most the circuit.
often in modern life such as computers, Voltmeter: Determines the potential
lights and telephones involve moving charges difference between two points in the circuit.
which we call electric currents. Its resistance is high and it is used in parallel
 Electric Current: We define the electric with the resistance wire.
current, or simply the current, to be the net Ohm’s law : According to Ohm’s law “The
amount of positive charge passing per unit current passing through a conductor is
time across any section through the directly proportional to the potential
conductor in the sense from the positive difference at its ends, provided the physical
toward the negative terminal. conditions of the conductor remain
 The SI unit of current is the ampere (A), unchanged.”
where 1A = 1 C/s that is, 1A of current is Unit of Resistance R= = =ohm
equivalent to 1C of charge passing through
Fuse wire:
the surface in 1s. In practice, smaller units of
 Fuse is a thin wire made an alloy of low
current are often used, such as the
melting point and low resistance. When the
milliampere (1mA = 10–3 A) and the
current exceeds the allowed limit in the
microampere (1μA = 10–6 A)
circuit, the fuse wire melts due to the
 If the charge on an electron is e and n
heating and the circuit gets disconnected,
electrons pass through a point in time t then
resulting into zero current in the circuit.
the total charge passing through that point
Because of this the possibility of fire or
will be Q = ne. Therefore the current
accident is prevented. Separate fuses are
 I = where, e = 1.6 × 10-19 coulomb.
used for different circuits in the houses. Fuse
Types of Current wire is always connected to the phase wire.
(a) Direct current: The current whose Once the fuse wire is damaged, it is replaced
magnitude and direction does not vary with for normal flow of current.
time is called direct current(dc). The various Capacitors and Capacitance
sources are cells, battery, dc dynamo etc.

GENERAL SCIENCE
A capacitor or condenser is a device that nuclear fusion reaction, which is the source
stores electrical energy.It generally consists of the energy of sun/star are proton-proton
of two conductors carrying equal but cycle.
opposite charges.The ability of a capacitor to Uses of Electromagnetic Waves
hold a charge is measured by aquantity  The following are some of the uses of
called the capacitance. electromagnetic waves
Units: Farad  Radio waves are used in radio and T.V.
Binding Energy communication systems.
Binding energy of a nucleus is the energy  Microwaves are used in microwave oven.
with which nucleons are bound in the  Infrared radiations are used (a) in
nucleus. It is measured by the work required revealing the secret writings on the ancient
to be done to separate the nucleons an walls (b) in green houses to keep the plants
infinite distance apart from the nucleus, so warm (c) in warfare, for looking through
that they may not interact with one another. haze, fog or mist as these radiations can
Nuclear Force pass through them.
It is the force acts in the nucleus between  Ultraviolet radiations are used in the
the nucleons and is responsible for binding detection of invisible writing, forged
the nucleon. documents, finger prints in forensic
Radioactivity laboratory and to preserve the food stuffs.
It is the spontaneous disintegration of the  The study of infrared, visible and
heavy nucleus of an atom (It occurs without ultraviolet radiations help us to know through
external provocation).It is a process by spectra, the structure of the molecules and
which an unstable nuclei achieves stability. arrangement of electrons in the external
Nuclear Reaction shells.
Nuclear reaction obeys following  X-rays can pass through flesh and blood
conservation laws : but not through bones. This property of X-
Charge conservation rays is used in medical diagnosis, after X-
 Conservation of linear momentum rays photographs are made. The study of X-
 Conservation of angular momentum rays has revealed the atomic structure and
 Conservation of energy (Rest mass crystal structure.
energy + K.E)  The study of g-rays provides us valueable
 Nuclear Reaction is of two types:- information about the structure of the atomic
(a)Nuclear Fission nuclei.
(By Otto Hans and Fstrassmann)Nuclear  Super high frequency electromagnetic
fission is the disintegration of a heavy waves (3000 to 30,000 MHz) are used in
nucleus upon bombardment by a projectile, radar and satellite communication.
such that the heavy nucleus splits up into  Electromagnetic waves (frequency 50 to
two or more segments of comparable masses 60 Hz) are ued for lighting. These are weak
with an enormous release of energy. waves having wavelength 5 × 106 to 6 × 106
(b) Nuclear Fusion m and can be produced from A.C. circuits
Nuclear fusion is the fusion of two or more Emission of Electron
light nuclei to form a heavy nucleus with a Electrons from the metal surface are emitted
release of huge amount of energy. The by anyone of the following physical processes
110
GENERAL SCIENCE
(i)Thermionic emission: The emission of Discovery Scientist

electrons by suitably heating the metal Electron J.J Thomson
surface. Proton Rutherford
(ii) Field emission: The emission of electrons Neutron James chadwick
by applying very strong field of the order of Atom John Dalton
108 Vm-1 to a metal. Atomic Structure NeilBohr &
(iii) Photo-electric emission: The emission of Rutherford
electrons when light of suitable frequency Laws of motion Newton
illuminates metal surface. Radio activity Henry Becquerel
Propagation of Radio Waves through the Radium Madam Curie
Atmosphere Principle of relativity Albert Einstein
It takes place in three ways: Electromagnetic Induction Michael Faraday
(i) Ground wave propagation, Raman Effect C.V Raman
(ii) Sky wave propagation and X-rays Roentgen
(iii) Space wave propagation. Quantum theory Max planck
(i)Ground wave propagation: Photo electric effect Albert Einstein
When the radio wave travel directly from one Law of electrostati Coulom
point to another following the surface of the Periodic table Mandeleev
earth, it is called ground or surface wave.
Thermionic Emission Edison
This type of transmission is possible only
Dynamite Albert Nobel
with waves of wavelengths above 200 m or
Nuclear Reactor Anrico Fermi
frequencies below 1500 k Hz.
Law of Floatation Archemedes
(ii)Sky wave propagation:
Wireless Telegram Marconi
When a radiowave is directed towards the
Important Terms
sky and is reflected by the ionosphere
 Nucleons: sub atomic particles in the nucleus
towards desired location on the earth, it is
of atom i.e. proton and neutrons.
called sky wave. This method is useful for
 Isotopes: atoms of an element with the same
the transmission of waves of wavelengths atomic number but different mass number.
less than 200 m or frequencies above 1500  Mass number: Sum of the number of protons
kHz upto 30 MHz. and neutrons i.e. the total number of nucleons.
(iii) Space wave propagation: For the  Atomic number: The number of protons in the
transmission of television signals nucleus of an atom. This when subtracted from
(frequencies in the range 100-200 M Hz), mass number, gives the number of neutrons.
space wave propagation method is used, in  Isobars: atoms having the same mass number
but different atomic numbers.
which the wave travels directly from a high
 Isotones: atoms having the same number of
transmitting antenna to the receiving
neutrons but different umber of protons or mass
antenna.
number. Iso-electronic species: Atoms, molecules
Radio waves also known as electromagnetic or ions having the same number of electrons.
waves which when radiated from  Quantum numbers: The term quantum number
transmitting antenna, travel through space is used to label the various energy levels or orbits
to distant places where they are picked up by  Principal quantum number: It represents a
receiving antenna. group of shells (n)

GENERAL SCIENCE
 Subsidiary quantum number: It represents the  Ampere – A unit that describes the rate of flow
subsidiary orbits within a shell. (l) of electricity (current).
 Magnetic quantum number: Observed  Amplitude – Height of a wave measured from
magnetism is determined by this number. (m) its centre (normal) position. For example, the
 Spin quantum umber: It can have only two height of a water wave above the level of calm
values positive or negative ½. (s) water.
 Pauli’s exclusion principle: According to this  Anion – negatively charged ion
principle, an orbital can contain a maximum of  Astrophysics – The branch of astronomy that
two electrons and these two electrons must be of deals with the physics of the universe , especially
opposite spin. with "the nature of the heavenly bodies, rather
 Aufbau Principle: This principle states that in than their positions or motions in space
the ground state of an atom, the orbital with a  Atom – A basic unit of matter that consists of a
lower energy is filled up before the orbital with a dense central nucleus surrounded by a cloud of
higher energy negatively charged electrons. The atomic nucleus
 Hund’s rule of maximum multiplicity: This rule contains a mix of positively charged protons and
states that the electron pairing in orbitals of same electrically neutral neutrons.
energy will not take place unless all the available  Atomic mass unit – one-twelfth the mass of an
orbitals of a given subshell contain one single atom of the isotope 12 ⁄ 6 C.
electron.  Atomic number – The number of protons found
 Absolute humidity – The ratio of water vapor in in the nucleus of an atom. Represented by the
a sample of air to the volume of the sample. letter "Z," it is most often used to classify
 Absolute zero – The theoretical lowest possible elements.
temperature. More formally, it is the theoretical  Avogadro's Law - it states that volumes of
temperature at which entropy reaches its gases which are equal to each other at the same
minimum value. temperature and pressure will contain equal
 Acceleration – The rate at which the velocity of numbers of molecules.
a body changes with time.  Avogadro's Number – the number of molecules
 Acceleration due to gravity – The acceleration in exactly 12g of carbon-12, equaling 6.023 x
on an object caused by force of gravitation. 1023.
 Acoustics – The branch of physics dealing with All the Best
the production, transmission and effects produced
by sound.
 Adhesion – The tendency of dissimilar particles
or surfaces to cling to one another.
 Albedo – The fraction of the total light incident
on a reflecting surface, especially a celestial body,
which is reflected back in all directions.
 Alpha particle – Consist of two protons and two
neutrons bound together into a particle identical
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to a helium nucleus, which is classically produced
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in the process of alpha decay, but may be
produced also in other ways and given the same
name.
 Alternating current – A form of electric current
in which the movement of electric charge
periodically reverses direction.
 Ammeter – An instrument that is used to
measure current.
112
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Indian History
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INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION viii. Houses- made of burnt bricks, 2 or
(2500-1700 B.C) more storeyed, tiled bathrooms, square
• Oldest among 4 civilizations; other 3 - courtyard
Mesopotamia (Tigris & Euphrates), Egypt ix. Lamp posts existed
(Nile), China (Hwang Po) Agriculture
• Belongs to Bronze age i. Wheat, Barley (at ‘Lothal’ & ‘Rangpur’ rice
• Flourished along the Indus River husks were found)
• Harappan civilization was named by John ii. Used wooden plough (evidence
Marshall Kalibangan) & stone sickles for harvesting
• Spread- Sind, Baluchistan, Afghanistan, iii. Well irrigation (evidence- Dholavira)
West Punjab, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, • “Pasupati seal”, fire baked clay used to
Haryana, Rajasthan, J & K, Punjab, make terracotta figurines
Maharastra • Gambling was their favourite timepass –
Town Planning 1st to produce cotton in the world
i. Grid system (streets cutting at right (Greeks called ‘Sindon’ & evidence
angle) at Mohenjadaro)
ii. Town has 2 parts - Upper part/Citadel & Domestication- Animal rearing
lower part practiced, evidence from the discovery of
iii. Upper part-west side, public buildings, the “Humped Bull”
member of ruling class i. Camel bones at Kalibangan
iv. Lower part-east, inhabited by commoners ii. Remains of horse at Surkotada
v. Underground drainage system - connected Trade
all houses to the street; equipped with i. Barter system; coins not evident
‘manhole’ ii. Weights & measures made of limestone,
vi. The great Bath (Mohenjadaro) - Religious steatite etc & are in multiples of 16
Bath, Changing rooms alongside iii. Foreign trade with - Mesopotamia/
vii. The granaries (Harappa)- 6 in a row in Sumeria (Iraq), Central Asia, Persia,
the Citadel Afghanistan, Bahrain
2
INDIAN HISTORY
iv. Sumerian text refers to trade with • Chief female deity - terracotta figure
‘Meluha’ (Indus); ‘Dilmun’/Bahrain & ‘Makan’ where a plant is shown growing out of the
(makran coast) embryo of a woman represents mother
were intermediate stations. goddess (earth goddess)
v. Coastal towns- Lothal, Surkotada, • Chief male deity - Pasupati Mahadeva
Suktangendor, Prabspattan, Bhatrao, sitting in yogic posture having 3 faces and 2
Kalibangan, Dholavira, Daimabad horns; surrounded by an elephant,a tiger, a
vi. Exports - Steatite beads (from rhino, a buffalo & 2 deers appear at his feet
Chanhudaro), Conch-Shell (from Lothal), • Pipal tree was worshipped
Ivory products, Copper,
Cotton Goods, Terracotta Figurines, Pottery, THE VEDIC AGE
etc VEDIC LITERATURE:
Art and Craft Meaning- branch of literature considered as
i. Bead making, Pottery-both Plain (red) or “sruti” (sacred knowledge or divine
Painted (red and black); revelation)
ii. Pots were decorated with human figurines, Sruti means knowledge from God and Smriti
plants, animals & geometrical patterns & means knowledge from god through yogis.
ochre was painted over it. Consists= samhitas, brahmanas, aranyakas,
iii. Seals were made steatite; pictures of one- Upanishads
horned bull, buffalo, tiger, rhinocerous, goat

& elephant.
SAMHITAS:
RIG VEDA SAMA VEDA
 Veda of praise; collection of hymns  Veda of melody/rhythmic compilation of
 Oldest of all Vedas hymns for rig veda
 1017 hymns/suktas after adding  “Book of chants” contains 1549 hymns
“Bihilya sukta” number is 1028 meant to be sung at the ‘soma’ sacrifice
 Specialized by ‘hotri’(invoker) type of  Specialized by a special class of
priest Brahmanas called ‘udgatris’.
 10 mandalas(collection of hymns)& 8  Has very little original value
3
INDIAN HISTORY
Ashtaks  Origin of Indian music is traced to it

 Contains “Gayatri mantra”( addressed
to solar deity savitri)
 Tenth mandala has the “Purushasukta”
hymns was added later
 Eleventh mandala is completely
devoted to “Soma”
YAJUR VEDA ATHARVA VEDA

 Book of sacrificial prayers; Rituals of  Mantras for magic spells to ward off
yajnas. evils &
 Specialized by ‘adhvarya’(performer) Diseases
type of priest  populate ritualistic systems &
 Its Mantras tells how the sacrifice were superstitions
to be performed & what part the  associated with ‘Saunkiya’ & ‘Paiplad’
“adhvaryus”- brahmanas who community
performed the manual work in the  collection of 711/731/760 hymns
arrangement of sacrifice were to play at  not included in ‘Trai’
the time of sacrifice  divided into 20 ‘kandas’
 Complied in 40 path  Oldest text on Indian medicine
 Divided into Krishna(black) &
shukla(white) yajurveda
 Has the earliest Indian prose
BRAHMANAS:
 Deal with science of sacrifice & propagate
the “karmamarga” ARANYAKAS:
 The origins of Indian sciences like  Meaning- forest books, deal with
mathematics & astronomy are traced to mysticism & symbolism of sacrifice & priestly
these texts philosophy
4
 Most of this literature has been lost by us  Tribal assemblies- vidata, sabha, samiti,
unfortunately gana; in later vedic sabha & samiti only
UPANISHADS: prevailed.
The Upanishadas are the texts with high  Satapatha brahmana
philosophical connotations.  Rajasuya (consecration) - confers
• Upanishads are also called Vedanta i.e. end supreme power to king
of Vedas  Asvamedha (horse sacrifice) -
• Brihadaranyaka is the oldest Upanishada. establish supremacy over his
The concept of life after death, for the first neighbours
time appears here  Vajapeya (chariot race) - establish
• The latest Upanishada was written during supremacy over his own people
the reign of Akbar  Trade- through barter but used cows &
6 Vedangas/Smiriti nishka as medium of exchange; later vedic-
 Shiksha- phonetics satamana & krishanla in addition to
 Vyakarna-grammar nishka(gold ornaments of fixed value)
 Kalpa-rituals  Varna system-10th mandala of rig veda
 Chandas-metrics mentions 4 fold division of the
 Nirukta-etymology society(initially
 Jyotisha-astronomy warriors/kshatriyas,priests/brahmanas,trade
rs&farmers/vaishyas & in the end of rig vedic
EARLY VEDIC(BC1500-BC1000):
period added sudras who did menial works)
 When rig veda was complied Aryans came
 Ashramas/stages of life- came in later
through Khyber and bolan passes &lived in
vedic period; ‘JABALA upanishad’ mentions 4
sindhu. They settled in ‘sapta sindhu’(land of
stages
7 rivers) in Punjab
 Brahmacharia-student life
 kula/family- kulapas(head)
 Grihastha-life of the house holder
grama/village- gramani
 Vanaprastha-partial retirement
vis- vispati
 Sanyasin-complete retirement/ascetic
jana/tribe- rajan/tribal chief
life
5
INDIAN HISTORY
 Economy- cattle rearing & agriculture; 6. Dharshanas

iron used to make tools & instruments • The three texts associated with different
 Food – wheat, barley, meat, milk, curd, kind of rituals are:
vegetable, fruits; drank intoxicating drinks a. Shrauta Sutras/Shulva Sutras – deal with
‘soma’ & ‘sura’ the sacrifices
 Religion – b. Grihya Sutras – deal with family
a) Indira (purandhara)- most important god, ceremonies
role as war lord& considered to be rain god c. Dharma Sutras – deal with Varnas,
b) Agni(fire god)- 200 hymns addressed to Ashramas & other.
this god; agni helped indra in the • There are mainly two Epics:
destruction of Purs & was the god of priest. I. The Ramayana written by Valmiki, it is
c) Varuna (water god)- uphold the ‘rta’ / known as Adi Kavya. At present, it consists
natural order; god of ethics of 24,000 shlokas i.e. verses.
d) Soma- god of plants II. The Mahabharata composed by Ved Vyasa
Apart from this important gods, there are 33 is the oldest epics of the world. At present, it
totally-maruts (storm spirit), female deity consists of 1,00,000 shlokas i.e. verses.
Aditi (goddess of eternity), Usha (goddess of Bhagavad Gita is extracted from Bihshma
the dawn) , Prithvi (earth goddess) Parvan of Mahabharata and Shanti Parvan is
LATER VEDIC (BC 1000-BC 600): the largest parvan of the Mahabharata.
Literature of the later Vedic period can be • The Upavedas i.e the auxiliary Vedas were
categorized into six heads: traditionally associated with the Vedas.
1. Vedangas  Ayur veda-medicine
2. Smritis  Silpa veda-sculpture
3. Mahakavyas  Gandharva veda-music
4. Puranas  Dhanur veda-warfare
5. Upvedas
6
INDIAN HISTORY
MAJOR HARAPPAN SITES & THEIR EXCAVATIONS

Sites Excavators Region/River characteristic
1.Harappa (1921) Daya Ram Shani Pakistani Punjab Grid system, 6 granaries,
(Ravi River Bank) Coffin burial & factorial burial,
cemetery of Alien People
2. Mohenjadaro R.D. Banerjee Sind now Great bath, bearded man in

(1922) Pakistan (Indus steatite & a bronze dancing
Bank) girl, mother goddess with a
plant growing from her womb
3. Sutkagendor Stein, R.L Baluchistan on Evidence of horse, trade point

(1927) dast river between Harappa & babylon
4.Chanhudaro M.G.Majumdar, Sind – Indus City has no citadel, evidence

(1931) Mackey bank of copper/bronze tools of
carts with seated drivers,
beads & bangles factory
4. Kalibangan A. Ghosh Rajasthan - Evidence of 7 fire altars &

(1953) Ghaggar bank camel bones, wooden
furrow,burials
(rectangular/circular), houses
with well
5. Lothal (1953) S.R.Rao Gujarat Evidence of horse terracotta

,instrument for measuring
angles pointing to modern
compass, 1st man made port
in the world & a dock, joint
burial
6.Banawali (1974) R.S. Bisht Hissar district of Evidence of Barley, pre

Haryana Harappa & Harappa phase
7.Surkotada (1964) J.P. Joshi Bhuj District of Evidence of Bones of horses,

Gujarat bead making shops
9.Dolavira (1985- R.S. Bisht Gujarat- Rann of Largest site, 3 parts of city,
1990) Kutch unique water management
7
INDIAN HISTORY
10.Rangpur (1953) M.S.vats Gujarat – bank of Rice was cultivated

mahar
11.Alamgirpur Y.D.sharma Hindon in Impression of cloth on a
(1958) Ghaziabad trough is discovered
12. Ropar (1953) Y.D. Sharma Punjab –sutlej Evidence of burying a dog
bank below human burial;
rectangular mud brick
chamber
13.Balakot (1963- George F.Dales Arabian sea Mounds rise to the height of
1976) about 9.7m & are spread of
2.8 sq.hectare
Mahajanapadas  Anga (Kolkata and Bangladesh)

Mahajanapadas is a combination of three  Kashi (Varanasi/Benaras)
words  Kosala, (East Uttar Pradesh)
 Maha-Great  Chedi, (Central Madhya Pradesh)
 Jana-People  Vatsa, (southern Uttar Pradesh)
 Padas-Foothold  Matsya, (Eastern Rajasthan and
So Mahajanapadas were Great footholds of people of Western Madhya Pradesh)
various tribes.  Shursen, (Indian Punjab)
This was also the time when the name BHARAT-
VARSH was coined for the whole indian subcontinent.  Ashmak, (Central India-Eastern
This vast land of roughly 3000 kms was split into 16 Maharashtra)
major mahajanapadas around the 6th century B.C.E
 Avanti, (Western and southern Madhya
and, they were divided into two categories as follows:
Monarchy: Pradesh)
11 of these Mahajanapadas were ruled by kings or  Gandhar (Peshawar and northern
monarchs. The kings in these states had the supreme
authority. Pakistan Punjab )
 Magadha (Bihar and Bengal)
Republics:
The remaining 5 were Republic countries.
These republican states had a 'Gana-
Parishad' or an Assembly of senior and
8
INDIAN HISTORY
responsible citizens. This, Gana-parishad had  The Vatsa king Udayana was very brave.
the supreme authority in the state.  He was the follower of Gautama Buddha.
All the administrative decisions were taken  The independent status of- Vatsa was
by this Parishad were taken by this Parishad. soon lost after king Udayana.
 Vrijji (North Eastern Uttar Pradesh) Avanti:
 Malla,( Northern West Bengal and  The kingdom of Avanti comprised the
Western Assam) area around the present day Ujjain in
 Kuru(Haryana and Delhi) Madhya Pradesh.
 Panchal (Uttarakhand and Western  Pradyota, the king of Avanti, was a very
Uttar Pradesh) ambitloys ruler.
 Kamboj (Nothern Baluchistan and North  He was constantly engaged in conflicts
West Frontier Province of Pakistan) with Kosala, Vatsa and Magadha.
Of all these, Avanti, Kosala, Gandhar, Vatsa  In this constant warfare, the Magadha
and Magadha were the biggest and their role state ultimately proved superior.
was very important all the forth comings. Magadha:
Kosala:  Expansion of the Magadha kingdom
 Shravasti, Kushavati, Saket, and started during the reign of King Bimbisara.
Ayodhya were the famous cities of Kosala.  He annexed the kingdoms of Kashi,
 Ayodhya was the State capital. Madra and Anga to Magadha.
 The Kosala king Prasenajit was - a  There is a reference in the Buddhist
contemporary of Gautama Buddha. Kosala works to 80,000 village in Bimbisara's
and Magadha went to war during his reign. kingdom.
 The independent state of Kosala did not  The capital of his kingdom was
last -long after Prasenajit. Rajagriha, the present day Rajgir in Bihar.
Vatsa: The city of Rajagriha and King Bimbisara's
 Kaushambi of the present day Bihar, was palace were built by an architect named
the capital of Vatsa. Mahagovinda.
 Vatsa was famous for its fine cotton
cloth.
9
INDIAN HISTORY
JAINISM BUDDHISM
 Founder- Vardhamana Mahavir  Founder – Gautam Buddha(563-483

th
 Prominence under the 24 thirthankar B.C)
Mahavir(540 B.C – 468 B.C)  His original name - Siddhartha
 Belong to Jantrika Kshatriya clan  Belong to Shakya Kshatriya clan
 Birth place Kundagram(in Vaishali)  Father - Suddhodhana(ruler of
 Father - Siddharth; Mother – Trishala Kapilavastu)
(Sister of Lichchavi Prince Chetak of Vaishali)  Mother – Maya (died in Child Birth) &
 Wife - Yashoda(Cousin) Step Mother - Aunt Goutami
 Left home at the age of 30 & wandered for  Wife - Yasodhara(cousin) ; Son-Rahul
12 yrs.  His charioteer - Channa; Horse –
 Got Kaivalya at the age of 42 under a sall Kanthaka Left home at the age of 29 &
tree in Jrimbhiragrama performed his ‘Great Going
 Died at Pavapuri Forth’/’Mahabiniskramana
 Rishavdeva -1st thirthankar  Nirvana/ Enlightenment at 35yrs at
 23rd –Parshvanath(many teaching belong to uruvela under papal tree
him;200yrs before Mahavir)  1st sermon called ‘Dharmachakra
 Did not believe that god created this world pravartana’ to his 5 disciples at sarnath
while not denying the existence of god  Died at Kusinagar(U.P) at 486 B.C
 3 Gems/ Triratna  4 noble truth

i. Right knowledge i. Life is full of sorrow
ii. Right belief ii. Desire is the cause of sorrow
iii. Right action iii. Sorrow can be ended by giving up desire
 5 doctrines iv. The eight fold path is the way to end
i. Ahimsa- non-violence sorrow
ii. Satya-truth  8 fold paths- right belief, right speech,
iii. Asatya-non stealing right living, right memory, right effort, right
iv. Aparigraha-non possession thought, right action, right meditation
v. Brahmacharya-celibacy  Sangam-organisation of monks
10
INDIAN HISTORY
 Kings who followed- Chandragupta Maurya,  Kings followed-Ashoka, Ajatasatru,

Kalingathu Karavellen, Koon Pandian, Sabakami, Mogaliputta, Vasumitra
Mahendravarma Pallava I.  Monuments –Jataka Tales (describes
 Contributions to architecture- history of Buddhism) depicted at Gaya,
i. Dilwara temple at Mount Abu, Rajasthan Sanchi, Burhut, Ajanta & Ellora cave paintings
ii. Kajiraho temple of jains at Chittoor, at maharastra describes the fame of Buddha,
Ranakpur gandhara art.
iii. Sculptures at Udaiyagiri, Hathigumpa,  Chaityas - Prayar halls of Buddhist monks
Girnar, Saravanabelagola, Kazhugumalai. Viharas-monastries
st
 1 Council - Pataliputra; Jainism divided to  Tripitakas/Buddhist literature, in pali it is
Swetambars (white clad) & Digambars(who called three baskets - Vinayapitaka,
remained naked & did not recognized the 12 Suttapitaka, Abhidammapittaka;
Angas/Jain Literature). The 12 angas replaced  Manimekalai & Kundalakesi are Buddhist
14 purvas literatures
nd
 2 Council - 512 A.D at Vallabhi presided by  1st Council- at Satparni, Rajagriha (483
devardhigani; resulted in the compliation of 12 B.C); presiding priest is Mahakassapa’ king-
Angas & 12 Upangas. Ajatashatru; Upali recited the Vinaya Pittaka
 Adopted Prakrit(language of common (rules of Buddhist order) & Anand recited
people) Suttapitaka(collections of Buddha’s sermons).
 Religious Literature- Ardhmagadhi  2nd Council- at vaishali(383 B.C); Priest-
 Sillapathikaram, Nannool, Sabakami; King- Kalasoka; Split of Buddhist
Chivagacinthamani, Vallayapathi were written order into Sthaviravadins/Theravadins &
by Jain monks Mahasanghikas
 Contributed to growth of Kannada  3rd Council- at Pataliputra(250 B.C);
Priest-Mogaliputta; King-Ashoka;
Establishment of Sthaviravada school as an
orthodox school; Tissa(codification of
Abhidhamma pitaka,deals with philosophy as
Upagupta) of Buddhism in Pali
 4th Council- at Kundalvana, Kashmir;
11
INDIAN HISTORY
Priest- Vasumitra; King-Kanishka; Buddhist

divided into Mahayana & Hinayana.
Mauryan Empire  The mission to Sri Lanka included his

Ashoka and the Mauryan Empire son, Mahinda, who carried with him a sapling
• The Mauryan dynasty was founded by from the Bodhi tree, under which Buddha
Chandragupta Maurya in 320 BC (after attained Enlightenment. Pataliputra,
defeating the incumbent Nanda dynasty). Kausambi, Ujjain and Taxila were the
 He established the first territorial empire most important cities in the Mauryan times.
in ancient India, covering most of the Indian  The maintenance of a huge army was the
sub-continent. He was assisted by his most striking feature of Chandragupta's
political adviser, KAUTALYA, who also set administration.
out the rules for the administration of the • Ashoka is the first Indian king to speak
country. directly to the people through his
 The most famous king of the Mauryan inscriptions.
dynasty was Ashoka, the grandson of • Ashokan inscriptions are the earliest
Chandragupta Maurya. After Kalinga War, specimens of Prakrit language in India.
Ashoka embraced Buddhism and emerged as • After the Kalinga War, Ashoka abandoned
one of the most important and influential of the policy of physical occupation
all Buddhist patrons. (Bherighosha) in favour of a policy of
 His patronage extended to the cultural conquest (Dhammaghosha).
construction of monasteries (VIHARAS) and • Ashoka appointed a class of officers known
prayer walls (CHAITYAS) for Buddhist as The 'Rajukas', who were vested with
followers, construction of stupas, (at judicial power.
Sanchi, for example) and other religious • Ashoka appointed 'dharma-mahamatras'
structures at Sarnath and Amaravati. for propagating 'Dhamma' among various
 Ashoka also spread the message of social groups.
Buddhism through missions sent to Sri Lanka • According to Arthashastra of Kautilya, the
and northwestern India. Mauryas appointed 27 superintendents
12
INDIAN HISTORY
(adhyakshas) mstly to regulate the • Akaradhyaksha was the superintendent

economic activities. of mines.
• For the first time in Mauryan period, slaves • Gahapati was the term used for the head
were engaged in agricultural works on a of rich land-owning family.
large basis. • Sita lands were the lands owned and
• 'Samaharta' was the highest officer in controlled directly by the state.
charge of assessment and the 'Sannidhata' • The ancient Indian texts hold that there
was the chief custodian of the state treasury were seven components of state in ancient
and the store house. times. These seven components were called
• The punch-marked silver coins formed the 'Saptangas' (seven limbs) - Swami (king),
imperial currency of the Mauryas. These Mitra (friends), Danda (army), Kosa
coins carried the symbols of peacock, hill (treasury), Amatya (minister), Janapada
and crescent. (territory) and Durga (fort). The
• Fragments of stone pillars and stumps, Arthashastra gives the king primacy among
indicating the existence of a 80-pillared Hall, the seven components.
have been discovered at Kumrahar, on the • The Girnar Rock Edicts of Ashoka
outskirts of Modern Patna. mention the function of the council of
• Bhaga or the land tax was the main item ministers (Mantriparishad). Rock Edict III
of revenue. It was levied at the rate of one- and Rock Edict VI also mention the rights
sixth to one-fourth of the produce. and obligations of mantriparishad.
• Pushyagupta built a dam for creating a • Laying down the criteria for selection of
reservoir of water near Girnar in ministers in the mantriparishad, the
Saurashtra. This was known as Arthashastra says that Sarvopadasudha
Sudarshana todaga (water tank). (purest of all) person should be appointed a
Pushyagupta was one of the governors of minister.
Chandragupta. • The Arthashastra mention 18 Tirthas
• Samsthadhyaksha looked after the (Departments) in the Mauryan
markets. administration.
• Rajapanya was the term used for the • The head of the urban (city) administration
state produced goods. was called nagariaka. He was assisted by
13
INDIAN HISTORY
two subordinate officials - Gopa and • Pradeshta was the highest official at the
Sthanika. district level. He was assisted by Rajukas
• Gopa looked after the registration of births and Yuktas.
ans deaths in the Mauryan Empire. • The yukta was a junior district official who
• The police in Mauryan administration was gave secretarial assistance to Pradeshta
known as Rakshi. and Rajuka.
• During the Mauryan rule, there were six • The Pillar Edict IV is entirely addressed to
branches of the army: Infantry, Cavalry, the Rajukas.
Elephants, Chariots, Transport, and Admiral • Megasthenes divided Indian society into
of the Fleet. Each branch was looked after by seven categories.
a committee of five members. • Bindusara asked Antiochus I of Syria to
• At the village level, the 'Gramika' looked send him figs, wine and philosophers.
after judicial administration. • Ashokan inscriptions were composed
• In Mauryan times, the gamblers had to mainly in Prakrit language.
part with five percent of their winnings to the • Rock-cut architecture in India made a
state. beginning during Ashoka's reign.
• The head of the provincial administration CHANDRAGUPTA MAURYA
was the 'Kumara' (Royal Prince). He 1. The Mauryan empire was founded by
governed the province as the king's Chandragupta Maurya.
representative. Ashoka had been the 2. It is believed that Chandragupta Maurya
'Kumara' of Ujjain and Taxila before was born to a sudra woman, Mura.
becoming the king. The 'Kumara' was 3. According to Buddhist tradition
assisted by mahamatyas - called Chandragupta Maurya belonged to the
Mahamatras. Maurya Kshatriya clan.
• Ashokan Edicts mention four provincial 4. Chanakya (Kautilya) wrote the
capitals. Toshali in the east, Ujjain in the Arthashastra, which contains treatises on
west, Suvarnagiri in the south and Taxila economics, politics, foreign affairs,
in the north. administration, military arts, war, and
religion.
14
INDIAN HISTORY
5. Chandragupta Maurya defeated Seleucus 5. Apart from these southern states, Kalinga
Nicator in 305 B.C. Seleucus Nicator sent (modern Odisha) was the only kingdom in
his ambassador Megasthenes to the court of India that didn't form the part of Bindusara's
Chandragupta Maurya. Megasthenes wrote empire.
Indica which gives detail information of the 6. Kalinga was later conquered by his son
Mauryan society under the rule of Ashoka, who served as the viceroy of Ujjain
Chandragupta Maurya. Seleucus had to during his father's reign.
surrendered a large territory Paropamisade 7. Ambassador Deimachus of Seleucid
(Kamboja and Gandhara), Arachosia Empire visited the court of Bindusara.
(Kandhahar) and Gedrosia 8. Bindusara followed the Ajivika sect.
(Baluchistan). Seleucus Nicator also 9. Bindusara sent his son Ashoka to quell a
married his daughter to Chandragupta rebellion in Taxilla.
Maurya. In return Seleucus received 500 war ASHOKA
elephants. 1. Ashok Vardhan Maurya was the son of
6. According to Jain text Chandragupta Bindusara. He was also known as Ashoka or
Maurya converted to Jainism. Ashoka The Great.
7. Chandragupta Maurya spent his last days 2. As a young prince, Ashoka was a brilliant
at Sravanabelagola involved in Salekna commander who crushed revolts in Ujjain
(Jain tradition following fast unto and Taxila.
death) 3. Ashoka's conquest of Kalinga (262-261
BINDUSARA B.C.) against Raja Ananta Padmananda
1. Bindusara was the son of proved to be the pivotal event of his life.
Chandragupta Maurya and his queen Although Ashoka's army succeeded in
Durdhara. defeating Kalinga forces of royal soldiers and
2. Greek writers refer him as Amitraghata. civilian units, an estimated 100,000 soldiers
3. Bindusara extended this empire to the and civilians were killed in the war.
southern part of India. 4. Destruction and fallout of Kalinga war
4. Bindusara didn't conquer the friendly changed Ashoka's attitude towards non-
Dravidian kingdoms of the Cholas, the violence. He embraced Buddhism and
Pandyas, and Cheras renounced war.
15
INDIAN HISTORY
5. He sent out Buddhist missionaries to

travel around Asia and spread Buddhism to
useful sources to reconstruct the history of
other countries. the Sangam Age.
6. The Lion Capital of Ashoka, which was
Sangam Literature includes Tolkappiyam,
Ettutogai, Pattuppattu, Pathinenkilkanakku,
erected around 250 B.C. is now the and the two epics about Silappathigaram
National Emblem of India. and Manimegalai.
TOLKAPPIYAM: authored by Tolkappiyar
7. Third Buddhist Council was held in 250
is the earliest of the Tamil literature. It is a
B.C. under the patronage of King work on Tamil grammar but it provides
Ashoka. SANGAM AGE
information on the political and
socioeconomic conditions of the Sangam
The Sangam Age constitutes an period.
important chapter in the history of ETTUTOGAI: Also called Eight Anthologies
consist of eight works – Aingurunooru,
South India. According to Tamil legends,
Narrinai, Aganaooru, Purananooru,
there existed three Sangams (Academy of Kuruntogai, Kalittogai, Paripadal and
Tamil poets) in ancient Tamil Nadu Padirruppattu.
PATTUPPATTU: Ten Idylls consist of ten
popularly called Muchchangam.
These Sangams flourished under the
royal patronage of the Pandyas.
First Sangam --- held at then Madurai, works – Thirumurugarruppadai,
was attended by gods and legendary Porunararruppadai, Sirupanarruppadai,
sages but no literary work of this Perumpanarruppadai, Mullaippattu,
Sangam was available. Nedunalvadai, Maduraikkanji, Kurinjippatttu,
Second Sangam--- was held Pattinappalai and Malaipadukadam.
at Kapadapuram but the all the literary Both Ettutogai and Pattuppattu were divided
works had perished except Tolkappiyam. into two main groups – Aham (love) and
Third Sangam--- at Madurai was Puram (valour). PATHINENKILKANAKKU:
founded by Mudathirumaran. It was contains eighteen works mostly dealing with
attended by a large number of poets ethics and morals. The most important
who produced voluminous literature but among them is Tirukkural authored by
only a few had survived. These Tamil Thiruvalluvar. Silappathigaram written by
literary works remain Elango Adigal and Manimegalai by Sittalai
16
Sattanar also provides valuable information 1. CHERAS:
on the Sangam polity and society.  ruled over parts of modern Kerala
OTHER SOURCES:  capital was Vanji
In addition to the Sangam literature,  important seaports were Tondi and
 the Greek authors like Megasthenes, Musiri.
Strabo, Pliny and Ptolemy mention the  The Pugalur inscription of the first
commercial contacts between the West and century A.D refers to three generations of
South India. Chera rulers.
 The Asokan inscriptions mention the  Padirruppattu also provides information
Chera, Chola and Pandya rulers on the south on Chera kings
of the Mauryan empire.  Perum Sorru Udhiyan Cheralathan,
 The Hathikumbha inscription of Kharavela Imayavaramban Nedum Cheralathan and
of Kalinga also mentions about Tamil Cheran Senguttuvan were the famous rulers
kingdoms. of this dynasty
 The excavations at Arikkamedu,  Cheran Senguttuvan belonged to 2nd
Poompuhar, Kodumanal and other places century A.D. His younger brother was Elango
reveal the overseas commercial activities of Adigal, the
the Tamils. author of Silappathigaram. Among his
PERIOD OF SANGAM LITERATURE military achievements, his expedition to the
The most probable Himalayas was remarkable. He defeated
date of the Sangam literature has been many north Indian monarchs. Senguttuvan
fixed between the third century B.C. to introduced the Pattini cult or the worship of
third century A.D. on the basis of Kannagi as the ideal wife in Tamil Nadu. The
literary, archaeological and numismatic stone for making the idol of Kannagi was
evidences. POLITICAL HISTORY brought by him after his Himalayan
The Tamil country was ruled by three expedition. The consecration ceremony was
dynasties namely the Chera, Chola and attended by many princes including
Pandyas during the Sangam Age. The Gajabhagu II from Sri Lanka.
political history of these dynasties can be
traced from the literary references.
17
INDIAN HISTORY
2. CHOLAS:  earliest kings of the Pandyan dynasty

 extended from modern Tiruchi district to were Nediyon, Palyagasalai Mudukudumi
southern Andhra Pradesh. Peruvaludhi and Mudathirumaran. There
 capital was first located at Uraiyur and were two Neduncheliyans. The first one was
then shifted to Puhar. known as Aryappadai Kadantha
 Karikala was a famous king of the Neduncheliyan (one who won victories over
Sangam Cholas. the Aryan forces). He was responsible for
 Pattinappalai portrays his early life and the execution of Kovalan for which Kannagi
his military conquests. In the Battle of Venni burnt Madurai. The other was
he defeated Talaiyalanganattu Cheruvenra (He who won
the mighty confederacy consisting of the the battle at Talaiyalanganam)
Cheras, Pandyas and eleven minor Neduncheliyan. He was praised by Nakkirar
chieftains. This event is mentioned in many and Mangudi Maruthanar. He wore this title
Sangam poems. after defeating his enemies at the Battle of
 Vahaipparandalai was another important Talaiyalanganam, which is located in the
battle fought by him in which nine enemy Tanjore district. By this victory
chieftains submitted before him. Karikala’s Neduncheliyan gained control over the entire
military achievements made him the Tamil Nadu.
overlord of the whole Tamil country. Trade  Maduraikkanji written by Mangudi
and commerce flourished during his reign Maruthanar describes the socio-economic
period. He was responsible for the condition of the
reclamation of forest lands and brought  Pandya country including the flourishing
them under cultivation thus adding seaport of Korkai. The last famous Pandyan
prosperity to the people. He also built king was Uggira Peruvaludhi. The Pandyan
Kallanai across the river Kaveri and also rule during the Sangam Age began to decline
constructed many irrigation tanks. due to the invasion of the Kalabhras.
3. PANDYAS: Minor Chieftains
 ruled over the present day southern The minor chieftains played a
Tamil Nadu significant role in the Sangam period. Among
 capital was Madurai. them Pari, Kari, Ori, Nalli, Pegan, Ay and
18
INDIAN HISTORY
Adiyaman were popular for their on foreign trade. The Pattinappalai refers to
philanthropy and patronage of Tamil poets. the custom officials employed in the seaport
Therefore, they were known as Kadai Yelu of Puhar. Booty captured in wars was also a
Vallalgal. major income to the royal treasury.
SANGAM POLITY: Hereditary monarchy SANGAM SOCIETY
was the form of government during the Tolkappiyam refers to the five-
Sangam period. The king had also taken the fold division of lands.
advice of his minister, court-poet and the  Kurinji (hilly tracks)–chief deity was
imperial court or avai. Murugan – chief occupation, hunting and
Titles: honey collection.
Chera kings- Vanavaramban, Vanavan,  Mullai (pastoral)–chief deity Mayon
Kuttuvan, Irumporai and Villavar (Vishnu) –chief occupation, cattle-rearing
Chola kings- Senni, Valavan and Killi and dealing with dairy products.
Pandya kings- Thennavar and Minavar.  Marudam (agricultural) – chief deity
Each of the Sangam dynasties had a royal Indira – chief occupation, agriculture.
emblem –  Neydal (coastal) – chief deity Varunan –
 carp for the Pandyas, chief occupation fishing and salt
 tiger for the Cholas manufacturing.
 bow for the Cheras.  Paalai (desert) – chief deity Korravai –
The king was assisted by a large body of chief occupation robbery.
officials who were divided into five councils. Tolkappiyam also refers to four castes
They were ministers (amaichar), priests namely arasar (ruling class), anthanar
(anthanar), military commanders (senapathi), (played a significant role in the Sangam
envoys (thuthar) and spies (orrar). The polity and religion), vanigar(trade and
military administration was also efficiently commerce) and vellalar(agriculturists).
organized during the Sangam Age. Each ruler Other tribal groups like Parathavar, Panar,
had a regular army and their respective Eyinar, Kadambar, Maravar and Pulaiyar
Kodimaram (tutelary tree). Land revenue was were also found in the Sangam society.
the chief source of state’s income while Ancient primitive tribes like Thodas, Irulas,
custom duty was also imposed Nagas and Vedars lived in this period.
19
INDIAN HISTORY
RELIGION: performed by Kanigaiyar. Koothu was the

The primary deity of the most popular entertainment of the people.
Sangam period was Seyon or Murugan, POSITION OF WOMEN
who is hailed as Tamil God. The worship of Women poets like Avvaiyar,
Murugan was having an ancient origin and Nachchellaiyar, and Kakkaipadiniyar
the festivals relating to God Murugan was flourished in this period and contributed to
mentioned in the Sangam literature. He was Tamil literature. The courage of women was
honoured with six abodes known as Arupadai also appreciated in many poems. Karpu or
Veedu. Other gods worshipped during the Chaste life was considered the highest virtue
Sangam period were Mayon (Vishnu), of women. Love marriage was a common
Vendan (Indiran), Varunan and Korravai. The practice. The practice of Sati was also
Hero Stone or Nadu Kal worship was prevalent in the higher strata of society. The
significant in the Sangam period. The Hero class of dancers was patronized by the kings
Stone was erected in memory of the bravery and nobles.
shown by the warrior in battle. Many hero ECONOMY
stones with legends inscribed on them were  Cotton clothes as thin as a cloud of steam
found in different parts of Tamil Nadu. This or a slough of a snake;great demand in the
kind of worshipping the deceased has a great western world for the cotton clothes woven
antiquity. at Uraiyur.
FINE ARTS  Both internal (based on Barter System)
Poetry, music and dancing were and foreign trade was well organized and
popular among the people of the Sangam briskly carried on in the Sangam Age.
age. Liberal donations were given to poets  External trade was carried between South
by the kings, chieftains and nobles. The India and the Greek kingdoms.
royal courts were crowded with singing bards  The port city of Puhar became an
called Panar and Viraliyar. They were experts emporium of foreign trade, as big ships
in folk songs and folk dances. The arts of entered this port with precious goods. Other
music and dancing were highly developed. A ports of commercial activity include Tondi,
variety of Yazhs and drums are referred to in Musiri, Korkai, Arikkamedu and
the Sangam literature. Dancing was Marakkanam.
20
INDIAN HISTORY
 Plenty of gold and silver coins issued by in chief of last Mauryan ruler named
the Roman Emperors like Augustus, Brihadratha in 185 BC
Tiberius and Nero were found in all parts O Pushyamitra was succeeded by his son
of Tamil Nadu. They reveal the extent of Agnimitra, the hero of Kalidasa’s drama
the trade and the presence of Roman ‘Malvikagnimitra’
traders in the Tamil country. O After Agnimitra, series of weak rulers such as
The main exports of the Sangam age Vasumitra, Vajramitra, Bhagabhadra,
were cotton fabrics, spices like pepper, Devabhuti, followed leading to the decline of
ginger, cardamom, cinnamon and the dynasty.
turmeric, ivory products, pearls and O Patanjali, author of the ‘Mahabhasya’,
precious stones. Gold, horses and sweet was born at Gonarda in Central India.
wine were the chief imports. Patanjali was the priest of 2 Asvamedha
Post Mauryian Kingdom (185 BC- Yajnas, performed by Pushymitra Sunga.
319 AD) O In arts, the Bharhut Stupa is the most
1. Native Successors of Mauryas famous monument of the Sunga period.
Sung dynasty: 185 BC- 73 BC O The fine gateway railing which surrounds
Kanva dynasty: 73 BC- 28 BC the Sanchi stupa, built by Ashoka
Satavahana dynasty: 60 BC- 225 AD constructed during the Sunga period.
Cheti dynasty: 1st Century BC O Other examples of Sunga art: Vihar,
2. Foreign Successors of Mauryas Chaitya and Stupa of Bhaja (Poona),
The Indo-Greeks: 2nd Century BC Amaravati Stupa, Nasika Chaitya etc.
The Sakas: 1st Century BC– 4th Century
AD The Parthians: 1st Century BC- 1st Kanva Dynasty: 73 BC- 28 BC
Century AD O In 73 BC, Devabhuti, the last ruler of the
The Kushans: 1st Century AD- 3rd Sunga dynasty, was murdered by his
Century AD minister Vasudeva, who usurped the throne
Sunga Dynasty: 185 BC-73 BC and founded the Kanva dynasty.
O Sunga dynasty was established O The Period of Kanva rule came to an end in
by Pushymitra Sunga, a Brahmin 28 BC
Commander
21
INDIAN HISTORY
Satavahana Dynasty: 60 BC- 225 AD Jain monks for whose residence he

[Capital- Pratishana/Paithan constructed caves on the Udayagiri hill, near
(Maharastra)] Bhubaneshwar in Odissa.
O The most important of the native
successors of the Mauryas in the Deccan and The Indo-Greeks: 2nd Century BC
Central India were the Satvahanas. O Indo-Greeks (Bacterian Greeks) were the
O Simuka (60 BC- 37 BC) was the founder 1st foreign rulers of North-western India in
of the Satvahana dynasty. the Post-Maurya period.
O Satakarni I, its 3rd ruler, raised its power O The most famous Indo-Greek ruler
and prestige by conquests. Menander (165 BC-145 BC), also known as
O Hala, its 17th ruler, was the author of Milinda.
‘Gathasaptasati’ or ‘Sattasai’ in Prakrit. O O The Indo-Greek rule is important in the
Gunadhya, the author of ‘Vrihat Katha’ (in history of india because of the large number of
Prakrit), was the contemporary of Hala. O coins which they issued.
Pulamavi III, its 30th ruler, was the last O The Indo-Greeks were the 1st rulers in
Satavahana ruler. India to issue coins which can definitely be
O The Official language of the Satavahana attributed to the kings.
was Prakrit. O They were 1st to issue gold coins.
O Satavahanas were finally succeeded by the O They introduced Hellence i.e. Greek
Ikshvakus in 3rd Century AD features in art giving rise to Gandhar
School in the North-western India.
Cheti / Chedi Dynasty of Kalinga: 1st The Sakas: 1st Century BC-4th Century
Century BC AD
O The history of Kalinga after the death of O The Sakas, also known as Scythians,
Ashoka is shrouded in obscurity. A new replaced the Indo-Greeks in India.
dynasty, known as the Cheti or Chedi O The most famous Saka ruler in India was
dynasty, rose in the region probably in the Rudradaman (130 AD- 150 AD). He
1st century BC repaired Sudharsana lake.
O Kharavela, the 3rd ruler of dynasty was a
follower of Jainism. He was liberal patron of
22
INDIAN HISTORY
O Other important Saka ruler in India O The most famous Kushan ruler was
were Nahapana, Ushavadeva, Kanishka (78 AD-101 AD), also known as
Ghamatika, Chashtana etc ‘Second Ashoka’. He started an era in 78
O In about 58 BC, a king of AD which is now known as the Saka era and
Ujjain-Vikramaditya is supposed to have is used by the Government of India.
fought effectively against the Sakas. An O Kanishka was a great patron of
era called Vikrama Samvat is reckoned Mahayana Buddhism. In his reign 4th
from 58 BC The Parthians: 1st Buddhist council was held in Kundalavana,
Century BC- 1st Century AD Kashmir where the doctrines of the
O Originally the Parthians (Pahlavas) Mahayana form of Buddhism were finalized.
lived in Iran, they replaced the Sakas in O The last great Kushan ruler was
North-western India, but controlled an Vasudeva I.
area much smaller than the Sakas. O The Kushan controlled famous silk routes
O The most famous Parthian king starting from China, passing through their
was Gondaphernes in whose reign empire on to Iran and Western Asia. This
St.Thomas is said to have come to route was a source of great income to the
India for the propagation of Christianity. Kushans.
The Kushans: 1st Century AD- O In 46-47 AD, Hippalus, a greek sailor,
3rd Century AD discovered the monsoon sea-route to India
O The Kushans were one of the five from West-Asia.
Yeuchi clans of Central Asia. 3 School of Sculpture of Post Mauryas: 1.
O The 1st Kushan dynasty was founded Amaravati School - (150 BC – 400 AD):
by Kadphises I/Kujul kadhphises. The Satavahanas
2nd king was Kadphises II/ 2. Gandhar School - (50 BC- 5th Century
Vema Kadhphises. AD): Saka Kushans
O The 2nd Kushan dynasty was founded 3. Mathura School – (150 AD- 300 AD):
by Kanishka. Its kings extended the Saka Kushans
Kushan power over upper India. Their Gupta Period
capitals were at Peshawar (Purushapura) • Samudra Gupta is known as the Indian
and Mathura Napoleon.
23
INDIAN HISTORY
• The Gupta era started in AD 320. • The Gupta empire was divided into Desas,
• The royal seal of the Guptas bore the or Rashtras, or Bhuktis. The Bhuktis were
emblem of the 'Garudas'. governed by Uparikas (provincial governors)
• The official language of the Guptas was who were appointed directly by the king.
Sanskrit. • The Bhukti or province was divided into
• The narrative scenes of the Ajanta painting Vishayas (districts) under an officer called
of this period mainly relate to stories from Ayuktaka and in other cases a Vishayapati
the Jataka. appointed by the Uparika.
• The poet Harisena's inscription - known as • The head of the city merchants was called
Prayagaprasati and engraved on the nagarsresthi, while the caravan leader was
Ashokan pillar at Allahabad - speaks of known as Sarthavaha.
Samudra Gupta's accession and conquests. • Pustapalas were the district level officials
• According to Prayagaprasati, 12 rulers whose work was to manage and keep
from Dakshinapatha (South India) were records.
defeated by Samudra Gupta. • Village under Gramapati or
• Gupta kings adopted titles like, Gramadhyaksha was the lowest unit of
Parambhatlaraka, Paramdaivata, administration.
Chakravarti, Parmeshwar, etc. • Gupta inscriptions from Bengal mention
• Pratihara in the Gupta age regulated different categories of villages such as
ceremonies and granted the Gramikas, Kutumbis and Mahattaras.
necessary permits for admission to the • Lands under cultivation were usually called
royal presence. Dutakas were associated kshetra, while those not under cultivation
with the task of implementing land gifts were variously called as khila, aparahata,
to Brahmans and others. etc.
• Uparikara was a tax levied on cloth, oil, • Nivartana was the term used for a measure
etc. Sulka, a commercial tax, was imposed of land but, in the inscriptions of Bengal,
on the organization of traders. The king had terms like Kulyavapa and Dronavapa are
a right to forced labour (Visthi), Bali, and used for measuring land.
many other types of contributions. • Irrigation through Ghati-Yantra, also
known as Araghatta, became more popular
24
INDIAN HISTORY
in the Gupta age. In Ghati-Yantra, a number fell under the rule of the Murundas, possibly
of pots were tied to a chain. The chain and the kinsmen of the Kushans. The Murundas
the pots were rotated to reach down the were defeated by the Guptas in AD 275.
water of the hull so that pots would • Harisena was the court poet of Samudra
continuously fill with water and empty the Gupta.
hull. • Atarika Rajyas was the term used for
• Ordinary cultivators of the Gupta period forest kingdoms situated in the Vindhya
were known by various terms such as region.
Krishihala, Karshaka, or Kinass. They had • The victory of Chandra Gupta II over
low social and economic status. Western Malwa and Gujarat gave the
• Kshauma and Pattavastra were different Gupta ruler the western sea coast, which
varieties of silk cloths produced in the Gupta was famous for trade and commerce.
age. • Chandra Gupta II, who adopted the title of
• Brahman settlements in the Gupta period Vikramaditya, made Ujjain his second
were known as 'Brahmadiyas', capital.
'Agraharas', etc. • Skanda Gupta is credited with effectively
• An inscription of the fifth century AD from stemming the march of the Hunas
the Mandasor (Malwa) refers to a guild of into India, but his successors could not cope
silk weavers who had migrated from South with the Huna invaders who
Gujarat and had settled in the Malwa region. excelled in horsemanship and used
• Various 'Jatis' (castes) originated in the stirrups made of metal.
Gupta age through 'Varna-Samkara' or inter- • Yasodharman of Malwa successfully
marriages between various varnas. challenged the authority of the Guptas and
• 'Vratya Kshatriyas' or Semi-Kshatriyas set up, in AD 532, pillars of victory
were the terms used for various Pre-Gupta commemorating his conquest of almost the
ruling families. whole of Northern India.
• The empire of the Guptas, feudatories of • Following the end of the Gupta rule in the
the Kushans in Uttar Pradesh, arose on the sixth century, Maukharis, with their capital
ruins of the Kushan Empire. After the end of at Kannauj, rose to power in Bihar and Uttar
Kushan power around AD 230, central India Pradesh.
25
INDIAN HISTORY
• Land tax in the Gupta period varied from domestic sites and worship a new God,
one-fourth to one-sixth of the produce. Krishna.
• Kumaramatyas, appointed in the home • The first example of 'Sati' appears from
provinces and paid in cash, were the most Eran (Madhya Pradesh) in the Gupta times in
important officers in the Gupta Empire. AD 510.
• In the urban administration, organised • The status of women, particularly these
professional bodies were given considerable belonging to upper 'varnas', declined during
share. the Gupta period.
• The grant of fiscal and administrative • Bhagavatism or Vaishnavism
concessions to priests and officers was an overshadowed Mahayana Buddhism by the
important feudal development that surfaced times of the Guptas.
under the Guptas. Religious functionaries • Samudra Gupta is represented on his coins
were granted (Land free of tax forever) and playing 'Vina'.
they were authorize to collect from the • There are 33 line in Harisena's
peasants all taxes that could have otherwise 'Prayagaprasasti' .
gone to the king. Royal agents, retainers, • The Gupta period is called the Golden Age
etc. could not enter the granted villages. of ancient India.
• The Guptas issued the largest number of • Samudra Gupta granted permission to
gold coins, called 'dinars' in Gupta the Buddhist king of Ceylon,
administration, in ancient India. Meghavarman, to build a monastery at
• There were two main factors for the Bodh Gaya.
proliferation of numerous sub-castes in • Chandra Gupta II married with the Naga
Indian society during the Gupta period: (i) princess, Kubernaga, and allowed his
assimilation of foreign invaders, mainly as daughter Parbhavati to marry with
kshatriyas, into the Indian society; and (ii) Rudrasena II, a Vakataka king.
absorption of many tribal peoples into • The Mehrauli Iron Pillar Inscription near
brahmanical society through the process of Qutub Minar, Delhi, enumerates the
land grants. exploits of Chandra Gupta II.
• The position of shudras improved in this • The Gupta Empire extended form north
period. They were allowed to perform certain Bengal in the east to Kathiawar in the west
26
INDIAN HISTORY
and from Himalayas in the north to 3. Chandragupta-I was the real founder of
Narmada in the South. Gupta dynasty. He expanded his kingdom by
• Ajanta, Ellora and Bagh are the famous conquering much of Magadha, Prayaga
centers of Gupta paintings. and Saketa.
• The Gupta era heralded the two important 4. He assumed the title of
styles in temples - Nagara (North India) and Maharajadhiraja.
Dravida (South India). Another style is 5. Patliputra was the capital of Gupta
Vesera (Combination of both styles) dynasty.
followed in modern Karnataka region. SAMUDRAGUPTA
• An over two-meter high bronze image of 1. Samudragupta was the son of
the Buddha belonging to the Gupta period Chandragupta-I.
has been recovered from Sultanganj (Bihar). 2. The Gupta dynasty was enlarged
• The best specimens of Hindu sculpture enormously by Samudragupta.
during the Gupta period are found in the 3. Due to his bravery and generalship, the
Deogarh (Madhya Pradesh) temple. historian V. A. Smith quoted him as
• The chief characteristics of Gupta art are Napoleon of India.
refinement, simplicity of expression and 4. On some coins of Gupta era
religious virtuosity. Samudragupta was shown as playing the
• The Indian notational system was called musical instrument Veena.
Hindsa by the Arabs who took it to the west. 5. Important scholars in the court of
• Aryabhatta is credited with calculating the Samudragupta were Harishena, Vasubandhu
value of 'π' and the length of a solar year. and Asanga.
• Vagabhatta was a renowned physician of 6. The Prayag Prashasti (also known as
the time. Allahbad pillar inscription) composed in
CHANDRAGUPTA I Sanskrit by Harisena gave information about
1. Chandragupta-I was the son of Samudragupta's achievment.
Ghatotkacha. 7. Samudragupta was a great patron of art
2. Chandragupta-I enhanced his power by and music. He assumed the title of
marrying Kumara Devi, a Lichchhavi Kaviraja.
princess—the main power in Magadha.
27
INDIAN HISTORY
8. Samudragupta was a firm believer in KUMARAGUPTA or SHAKRADITYA

Hinduism and is known to have worshipped 1. Kumaragupta-I was the son of
Lord Vishnu. Chandragupta-II. He succeeded
9. Samudragupta allowed Sri Lanka's Chandragupta-II.
Buddhist king Meghavarman to build a 2. Kumaragupta-I adopted the title of
monastery at Bodh Gaya. Mahendraditya.
CHANDRAGUPTA II 3. During the later year of his reign the
1. Chandragupta-II was the son of Gupta Empire was threatened by the
Samudragupta. rebellion of Pushyamitras of central India
2. After Samudragupta's death, Ramagupta and invasion of the Hunas. However,
succeeded him but his elder brother Kumaragupta-I was successful in defeating
Chandragupta-II killed him and married his both threats and performed Ashvamedha
wife Dhruvadevi. (horse sacrifice) to celebrate his victory.
3. Chandragupta-II defeated Rudrasimha 4. Kumaragupta-I issued new coins with
III, the Saka king and annexed his kingdom images of Lord Kartikeya.
and assumed the title of Vikramaditya. 5. Kumaragupta-I founded the Nalanda
4. Chandragupta-II was the first ruler to University.
issue silver coins. He also issued copper 6. Kumaragupta-I was followed by his son
coins. Skandagupta. Skandagupta faced the Hunas
5. Patliputra continued to be the capital of effectively. Skandagupta repaired
Gupta dynasty. Ujjain was made second Sudharsana lake for the second time(Only
capital of Gupta dynasty. Gupta ruler to do so).
6. Court of Chandragupta-II was adorned by 7. The continuous attacks of the Hunas
Nine Gems (Navratnas) including weakened the Gupta dynasty. Skandagupta
Kalidasa, Amarsimha, Varahmihira, died in 467 A.D. After his death, the Gupta
Dhanvantri, etc. dynasty began to decline.
7. Chinese traveller Fa-hein came during the
reign of Chandragupta-II.
28
INDIAN HISTORY
Univeristy Place Dynasty/Ruler Facts

Pushpagiri School Odisha Sunga dynasty Hiuen Tsang - Chinese traveller
visited this school during
Harshavardhana period
Nalanda University Bihar Kumara Gupta Many scholars from Sri Lanka,
Korea, Japan, China, Tibet,
Turkey, Persia and Indonesia
came to study.
Taxila or Ghandar(Modern Taksha Khanda Panini, Kautilya, Charaka, Jivaka,
Takshashila Pakistan) Jotipala were students of this
University university
Vikramasila Bihar Dharmapala It was a centre for Vajrayana and
University employed Tantric preceptors
DELHI SULTANATE Mamluk, or Slave dynasty (1206 -

INTRODUCTION: The Delhi Sultanate were 1290):
the Persian-speaking dynasties of Turkic and The Mamluk Dynasty or Slave Dynasty,
Afghan origin, which were controlling India directed into India by Qutb-ud-din Aibek,
from 1210 to 1526. Many of these dynasties a Turkic general of Central Asian birth, was
ruled from Delhi. This includes the Slave the first of five unrelated dynasties to
dynasty (1206-90), the Khilji dynasty rule India's Delhi Sultanate from 1206 to
(1290-1320), the Tughlaq dynasty 1290. Qutb-ud-din Aibak (1206 - 1210):
(1320-1413), the Sayyid dynasty (1414-51), Quṭb was born of Turkic parents in
and the Lodi dynasty (1451-1526). Later on, Turkistan. With his headquarters at Delhi,
after India fell to the Mughals, there was Quṭb subjugated areas between the Ganges
again a brief period when Humayun son of (Ganga) and Yamuna (Jumna) rivers. He
the Mughal Babur and father of Akbar the then turned his attention the Rajputs who
Great, was deposed by the Pathan Suri were still resisting Ghūrid domination. He
dynasty who enjoyed a short rule then, built the Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque in Delhi
before Humayun was reinstated in 1555. and the Adhai-Din-Ka-Jhonpra mosque in
29
INDIAN HISTORY
Ajmer. He started the construction of Qutb Turkan embraced the entire power of the
Minar in memory of sufi saint Qutb-ud-din throne to herself. As a person Shah Turkan
Bakhtiar Kaki which was completed by his was a tyrannical ruler on her command
successor, Iltutmish. He died of injuries many people of the Kingdom were killed.
received in a polo match. He was buried in RAZIA SULTANA (1236 - 1240):
Lahore near the Anarkali Bazaar. She was the first female ruler. She refused
Aram Shah (1210–1211): to be addressed as Sultana because it meant
There were no fixed rules governing the "wife or consort of a Sultan.
succession in the Sultanate, Aram being Muiz ud din Bahram (1240 - 1242):
selected by Turkish amirs at Lahore. Aram He was put on throne in 21 apr 1240 at Lal
was ill-qualified to govern a kingdom. The mahal. During this period of unrest that he
Chihalgani soon conspired against him and was murdered by his own army in 1242
invited Shams-ud-din Iltutmish, then (died 15 May 1242).
Governor of Badaun, to replace Aram. Shams Ala ud din Masud (1242 - 1246):
ud din Iltutmish (1211–1236): Shams ud- He was considered "incompetent and
din Iltutmish founded the Delhi Sultanate worthless." By 1246, the chiefs became
and much strengthened the power of the upset with his increasing hunger for more
slave dynasty and of Islam in the India, power in the government, and replaced him
although his kindred and heirs were not as with Nasir ud din Mahmud (1246–66),
politically gifted, with no ruler grandson of Iltutmish and son of Nasiruddin
comparable to him in the area until the time Mahmud. The Mongols was plundered Lahore
of Ghiyas ud din Balban. in 1246.
Rukn ud din Firuz (1236): Nasir ud din Mahmud (1246 - 1266):
As the new coronated ruler he had the Mahmud was known to be very religious,
following qualities ; physical aristocracy, spending most of his time in prayer and
courteous behaviour and resolved copying the Koran. After Mahmud's death in
consciousness.He was a self endowed person 1266, Balban (1266–86) rose to power as
and spent his major amount of time because Mahmud had no children .
resolving in music. Taking advantage of his Ghiyas ud din Balban (1266 - 1286):
vulnerability as a king his mother Shah
30
He reduced the power of the treacherous the unfinished palace and gardens of Sultan
nobility and heightened the stature of the Qaiqabad. On 13 July 1290 Jalal-ud-Din Firuz
sultan. In spite of having only few military was enthroned in the palace of Kalughari.He
achievements, he was the most powerful was made a slave from there.
ruler of the sultanate between Shamsuddin Ala ud din Khilji (1294 - 1316):
Iltutmish and Alauddin Khilji. In spite of His attack on Chittor in 1303 CE to capture
having only a few military achievements, the queen of Chittor, Rani Padmini, the wife
Ghiyas ud-din made civil and military of Rawal Ratan Singh and the subsequent
reforms that earned him the position of the story have been immortalised in the epic
strongest ruler. poem Padmavat, written by Malik
Muiz ud din Qaiqabad (1286 - 1290): Muhammad Jayasi in the Awadhi language in
He was the son of Bughra Khan the then the year 1540.He was the most powerful
Independent sultan of Bengal, as well as ruler of the dynasty.
grandson of Ghiyas ud din Balban (1266– Qutb ud din Mubarak Shah (1316 -
87).He was only 17 years old at the time. 1321):
Shamsuddin Kayumars (1290): Kayumars Qutb-ud-din, at the age of 18, was originally
was the son of Muiz ud din Qaiqabad appointed regent to his younger six-year-old
(1286– June 1290), the tenth sultan of brother, the king. Within two months, Qutb-
Mamluk dynasty.His father was murdered ud-din blinded his brother and ascended the
by a Khilji noble.Jalal ud din Firuz Khilji throne. Qutb-ud-din Mubarak Shah was the
assumed the throne after murdering weakest ruler of the dynasty.
Kayumars, ending the Mamluk Dynasty of Tughlaq dynasty (1321 - 1398):
Delhi. The Tughluqs were a Muslim family of Turkic
Khilji (Khalji) dynasty (1290 - 1320): origin. Their rule relied on their alliances with
They led by their powerful ruler, Alauddin Turkic, Afghan, and other Muslim warriors
khiljai, they are noted in history for from outside South Asia.
repeatedly defeating the warring Mongols. Ghiyath al-din Tughluq (1321-1325): He
Jalal ud din Firuz Khilji (1290–1296): founded the Tughluq dynasty and reigned
Jalaluddin built his capital at Kilughari, a few over the Sultanate of Delhi from 1320 to
miles from the city of Delhi, and completed 1325. Ghiyas's policy was harsh against
31
INDIAN HISTORY
Mongols. He had killed envoys of the Ilkhan shelter in the fort of Nagarkot, and Tughluq
Oljeitu and punished Mongol prisoners Khan’s army returned to Delhi without
harshly. In 1324, Tughlaq turned his pursuing him any further due to the
attention towards Bengal, currently in the difficulties of the venture & terrain. In 1389
midst of a civil war. After victory, he placed they surrounded the Sultan and Khan Jahan,
Nasiruddon on the throne of West Bengal as his vizier and, put them to death and hung
a vassal state, and East Bengal was up their heads over the gate of the city; the
annexed. duration of the reign of Tughluq Khan, was
Muhammad binTughluq (1325–1351): five months and eighteen days
Muhammad Tughlaq was a scholar of logic, Nasiruddin Mahmud Shah (1399–1413):
philosophy, mathematics, astronomy, Nasir-ud-Din Mahmud Shah Tughluq was the
physical sciences and calligraphy. He was last sultan of the Tughlaq dynasty to rule the
also interested in medicine and was skilled in Islamic Delhi Sultanate.During his reign in
several languages Persian, Arabic, Turkish 1398, Amir Timur the Chagtai ruler invaded
and Sanskrit. He deliberately killed his father India. He carried away with him a large
Ghiyasudden Tughlaq to ascend the throne booty from Delhi and the surrounding area.
of Delhi. Soon after the invasion, the Tughlaq dynasty
Firuz Shah Tughluq (1351 - 1388): came to an end.The succeeding sultan of the
For the first time in the History of Delhi Delhi Sultanate was Khizr Khan, the first of
Sultanate a situation was confronted wherein the Sayyid dynasty.
no body was ready to accept the reigns of Sayyid (Syed) Dynasty (1414 - 1451):
power. With much difficulty the camp After a period of chaos, when no central
followers convinced Firuz to accept the authority prevailed, the Sayyids gained
responsibility. Tughlaq was forced by power in Delhi. They remained a vassal of
rebellions to concede virtual independence the Timuroids of Central Asia.Their 37-year
toBengal and other provinces. period of dominance witnessed the rule of
Ghiyas ud din Tughluq II (1388 - 1389): four different members of the dynasty.
Tughluq Khan dispatched troops towards the Khidr khan (1414-1421):
foot of the hill of Sirmur. Muhammad Shah He used to be the governor of Multan under
ibn Feroze Shah after a brief battle took the Tughlaq ruler, Firoz Shah Tuglaq. He was
32
INDIAN HISTORY
known to be an able administrator. In 1417, territories, and extended his holdings

Khizr Khan obtained permission from Shah over Gwalior, Jaunpur and upper utter
Rukh to have his own name also suffixed to Pradesh. Sikandar Lodi (1489-1517):
that of Shah Rukh. In 1418, Har Singh The second and most successful ruler of
revolted again but he was defeated the Lodi dynasty of the Delhi sultanate, he
completely by Taj-ul-Mulk. was also a poet of the Persian language
Mubarrak Shah II (1421 - 1435): Mubarak and prepared a diwan of 9000 verses.
Shah was, the son of Khizr Khan. He came He expanded Lodi territory into the
to the throne in 1421. He was a man of regions of Gwalior and Bihar. He made a
great vision, but the nobles were against treaty with Alauddin Hussain Shah and his
him and kept revolting. Muhammad Shah kingdom of Bengal. In 1503, he
IV (1435 - 1445): Muhammad Shah was a commissioned the building of the present-
nephew of Mubarak Shah. He ruled from day city of Agra. Agra was founded by him.
1434-1443. Ibrahim II (1517-1526):
Aladdin Alam Shah (1445 - 1451): He was the last ruler of the Lodi
Alam Shah was a weak ruler. In 1451 he dynasty, reigning for nine years between
surrendered Delhi to Bahlul Lodi and went to 1517 until being defeated and killed at
Budaun where He spent rest of his life. the battle of Panipat by Babur's invading
Lodi (Lodhi) dynasty (1451 - 1526): Lodi army in 1526, giving way to the
dynasty was a Ghilzai Afghan dynasty, who emergence of the Mughal Empire in India.
ruled over the Delhi Sultanate during its last It is estimated that Babur's forces
phase. numbered around 25,000–30,000 men
Bahlul Khan Lodi (1451-1489): and had between 20 to 24 pieces of field
He was rewarded with the title of Islam Khan artillery. Ibrahim Lodi had around
and in 1419 appointed the governor of 30,000–40,000 men along with at least
Sirhind. Bahlul. In 1443, Bahlul attacked 100 elephants.After the end of Lodhi
Delhi but he did not succeed. In 1479, dynasty, the era of Mughal rule
Sultan Bahlul Lodi defeated and annexed commenced .
Sharqi dynasty based at Jaunpur. Bahlul did [Note: (1526 -1540) Mughal rule
much to stop rebellions and uprisings in his after the First battle of Panipat ]
33
INDIAN HISTORY
Suri, or Sur dynasty (1540 - 1555): Firuz Shah (29 April - 2 May 1554): Only
The Sur Empire (Pashto) was an empire a single extremely rare copper paisa coin
established by a Muslim dynasty of Pashtun is known on Firuz Shah dated AD 960.
origin who ruled a large territory in Northern Ibrahim III (1554 - 1554/5):
partof South Asia for nearly 16 years, He defeated the army of Adil Shah and
between 1540 to 1556, with Delhi serving as captured Delhi. After this he assumed the
its capital. regal title of Ibrahim Shah Suri and it was
Sher Shah Suri (Farid Khan Suri) (1540 not possible for Adil to defeat him. Ibrahim
- 1545): Shah's silver coins are known, but extremely
He was the founder of the short-lived rare from Agra and Banaras. Copper coins
Pashtun Suri, or Sur, kingdom in the Indian are known as mintless.
subcontinent, with its capital at Delhi. Sher Sikander Shah (1554/5 - 1555):
Shah was a good general and administrator. He was the governor of Lahore before
He introduced a new currency, a silver coin declaring independence from Delhi in 1555.
known as 'Rupia'. He reduced custom duties Most of Sikandar Shah Suri's coin are rare,
and built an excellent connection of roads, mostly dated AD 962. A silver rare Rupee
including Grand Trunk Road in Bihar. Sher from Lahore mint is dated AH 961 and AD
Shah was a secular ruler who practised 962. One or two type of silver Rupees are
tolerance and welfare also known to be struck at Agra. Several
Islam Shah (1545 - 1553): types of copper coins are known, including
Islam Shah's coinage are silver Rupees and fractions, all of which are mintless.
copper paisas. A few gold coins are known [Note: 1555: Return to Mughal Rule
but their status in some cases are uncertain. after brief interregnum]
Muhammad Adil shah (1553 - 1554): Religious movements in the Fifteenth
Muhammad lost both Delhi and Agra and and
made his headquaters further east, probably Sixteenth centuries
at Chunar or Qanauj. His coins shows mint Bhakti and Sufi movements:-
places like Jhusi, in Allah district and Prayag In both, the elements of intellectuality went
(old name of Allahabad) and some even from hand in hand with that of devotion and in
Jaunpur. both ritualism and ceremonalism were not as
34
INDIAN HISTORY
important as the search of and love for one religions and in bringing the Hindus and the
Supreme Reality. Muslims together.
Love and liberalism were the keynotes of the The Sufi movement gained impetus during
Sufi and Bhakti movement. the reign of Akbar who adopted a liberal
I. SUFISM:- religious policy under the influence of the
The various Sufi saints had come to settle Sufi saints.
down in India in the eleventh-twelfth  Abul Fazal had mentioned the existence
centuries, the earlist and the most well of 14 Silsilahs in India. A close link that
known being Sheikh Muinuddin Chisti, who existed between the leader or Pir and his
made Ajmer his home when Prithviraj murids or disciples was a vital element of the
Chauhan(III) was still ruling over there. Sufi system.
The Sufi Movement had two fold aims:  The Sufism reached India in the 12th
1. To make their own spiritual progress century A.D. Its influence grew considerably
and during the thirteenth and fourteenth
2. To serve the mankind. centuries. In India, Chisti and Suhrawardi
Sufism, which started as a Silsila were most prominent.
reform movement, laid emphasis on free-  Chisti order was founded in India by
thinking, liberal ideas and toleration. They Khwaja Moinuddin Chisti. His dargah at
believed in the equality of all human Ajmer became a centre of veneration for
beings and brotherhood of man. Their both the Muslims and Hindus. After his death
concept of universal brotherhood and the in 1236 A.D., his devotees continued to
humanitarian ideas of the Sufi saints celebrate an annual Urs festival at Ajmer.
attracted the Indian minds. A movement But the most famous Sufi saint of the Chisti
similar to Sufism, called the Bhakti cult, was order was Nizamuddin Auliya. He led a
already afoot in India on the eve of the simple austere life and lived in Delhi. By his
Muslim conquest of the country. The vast learning, religious knowledge, and
liberal-minded Sufis were, therefore, tolerant attitude to all religions, he earned
welcomed in India. The Sufi movement devotion of both the Hindu and Muslim
proved very helpful in bridging the gap masses.
between the followers of the two
35
INDIAN HISTORY
 The Sufi Movement in India helped in II.Bhakti Movement:-

establishing peace and amity among the The Bhakti Movement was a reform
Hindus and Muslims. movement in Hinduism. It occupies a
Impact of Sufism significant
 The liberal ideas and unorthodox position in bringing about harmony and
principles of Sufism had a profound influence normal relationships between the Hindus and
on Indian society. The liberal principles of Muslims.
Sufi sects restrained orthodox.  The development of the Bhakti cult first
 Muslims in their attitude and began in South India in the 7th-8th century
encouraged many Muslim rulers to pursue in order to bridge the gulf between the
tolerant attitude to their non-Muslim Shaivas and the Vaishnavas.
subjects.  It stood for intense personal devotion
 Most Sufi saints preached their and complete self-surrender to God.
teachings in the language of common man  It believed in the unity of godhead,
that contributed greatly to the evolution of brotherhood of man and equality of all
various Indian languages like Urdu, Punjabi, religions.
Sindhi, Kashmiri and Hindi. The impact of  The roots of the Bhakti Movement can
Sufi Movement was deeply felt on some be traced to the Upanishads, the Puranas
renowned poets of the period, like Amir and the Bhagvad Gita. Shankaracharya is
Khusrau and Malik Muhammad Jayasi who reputed to have been the first and principal
composed poems in Persian and Hindi in exponent of this reform movement.
praise of Sufi principles. By his vast learning,  Amongst the leaders of the Bhakti
religious knowledge, and tolerant attitude to movement, Ramananda, Kabir, Ramanuja,
all religions, he earned devotion of both the Sri Chaitanya, Nanak etc. were prominent.
Hindu and Muslim masses. After the advent of Islam, the necessity of
 The Sufi Movement in India helped in making Hinduism a living active force in the
establishing peace and amity among the life of the common people was felt deeply.
Hindus and Muslims. Islam with its liberal outlook, equality of
status among its followers, and concept of
one God, posed great threat to Hindu society
36
INDIAN HISTORY
that was suffering from ritualism, rigid caste  It also laid stress on equality of all
system, evils of untouchability and human beings and universal brotherhood.
multiplicity of gods and goddesses.  The other tenets of the Bhakti cult were
In this situation many lower class Hindus purity of heart and honest behaviour.
were attracted by the catholic outlook of  The basic features of this cult thus had
Islam in these respects. They were also many similarities with those of Sufism.
tempted to adopt Islam which could afford This helped greatly in checking the
them better status in society and a less growth of Islam in India.
cumbersome religion. But at this critical Impact of Bhakti Movement
juncture the preachers of Bhakti Movement The Bhakti movement became
tried to bring harmony among various popular among the common masses as its
religons. They often condemned the Hindu teachings were
Caste System. Though the Bhakti cult had a preached in the form of hymns in
long tradition, it was during this time that various popular languages. In this
the cult grew to a new dimension. accessible form, Bhakti ideas were spread
among wide strata of the population and
Features of Bhakti Movement the hymns frequently became folk songs.
 Its proponents preached the ‘unity of
the god-head’ and emphasized that ‘devotion
to God’ and faith in him led to salvation.
Important Foreign Travelers/Envoys to India
1-Megasthanes (302-298 B.C.): An ambassador of Seleucus Nicator, who visited the court of
Chandragupta Maurya. He wrote an interesting book India in which he gave a vivid account of
Chandragupta Maurya’s reign.
2-Fa-Haien (405-411 A.D): He came to India during the reign of Chandragupta II Vikramaditya.
The object of his visit was to see the holy places of Buddhism and to collect Buddhist hooks and
relics. He was the first Chinese pilgrim to visit India.
3-Hiuen-Tsang (also spelt Yuan Chwang) (630-645 A.D): He came to India during the reign of
37
INDIAN HISTORY
Harsha.
4-Itsing (671-695 A.D): A Chinese traveller, he visited India in connection with Buddhism. His
work Biographies of eminent Monks, provides us useful information about the social, religious
and cultural life of the people of this country.
5-Al-Masudi (957 A.D): An Arab traveller, he has given an extensive account of India in his
work Murujul Zahab.
6-Al-beruni (1024-1030 A.D.): His real name was Abu Rayhan Mahamud and he came to India
along with Mahmud of Ghazni during one of his India raids. He travelled all over India and wrote
a book Tahqiq-l- Hind. The book dealt with the social, religious and political conditions in India.
7-Marco Polo (1292-1294 A.D.): A Venetian traveller, he visited South India in 1294 A.D. His
work The Book of Sir Marco Polo givers an invaluable account of the economic history of India.
8-Ibn Bututa (1333-1347 A.D.): A Morrocan traveller, he visited India during the reign of
Muhammad-bin- Tughlaq. His book Rihla (the Travelogue) throws a lot of light on the reign of
Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq and the geographical, economic and social conditions in India.
9-Niccolo Conti (1420-1421 A.D.): A Venetian traveller, he gives a comprehensive account of

the Hindu Kingdom of Vijayanagar.
10-Abdur Razzaq (1443-1444 A. D.): He was a Persian traveller who came to India and stayed
at the court of the Zamorin at Calicut. He has given a vivid account of the Vijayanagar empire,
especially of the city. He describes the wealth and luxurious life of the king and the nobles.
11- Athanasius Nikitin (1470-1474 A.D): It was a Russian merchant, who visited south India
in 1470. He describes the condition of the Bahmani kingdom under Muhammad III (1463-82).
12-Duarte Barbosa (1500-1516 A.D.): He was a Portuguese traveller. He has given a valuable
narrative of the government and the people of the Vijayanagar empire.
13-Domingos Paes 11520-1522 A.D): He was a Portuguese traveller who visited the court of
38
INDIAN HISTORY
Krishnadeve Raya of the Vijayanagar Empire.
14-Fernao Nuniz (1534-1537 A.D): A Portuguese merchant who visited the Vijayanagar
empire. He wrote the history of the empire from its earliest times to the closing years of Achyuth
deva Raya’s reign.
15- John Huygen Van Linschoten (1583 A.D): He was a Dutch traveler, who has given a
valuable account of the social and economic life of South India.
16-William Hawkins (1608-1611 A.D.): He was an English ambassador of the British King
James I to court of Jahangir (1609).
17- Sir Thomas Roe (1615-1619 A.D.): He was an ambassador of James I, King of England, at
the court of Jahangir, the Mughal emperor.
18-Francisco Pelsaert (1620-1627 A.D.): He was a Dutch traveller who stayed at Agra and
gave a vivid account of the flourishing trade at Surat, Ahmedabad, Bombay, Cambay, Lahore,
Multan, etc.
19- Peter Mundy (1630-34 A.D): He was an Italian traveller to the Mughal empire during the
reign of Shah Jahan. He gives valuable information about the living standard of the common
people in the Mughal Empire.
20-Jean Baptist Tavernier (1638-1663 A.D.): He was a French traveller who visited India six
times. His account covers the reign of Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb.
21-Niccolao Manucci (1656-1708 A.D.): He was an Italian traveller, who worked in the court
at the service of Dara Shikoh.
MUGHAL EMPIRE
Babur: 1. Babur was the founder of Mughal dynasty in India.
(1526–1530) 2. He laid the foundation of Mughal dynasty by defeating Ibrahim Lodhi in
the first battle of Panipat in 1526.
3. Babur defeated Rana Sanga of Mewar in the Battle of Khanwa in1527.
39
INDIAN HISTORY
4. He was a direct descendant of Taimur, from the Barlas clan, through his
father, and a descendant of Genghis Khan through his mother.
5. His real name was Ẓahir-ud-Din Muḥammad.
6. Babur wrote his memoirs Baburnama (Tuzuk-i-Baburi) in
Turkish language.
7. He introduced gun powder in India.
Humayun: 1. Humayun was the eldest son of the Emperor Babur.
(1530–1556) 2. He became the second ruler of the Mughal empire after succeeding his
father in 1530.
3. He ruled the country for 10 years but later in 1540 he was defeated by Sher
Shah Suri in the battle of Kannauj and was forced to leave India.
4. 12 years later in 1555 Humayun regain the throne by defeatingSikander
Suri, the successor of Sher Shah Suri.
5. His half-sister Gulbadan Begum wrote his biography Humayun-nama.
6. Humayun was killed in an accidental fall from his library staircase in 1556.
7. Humayun's tomb was built in Delhi by Humayun's first wife Bega Begum in
1569. It was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1993.
Akbar: 1. He was the third and greatest ruler of the Mughal Dynasty in India.
(1556–1605) 2. He was coronoted when he was just 14 years old.
3. His able minister Bairam Khan helped the young emperor expand and
consolidate Mughal empire in India.
4. Bairam Khan represented Akbar in the second battle of
Panipatin 1556 and defeated Hemu Vikramiditya.
5. Akbar built Buland Darwaza at Fatehpur Sikri to to commemorate his
victory of Gujarat.
6. Akbar's forces headed by Raja Man Singh and Asaf Khan defeated Rana
Pratap in the battle of Haldighati in 1576.
7. He built Ibadat Khana (House of Worship) at Fatehpur Sikri.
8. In 1581 Akbar promulgated the Din-i-Ilahi or Tauhid-i-Ilahi to establish
national religion which would be acceptable to the Hindus and Muslims alike.
9. Raja Todarmal was the minister for revenue in the court of Akbar. Land
revenue system prevalent during this period was known as Todar Mal
Bandobast or Zabti System.
10. He introduced the Mansabdari System for organizing the army and the
nobles.
11. Akbar ruled the country for nearly 50 years and died in 1605 and was
buried outside of Agra at Sikandra.
12. Abul Fazal wrote Akbar Nama, a biographical account of Akbar.
13. First Britisher John Mildenhall came to India.
40
INDIAN HISTORY
Jahangir: 1. His real name was Nur-ud-din Mohammad Salim.

(1605–1627) 2. He was the fourth Emperor of Mughal dynasty who ruled from1605 until his
death in 1627.
3. He was the eldest surviving son of Mughal Emperor Akbar.
4. The art of Mughal painting reached great heights under Jahangir's reign
5. In 1611, Jahangir married Mehr-un-Nisaa, the young widow of a Mughal
officer, Sher Afgan. A beautiful, witty and strong woman, she soon became
Jahangir's favorite queen and assumed the title ofNur Jahan, 'Light of the
World'.
6. His greatest failure was the loss of Kandahar to Persia in 1622.
7. He executed the fifth of the ten Sikh gurus, Arjun Dev, for giving aid and
comfort to Khusrau, Jahangir's rebellious son.
8. Captain Hawkins and Sir Thomas Roe visited his court.
Shahjahan: 1. He was the fifth Emperor of Mughal dynasty.
(1628–1658) 2. He was the son of Emperor Jahangir and his Hindu Rajput wife, Taj Bibi
Bilqis Makani.
3. His rule is considered the Golden Age of the Mughal Empire.
4. He built Tajmahal and Moti Masjid at Agra, and Jama Masjid andRed
Fort at Delhi.
5. Other important buildings of Shah Jahan's rule were the Diwan-i-
Aam and Diwan-i-Khas in the Red Fort Complex in Delhi
6. As he apparently lay dying in 1658 there was a brutal war of succession
among his four sons (Dara, Aurangzeb, Shuja and Murad) but Aurangzeb
came out victorious.
7. Aurangzeb put him under house arrest in Agra Fort for 8 years where he
died at the age of 74.
Aurangzeb: 1. His full name was Abul Muzaffar Muhi-ud-Din Mohammad Aurangzeb.
(1658–1707) 2. He was the sixth Emperor of Mughal dynasty.
3. He was the third son and sixth child of Shah Jahan and Mumtaz Mahal.
4. He was strictly adhered to Islam and made sure that his empire followed the
same. He destroyed many Hindu temples and forced many non-Muslims to
convert into Islam.
5. He spread the extent of Mughal Empire to the entire Indian sub continent
barring the southernmost tip of India.
6. In 1675, he ordered the execution of ninth Sikh Guru Tegh
Bahadur because of his objection to Aurangzeb's forced conversions.
7. He died in Ahmednagar in 1707 at the age of 88.
8. He was also known as Alamgir (Conquerer of the World).
41
INDIAN HISTORY
Indian Writers and their Books

Writers Books
Pt.Vishnu Sharma Panchatantra
Vishakhadatta Mudra Rakshasa
Panini Ashtadhyayi
Shudrak Mrichhakatikam
Kalidasa Raghuvansham, Kumarsambhavam, Meghdootam,
Abhigyanshakuntalam
Vatsyayana Kama Sutra
Kalhana Rajtarangini
Plini Natural History
Kautilya Arthashastra
Dandi Avanti Sundari, Dashkumaracharitam
Ved Vyas Bhagwat Gita, Mahabharata
Ashwaghosh Buddha Charitam
Jayadev Geet Govind
Bana Bhatt Kadambari
Bhavabhuti Malti Madhav
Amar Singh Amar Kosh
Firdausi Shahnama
Abul Fazal Ain-i-Akbari, Akabarnama
Surdas Sahityalahari, Sursagar
Kabirdas Bijak, Ramayani, Sabar
Gulbadan Beghum Humanyunama
Al-Beruni Kitab-ul-Hind
Later Mughals (1707 – 1857)

Decline Of The Mughal Empire: After Aurangzeb, the Mughal empire rapidly declined.
Important Causes for the decline:
1. Aurangzeb’s Rajputa, Deccan and religious policies.
2. Weak successors who were incompetent both as administrators and generals.
3. Wars of succession.
4. Factionalism among nobility after Aurangzeb.
5. Jagirdari crisis.
6. Growth of Maratha and regional powers in Bengal, Hyderabad, Avadh, Mysore etc.
42
INDIAN HISTORY
7. Foreign invasions by Nadir Shah (1739) and Abdali.

8. British conquest of India.
Ruler Period Important Facts

Bahadur Shah I 1707-1712 Original name- Muazzam, Assumed Title- Shah Alam I. He
was the first and the last of the later Mughal rulers to exercise
real authority.
Jahadar Shah 1712-1713 Ascended the throne with the help of Zulfikar Khan
(Abolished Jaziya).
Farrukh Siyar 1713-1719 Ascended the throne with the help of Sayyid brothers-
Abduall Khan and Hussain Khan.
Muhammad Shah 1719-1748 In 1738-39, Nadir Shah raided India and took away Thakht-
i-Taus (the peacock throne) and Kohinoor diamond.
Ahmed Shah 1748-1754 Ahmad shah Abdali (General of Nadir shah) marched
towards Delhi and Mughals ceded Punjab and Multan.
Alamgir II 1754-1759 Ahmad shah occupied Delhi. Later, Delhi was plundered by
Marathas
Shah Jahan III 1759-1760 Muhi-ul-Milat, the grandson of Kam Baksh was placed on the
throne as Shah Jahan III by Imad-ul- Mulk. He was deposed
by the Marathas who captured Delhi in 1760.
Shah Alam II 1759-1806 Nazib Khan became very powerful in Delhi so much so that
he could not enter Delhi for 12 years. He was defeated in the
Battle of Buxar in 1764
Akbar II 1806-1837 Pensioner of East India Company. He conferred the title “Raja”
on Ram Mohan Roy
Bahadur Shah II 1837-1857 Last Mughal Emperor who was made premier during 1857
revolt.
He was fond of poetry and had the title of ‘Zafar’. He was
deported to Rangoon (Burma, now Myanmar) in 1858 where
he died in 1862
43
INDIAN HISTORY
Administration:  According to pay mode they were of 2

 Mughal empire was divided into Subas types: Naqdi (paid through cash) and
which were further sub-divided into Sarkar, Jagirdar (paid through Jagirs).
Pargana and Gram.  Jahangir added Duaspah Sih-aspah
 However, it also had other territorial units system i.e. one’s sawar rank can be raised
as Khalisa (royal land), Jagirs (autonomous without raising his zat rank.
rajyas) and Inams (gifted lands, mainly  Shahjahan added Jama-Dami or
waste lands). Mahana Zagir (Monthly Scale) system. It
 There were 15 Subas (provinces) during ultimately caused Jagirdari and agrarian
Akbar’s reign, which later increased to 20 crisis, which was a major cause of decline
under Aurangzeb’s reign. of Mughals
 Akbar introduced Mansabdari system.  There were several methods of revenue
The term Mansab indicates the rank of its collection in practice viz. Kankut(estimate),
holder. Mansabdari was both civil and Rai(yield per unit area) and Zabti (based on
military. the yields of crops).
 The Mughal Mansab was dual i.e. Zat  Dahsala Bandobast or Zasti: A
(personal rank and pay status) and Sawar standard method of collection based on rates
(number of horsemen to maintain). of crops determined after 10 years
 Mansabdars were of 3 categories: assessment. Todal Mal pioneered it.
Mansabadars, Amirs and Amir-i-umda  Madad-i-maash or Suyur ghal or Inam
were land grants to people of favour /
religious assignment.
Administrative Incharge
Unit
Suba (Province) Sipahsalar/Subedar/Nizam- The Head Executive Diwan- Incharge
of revenue department
Sarakar Fauzdar- Administrative Head Amal/Amalguzzar- Revenue

(District) collection
44
INDIAN HISTORY
Pargana Siqdar- Administrative Head Amin, Qanungo- Revenue Officials

(Taluka)
Gram (Village) Muqaddam- Headman, Patwari- Accountant
Miscellaneous facts about Mughal (noticeable for the 1st use of pietra dura
Culture: technique –floral designs made up of
 Babur built two mosques, one at semiprecious stones)
Kabulibagh in Panipat and the other at  Jahangir built Moti Masjid in Lahore
Sambhal in Rohilkand. and his mausoleum at Shahdara (Lahore).
 Humayun’s tomb was built by his widow  Mosque building activity reached its
Haji Begum. climax in Taj Mahal. Shahjahan also built
 An unusual building at Fatehpur Sikri is the Jama Masjid.
Panch Mahal. Panch Mahal has the plan of  Some of the important buildings built by
Buddhist Vihara. Shah Jahan at Agra are Moti Masjid(only
 The Mariam’s Palace, Diwan-i-khas at mosque of marble), Khaas Mahal,
Sikri are Indian in their plan. Mussmman Burz (Jasmine Palace where he
 Buland Darwaja (built after Gujarat spent his last year in capativity) etc.
victory), formed the main entrance to  He laid the foundations of
Fatehpur Sikri. Shahjahanabad in 1637 where he built the
 Salim Chisti’s tomb(redone in Marble by Red Fort and Takht-i-taus (Peacock
st
Jahangir) is the 1 Mughal building in the throne).
pure marble. Palace of Birbal, Palace of  Only building by Aurangzeb in the Red
Tansen are also inside the Fatehpur Sikri. fort is Moti Masjid.
 Akbar also began to build his own tomb  Only monument associated with
at Sikandara which was later completed by Aurangzeb is Bibi ka Makbara which is the
Jahangir. tomb of his wife Rabbia-ud-daura in
 The architecture of Fatehpur Sikri is Aurangabad.
known as Epic in red sand stone.  Aurangzeb also built the Badshahi
 Nurjahan built Itimad-ud-daula / Mirza Masjid in Lahore.
Ghiyas Beg’s marble tomb at Agra
45
INDIAN HISTORY
 Humayun had taken into his service two  Abdul Hassan, Ustad Mansur and
master painter Mir Syed Ali and Abdus Bishandas were three famous painters of
Samad. Jahangir’s court.
 Daswant and Basawan were two
famous painters of Akbar’s court.
Titles given by the Mughal Ruler
Title Person Field Ruler

Jagat Guru Harivijay Suri Jain religion Akbar
Zari Kalam Mohammad Hussain Literature Akbar
Raj Kavi Faizi Literature Akbar
Kavi Priya Birbal Literature Akbar
Nadi-ul-Asra Ustad Mansur Painting Jahangir
Nadir-uz-Zaman Abdul Hassan Painting Jahangir
Guna Samudra Lal Khan Music Shahjahan
Raj Kavi Kalim Literature Shahjahan
Mahakaviray Sundardas Literature Shahjahan
Literature of Mughal Period
Book Author Contents

Tuzuk-i-Baburi Babur Describes military tactics and
administrative organisation during
Babur’s reign
Qanun-i-Humayun Khwand Amair Describes Humayun’s administration,
festivities and buildings of that period
Humayun Nama Gulbadan Begum Biography of Humayun

Akbar Nama Abul Fazi Gives a history of Akbar’s reign
Tabaqat-i-Akbari Khwajah Nizamuddin Ahmad A History Of India From The Early
Baksh Musalman Invasions To The Thirty-
sixth Year Of The Reign Of Akbar
Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri Jahangir Memoirs of his own reign
46
Iqbalnama-i- Muhammad khan History of Jahangir’s reign
Jahangiri
Alamgir-nama Munshi Mirza Gives an account of Aurangzeb’s first
Muhamma Kazin 10 years of rule
Massir-i-Alamgiri Saqi Mustaid Khan Official history of Aurangzeb’s reign
written after his death
Ain-i-Akbari Abul Fazl History of Akbar’s reign
Muntakhab-ul- Badauni History of Akbar’s rule
Tawarikh
Tawarikh-i-Alfi Mulla Daud History of Akbar’s rule
Nuriyya-i-Sultaniyya Abdul Haq – Jahangir Period Theory of Kinship during Mughal
period
Waqt-i-Hyderabad Nimat Khan Ali Aurangzeb’s Golconda conquest
Futuhat-i-Alamgiri Ishwar Das Aurangzeb’s history
Nuskha-i-Dilkusha Bhimsen Saxena Analysis of Aurangzeb’s rule and
character
Khulasat-ul-Tawarikh Sujan Raj Khatri History of Aurangzeb’s rule
Padshah Namah Abdul Hamid Lahori History of Shah Jahan’s reign
Shahjahan Namah Inyat Khan History of Shah Jahan’s reign
Hamlai- Haidri Muhammad Rafi khan History of Aurangzeb's rule
Namah-e-Alamgiri Aquil Khan Zafar History of Aurangzeb's rule
Sirr-i-Akbar Dara Shikoh Urdu translation of Upanishad
Safinat-ul-Auliya Dara Shikoh Biographies of Sufi saints
Raqqat-e-Alamgiri Aurangzeb A compendium of his lens
Hasmat-ul-Arifin Dara Shikoh Religious ideas discussed
MARATHA EMPIRE (1674-1720):  Shivaji inherited the Jagir of Poona

SHIVAJI 1674-1680: from his father in 1637.
 Born at Shivneri Fort in 1627.
47
INDIAN HISTORY
 After the death of his guardian, Dadaji  Chauth was 25% of the land revenue
Kondadev in 1647, he assumed full charge was paid to the Marathas so for not being
of his Jagir. subjected to Maratha raids.
 Afzal khan was deputed by Adil shah to  Sardesh was an additional levy of 10%
punish Shivaji, but the later Afzal khan was on those of lands of Maharastra over which
killed by shivaji in 1659. the Maratha claimed hereditary rights, but
 Shaista khan, governor of Deccan, was which formed part of the Mughal Empire.
deputed by Aurangzeb to put down te rising Sambhaji (1680-1689):
power of shivaji in 1660. Shivaji lost Poona  Sambhaji, the elder son of shivaji,
suffered several defeats till he made a bold defeated Rajaram, the Younger son of
attack on Shaista khan (1663) and shivaji,in the war of succession.
plundered Surat (1664) and later  He provided Protection and support to
Ahmadnagar. Akbar II, the rebellious son of Aurangzeb.
 In 1674 Shivaji was coronated at capital  He was captured at Sangameswar by a
Raigarh ans assumed the title of Haindava Mughal Noble and Executed.
Dharmodharak. Rajaram (1689-1700):
 After that Chhatrapati shivaji continued  He Succeed the throne with the help of
the struggle with Mughals and Siddis. He the Ministers at Rajgarh.
conquested Karnataka during 1677-80.  He fled from Rajgarh to Jini in 1689 due
Shivaji’s Ashtapradhan: to a Mughal invansion in which Rajgarh was
 Most of the administrative reforms of captured along with Sambhaji’s wife and son
Shivaji were based on Malik Ambar’s shahu by the Mughals.
reforms.  Rajaram diet at satara, which had
 Assessment of land revenue was based become the capital after the fall of Jinji to
on measurement.The Kathi of Malik Ambar Mughal in 1698.
was adopted as the unit of Measurement.  Rajaram created the new post of
 Land revenue was fixed 33% of the gross Pratinidhi, thus taking the total number of
produce initially and 40% of the gross minister to nine.
produce after reforms.
48
INDIAN HISTORY
Tarabai (1700-1707): the Mughal emperor Farrukh siyar

 Rajaram was succeeded by his minor recognized Shahu as the king of the
son Shivaji II under the Guardenship of his Swarajya.
mother Tarabai. MARATHA CONFEDERACY (1720-1818):
 Tarabai continued the struggle with Baji rao I: 1720-40:
Mughals.  Baji Rao, the eldest son of Balaji
Shahu (1707-1749): Viswanath, succeeded him as Peshwa at the
 Shahu was released by the Mughal young age of 20.
emperor Bahadur Shah.  He was considered the greatest exponent
 Tarabai’s army was defeated by Shahu in of guerrilla tactics after Shivaji and Maratha
the battle of khed(1700), and shahu power reached its zenith under him.
occupied Satara.  After defeating and expelling the siddis
 But the Southern part of the Maratha ofb Janira from the mainland (1722), he
kingdom with its capital Kolhapur continued conquered Bassein and Salsette from the
to be under the control of the descendents of Portuguese(1739).
Rajaram.  He also defeated the Nizam-ul-Mulk near
 Shahu’s resign saw the rise of Peshwas Bhopal and concluded the treaty of Doraha
and transformation of the Maratha Kingdom sarai by which he got Malwa and
into an empire based on the principle of Bundelkhand from the latter(1738).
confidency.  He led innumerable successful
Balaji viswanath (1713-1720): The First expeditions into North India to weaken the
Peshwa Mughal empire and to Make the Marthas the
 He began his career as a small revenue Supreme power of India.
official and was Given the title of Sena Karte Balaji Baji Rao(1740-1761):
by Shahu in 1708.  Popularly Known as Nana Saheb, he
 He became Peshwa in 1973 and made succeeded his father at the age of 20.
the post the most important and powerful as  After the death of Shahu (1749),the
well as hereditary. management of all state affairs was left in
 He concluded an agreement with the his hands.
syed Brothers-King Maker (1719) by which
49
INDIAN HISTORY
 In an agreement with the Mughal (Hastings)came in conflict with the

emperor Ahmad shah, the Peshwa was to Marathas.On being defeated , the British had
protect the Mughal empire from internal and to sign the humiliating Convention of
external enemies (like Ahmad shah Abdali) Wadgaon(1779).
in return for chauth(1752).  British later signed Treaty of Salbai
 Third battle of Panipat(Jan 14,1761) (1782), renouncing the cause of Raghoba.
resuted in the defeat of Marathas by Ahmad Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803-06):
shah Abdali and the death of Viswa Rao and  The Maratha Peshwa signed the
Sadashiv Rao Bhau.This event shocked the Subsidiary Alliance Treaty of Bassein(1802)
Peshwa Balaji Rao and after six month he  The Maratha confederacy, which did not
also died.This Battle ended the Maratha like the idea challenged the British power
power. but were defeated by the British.
 Successor of Balaji Baji Rao:Madhav Rao Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817-18):
(1761-72), Narayan Rao(1772-73) ,Sawai  Lord Hastings was determined
Madhav Rao(1773-95) and Baji Rao II(1795- to proclaim British paramountcy in
1818) India.He moved against Pindaris
Anglo-Maratha Wars: transgressed the sovereignty of the
First Anglo-Maratha War (1775-82): Maratha Chief and the War began.
 Favouring the cause of Raghunath  The Marathas were decisively defeated
Rao(Raghoba) for Peshwaship,English
Important Battles
S. No YEAR BATTLE PLACE WINNER LOSER REMARKS
1. 326 B.C. Battle of Hydaspes Alexander Porus
Hydaspas
2. 261 B.C. Kalinga War Kalinga Asoka Kalinga
3. 712 A.D. Invasion of Mohammed-

Sind bin-Qasim
invades from
the west
50
INDIAN HISTORY
4. 1191 A.D. First Battle Tarain Prithviraj Mohammed

of Tarain (Near Chauhan Ghori
Thanesar)
5. 1192 A.D. Second Tarain Ghori Prithviraj Mohammad got
Battle of (Near Chauhan the opportunity
Tarain Thanesar) to enter Indian
lands.
6. 1194 A.D. Battle of Chandwar Ghori Jaichandra Mohammad
Chandwar (Jamuna (King of further
river close Kannauj) extended his
to Agra) empire in India
by defeating a
large kingdom.
7. 1526 A.D. First Battle Panipat Babar Ibrahim Lodhi By this victory
of Panipat Babur got
opportunity to
expand his
small
principality into
big empire
8. 1527A.D. Battle of Khanwa Babar Rana Sanga
Khanwa
9. 1529 A.D. Battle of Ghagra Babar The Afghans
Ghagra (or)
Gogara
10. 1539 A.D. Battle of Chausa Sher Shah Humayun
Chausa Suri
11. 1540 A.D. Battle of Kannauj Sher Shah Humayun Agra was
Kannauj (or Suri occupied by
Bilgram) Sher shah
51
INDIAN HISTORY
12. 1556 A.D. Second Panipat Bairam Hemu

Battle of Khan (For
Panipat Akbar)
13. 1576 A.D. Battle of Haldighati Akbar Rana Pratap
Haldighati of Mewar
14. 1615 A.D. Mewar Peace treaty
submitted signed between
to the Jahangir and
Mughals Rana Amar
Singh of Mewar
15. 1658 A.D. Battle of Aurangzeb Dara Shikoh
Dharmatt
and
Samugarh
16. 1665 A.D. Seige of Raja Jai Shivaji Treaty of
Purandar Singh Purandar
signed
17. 1737 A.D. Battle of Bhopal Baji Rao Mohammed
Bhopal Shah
18. 1739 A.D. Battle of Karnal Nadir Mohammed
Karnal (Punjab Shah Shah
region)
19. 1757 A.D. Battle of Plassey Robert Siraj-ud-daula, British win a
Plassey Clive the Nawab of major battle in
Bengal India and later
they ruled
India.
20. 1760 A.D. Battle of Wandiwash English French
Wandiwash
52
INDIAN HISTORY
21. 1761 A.D. Third Battle Panipat Ahmed Marathas

of Panipat Shah
Abdali
22. 1764 A.D. Battle of Buxar Hector Combined armies of Nawab Mir
Buxar Munro Qasim (Bengal),
Nawab Shuja-ud-daulah
(Awadh)& Mughal emperor Shah
Alam
23. 1767-69 First Anglo South India Hyder Ali- British East
A.D. Mysore War Kingdom India company
of Mysore
24. 1766-69 First Anglo Pune Marathas British
A.D. Maratha
War
25. 1780-84 Second South Hyder Ali dies.
A.D. Anglo India Treaty of
Mysore War Mangalore is
signed
26. 1789-92 Third Anglo South India Maratha Kingdom of Tipu Sultan
A.D. Mysore War Empire, Mysore defeated.
Nizam of Treaty of
Hyderabad Serirangapatna
and British m is signed.
East India
company
27. 1799 A.D. Fourth South British Kingdom of Tipu Sultan is
Anglo India east India Mysore defeated and
Mysore War company killed
28. 1803-06 Second Central British Maratha Treaty of
A.D. Anglo India Empire Deogan
53
INDIAN HISTORY
Maratha (1803)
War Treaty of
Surji-
Anjangaon
(1803)
Treaty of
Rajghat
(1805)
29. 1817-19 Third Anglo Maharastra British Maratha
A.D. Maratha and Empire
War neighbour
countries
30. 1824-26 First Anglo Burma, British Burmese  Treaty of
A.D. Burmese East Yandabo
War Bengal,  Beginnin
Assam, g of
Manipur, British
Cachar, rule in
Jaintia Burma
31. 1839-42 First Anglo Afghanistan British Emirate of
A.D. Afghan War East India Afghanistan-
Company Dost
Mohammad
32. 1845-46 First Anglo Punjab British Sikh Empire
A.D. Sikh War
33. 1848-49 Second Punjab British win Punjab
A.D. Anglo Sikh annexed by the
War British
34. 1852 A.D. Second Lower British
Anglo Burma
54
INDIAN HISTORY
Burmese
War
35. 1865 A.D. Third Anglo Burma British win Burma is
Burmese annexed
War
36. 1919-21 Third Anglo North west British Emirate of Ended in an
A.D. Afghan War frontier of India Afghanistan Armistice.
India and Durand line
Afghanistan established.
European Penetration in India concentrated in south India, they did not

Portuguese and Dutch: have to face the might of the Mughal empire.
o There has been trade relations between o In 1602, the Dutch East India
India and the west from ancient times itself. company was formed, and they were
But in 1453, the Ottoman Turks captured empowered by their government to make
Constantinople and this brought the regular war, conclude treaties, acquire territories
trade routes under the control of the Turks. and build fortresses.
This urged the Europeans to search for new English and French
trade routes, especially by sea. o Later, in 1599, an English company was
o In 1492, Columbus from Spain set out to formed by a group of merchants to trade
reach India, and discovered America instead. with the east, known as Merchant
o Later, in 1498, Vasco Da Gama of Adventurers. It was given the permission
Portugal discovered a new trade route, and exclusive rights to trade with the east,
travelling around Africa and reaching by the queen in 1600.
Calicut. o Jahangir gave Captain Hawkins the
o The Portuguese were the 1st to establish royal farmen to set up factories on the
colonies in India. Due to their superiority on western coast.
the seas, they could easily maintain their o Later, Sir Thomas Roe obtained
positions against the powerful land forces in the Farman to establish factories in all parts
India. Also since they were mainly of the Mughal empire.
55
INDIAN HISTORY
o Bombay too passed into their hands as was conspiring against the nawab
dowry given by the Portuguese. The conflicts Anwarudeen.
with the Dutch were settled by giving up all o The French took the sides of both the
claims to Indonesia, while the English got rebels, and won both of their claims for
India. them, killing Anwarudeen and Nasir Jung.
o The conditions in the south were apt for o The English, naturally took the side of the
the English. They started from Madras, by fallen, under Muhammad Ali, a son of
building a fort there, called Fort St. George. Anwarudeen. The wars were then won by the
o The problems broke out when the English English side under the able generalship and
sacked Hugli and declared war on the cunning of Robert Clive.
emperor. They failed miserably. This was the o Finally, the French recalled Dupleix from
first lesson they learnt. From then on, they India, according to their treaty in 1754.
relied on flattery and humble entreaties, Later, in 1796, the French were completely
waiting for their chance. destroyed at the battle of Wandiwash.
o In 1698, Fort William was built and Thus, the English remained the sole
Calcutta was founded. Madras, Bombay masters of India.
and Calcutta soon grew up to be flourishing o The Farman granted to the British by the
centres of trade. emperor enabled them to conduct free trade
o The French, under Dupleix, who had in Bengal. In 1756, the grandson of Alivardi
come to India by then had already started Khan, Siraj-ud-Daulah came to the throne,
interfering in the affairs of the local princes he demanded the English that they should
using their well-equipped army. In 1742, trade on the same basis as the Indian
war had broken out in Europe between merchants.
France and England. o Matters took a turn for the worse when
o Following the death of the nizam in 1748, the English refused and strengthened their
his son Nasir Jung took over the crown. He fortifications. This led to the Battle of
was challenged by Musaffar Jung, a Plassey in 1757, in which Siraj-ud-Daulah
grandson of the nizam. Similar situations was treacherously defeated by the cheating
were in the Carnatic, where Chanda Sahib by Mir Jaffar and Rai Durlabh. This brought
the British immense prestige and revenue.
56
INDIAN HISTORY
o Later, when Mir Jaffar couldn’t keep up Peshwa Madhava Rao in 1775 to 1782,
with the tribute promised to the British, they known as the First Anglo-Maratha War.
installed Mir Qasim on the throne. He was Second Anglo-Maratha War:
clever and knew that both revenue and an o After the creation of the Madras
army was required to stand against the Presidency in 1801, the only major Indian
British. And finally, he abolished all the power left outside the sphere of British
duties on internal trade. This angered the control were the Marathas, whose internal
British, and they defeated Mir Qasim in the affairs further deteriorated within a span of
Battle of Buxar in 1764. 20 years after the First Anglo-Maratha War.
British Conquest of India o The internal squabbles of the Marathas led
Conquest of Maharashtra: to a new round of hostilities between the
o Peshwa Madhava Rao, who succeeded English and the Marathas. This resulted in
his father Peshwa Balaji Rao in 1761 and the Second -Anglo-Maratha War (1903-05).
who ranks among the great Peshwas, o Wellesley’s aggressive policy of
maintained unity among the Maratha chiefs interference in the internal affairs of the
and nobles and very soon recovered the Marathas was an important factor.
power and prestige of the Maratha which o Wellesley, who became the Governor-
they lost in the third Battle of Panipat. He General in 1798, felt it imperative to bring as
came into contact with the English and was many Indian states as possible under British
conscious of their military efficiency, but he control. One of the important methods which
did not attach much value to them and the used to achieve his political aims was the
regarded them as an insignificant factor in Subsidiary Alliance.
the Indian politics. o Under this system:
o The British became conscious of the 1. The ruler of the allying Indian States was
Marathas in the fulfillment of their ambition compelled to accept the permanent
of building an empire in India and, therefore, stationing of a British force within his
were keen to weaken their power at the territory and also to pay a subsidy for its
earliest opportunity. They got their maintenance.
opportunity very soon after the death and 2. A British resident was posted at the court.
57
INDIAN HISTORY
3. Indian ruler could not employ any the Marathas once for all. The Peshwa was
European in his service without the approval dethroned and pensioned off at Bithur near
of the British. Kanpur. His territories were annexed and the
4. He could not negotiate with any other enlarge Presidency of Bombay was brought
Indian ruler without consulting the Governor- into existence.
general. o However, in order to satisfy Maratha
5. The British undertook to defend the ruler pride, the small kingdom of Satara was
from his enemies. created out of the Peshwa’s lands and given
6. Also promised non-interference in internal to the descendant of Chatrapatti Shivaji who
affairs of the allied state. ruled it as a complete dependent of the
o Among the last capable Maratha chiefs British.
were Mahadji Sindhia, Ahilya Bai Holkar, Conquest of Sindh:
Tukoji Holkar and Peshwa Madhava Rao o The conquest and annexation of Sindh by
II, who died in 1794, 1795, 1796 and 1797 the British was partly due to the commercial
respectively. advantages of River Indus.
o Nana Phadnis, the chief minister to the o It was also caused by the growing Anglo-
Peshwa, served the Maratha state zealously Russian rivalry in Europe and Asia and the
after the murder of Peshwa Narayan Rao, consequent British fears that Russia might
but later his ambition to keep the power of attack India through Afghanistan or Persia.
the state to himself harmed the interest of o Sindh was opened to British trade by a
the Marathas. treaty signed in 1832 between the Amirs of
Third Anglo Maratha War: Sindh and the British.
o The second Anglo-Maratha War had no o Sindh was finally, annexed in 1843 after a
doubt shattered the power of the Maratha brief campaign by Sir Charles Napier.
chiefs but not their spirit. The English had to British Colonalism in India:
fight another war, known as the Third Anglo o The British colonial rule in India is
Maratha War(1817-1818). generally divided into three stages:
o The Governor-General, Lord Hastings, o First stage - (1757-1813) represents the
struck back with characteristic vigor. The mercantile phase.
consequences of this war sealed the fate of
58
INDIAN HISTORY
o Second stage - (1813-1860) represents fought several wars, crushed many princely
the free trade phase. States and brought them under the colonial
o Third stage - (1860 onwards) represents authority.
the finance capital phase. Free Trade:
Mercantalism: * By the dawn of the 19th century, the
* During the mercantile phase the aim of all British became an industrial power following
activity was to accumulate wealth. In order Industrial Revolution in England. It was in
to pursue a favorable trade, the British need of raw material to feed its industries.
company started aggressive policies in India. * The special feature of this policy was that
* The government passed the Regulating it was a one way traffic wherein British
Act and the Pitt’s India Act to gain more and goods entered India virtually free while
the direct control over the affairs of the Indian products entering Britain faced high
company. tariffs.
* The financial bleeding of India started with * The protective policy towards British trade
the British gaining huge money over Indian was thoroughly guarded, leaving India-made
territories. New revenue settlements were products to face stiff competition.
imposed upon the agrarian structure. The
Important Nationalist Movements

Name of the Movement/ People associated with Nature and objectives, and media
Organization and Place it efforts
Brahmo samaj (earlier Raja Rammohan Propagated monotheism, opposed
Atmiya Sabha); Calcutta Roy(1772-1833)- the incarnation, meditation, sacrifices,
(late 18th – early 19th founder; Debendranath existence of priests, idolatry,
century) Tagore- later formed Adi superstition, sati; sought for reforms
Brahmo Samaj; Keshav in Hindu society.
Chandra Sen- later Journals brought out by Rammohan
associated with Brahmo Roy: Sambad Kaumudi, Mirat-ul-
samaj of India( Akbar; Debendranath Tagore:
secessionists from this Tattva Bodhini Patrika;
59
INDIAN HISTORY
group formed Sadharan Keshub Chandra Sen – Indian

Brahmo Samaj) Mirror;
Sadharan Brahmo Samaj – Tattva
Kaumudi, The Indian Messenger, The
Sanjibari, The Navyabharat and
Prabasi.
Young Bengal Movement Henry Louis Vivian Opposed the vices in society; believed
(1826-1831) Derozio(founder), in truth, freedom and reason; brought
Rasikkrishna Mullick, out the Jnanavesan ( journal) and
Tarachand Chuckervati, established the society for the
Krishanmohan Banerjee Acquisition of General Knowledge
(Derozio edited Hesperus, the Calcutta
Library Gazette and was associated
with India Gazette)
Dharma Sabha; Calcutta Radhakant Deb (1794- Emerged to counter Brahmo samaj,
1876) founder aimed at protection of orthodoxy,
condemned radical and liberal
reforms, helped in the spread of
western education
Wahabi Movement Syed Ahmed of Rai Popularised the teachings of Waliullah;
(Rohilkhand- spread in Bareilly (founder); opposed the British and fought against
Kabul, NWFP, Bengal, the Vilayat Ali, Shah the Sikhs; stressed role of individual
Central Provinces; Sittana Muhammed Hussain, conscience in religion.
in NWFP- headquarters Farhat Hussain ( all from
from 1850 onwards ( 19th Patna); Inayat Ali
century- founded in 1820;
suppression by the British
by 1870)
Namdhari or Kuka Bhai Balak Singh and For Political and social reforms among
Movement (among Sikhs); Baba Ram the Sikhs.
60
INDIAN HISTORY
NWFP and Bhaini (Ludhiana Singh(founders)

district, Punjab) (1841-
1871)
Students Literary and Debated popular science and social
Scientific Society (1848) questions
Paramhans Mandali Emphasised unity of godhead; against
(1849) caste rules
Rahanumai S.S.Bengali , Naoroji To improve the social condition of the
Mazdayasanan Sabha Furdonji, Dadabhai Parsis and restore the purity of
(religious reform Naoroji and others Zoroastrianism. Their journal was Raft
association for Parsis- Goftar( truth teller)
1851)
The Deoband School of Revivalist movement whose religious
Muhammad Qasim
Islamic Theology at teachings encompassed a liberal
Nanaytavi(1832-80) and
Saharanpur,UP-1866 interpretation of Islam; for moral
Rashid Ahmad
religious upliftment; did not take to
Gangohi(founders),
western influences in education;
Maulana Abul Kalam
opposed syed Ahmed Khan’s views to
Azad, Mahmud-ul-
some extent; welcomed the formation
Hasan, Shibli Numani
of the Indian National Congress
Prarthana Samaj; Atmaram Worship and reform of society through
Bombay-1867 Pandurang(founder), emphasis on monotheism, upliftof
Govind Ranade(chief women, abolition of caste
mentor), discrimination and religious orthodoxy.
R.G.Bhandarkar
Indian Reform Keshav Chandra Sen To create public opinion against child
Association; Calcutta- marriages; for uplift of social women;
1870 to legalise Brahmo type of marriage.
Arya Samaj; at Bombay- Dayanand Saraswati Asserted Hindu faith ober religions;
1875 (originally Mula Shankar- within a revivalist framework,
61
INDIAN HISTORY
founder) denounced rites, Brahmins’

supremacy, idolatry, superstitions;
Dayanand Anglo Vedic (DAV) schools
were established.
Aligarh Movement (the Syed Ahmed Khan Religious reform through emphasis on
Aligarh School grew into (1817-1898- founder of principle of enquiry in religion,
the Muhamadan Anglo- Aligarh School) favoured scientific and rational
oriental college in 1877 outlook, recognized Western
and later the Aligarh education, aimed at social reform;
Muslim University(1875- Sir Syed Ahmed founded a scientific
year of founding the society(1864), Tahzib-al-
Aligarh School) akhlaq(1870)-urdu journal
Deccan Education M.G.Ranade, For contributing to education and
Society; Pune-1884 V.G.Chibdonkar, culture in western India; established
G.G.Agarkar(founders) Ferguson college, Pune in 1885
Seva Sadan; Bombay- Behramji M.Malabari Against child marriages, forced
1885 widowhood; to help socially exploited
women
Indian National Social M.G.Ranade, Raghunath Social reform
conference, Bombay-1887 Rao
Deva Samaj; Lahore-1887 Shiva Narain Agnihotri Religious ideas closer to those of
Brahmo samaj; favoured a social code
of conduct that was against bribe-
taking, gambling, alcohol consumption
and having non-vegetarian food.
Madras Hindu Association; Veerasalingam Pantulu Social purity movement; against
madras -1892 devadasi system and oppression of
widows.
Ramakrishna mission; Vivekananda (originally Sought to revive Hinduism based on
62
INDIAN HISTORY
Bengal (centres at Belur Narendranath Dutta), ancient India’s religious texts and
and Mayavati became focal 1863-1902 (its founder); concepts (of Vedanta,etc); against
points-1897) Ramakrishna Paramhansa caste restrications, oppression,
(1834-1886) superstition in Hinduism, aimed to
uplift women and overhaul the
education system.
Bharat Dharma Mahan- Madan Mohan Malaviya, Orthodox Hindus’ (sanatandharini’s)
Mandala; Benaras-1902 Deen Dayal Sharma, organization that opposed the Arya
Gopal Krishna Gokhale samaj’s teachings.
(founders)
The Servants of India Gopal Krishna Gokhale Famine relief and improving tribals’
Society; Bombay-1905 condition in particular.
Poona Seva sadan-1909 G.K. Devadhar and Economic uplift; employment for
Ramabai Ranade women
Nishkam Karma Math Dhondo Keshav Karve Educational progress of women;
(Monastery of Disinterested improving widow’s condition. Founded
work); Pune-1910 a women’s university in pune- now in
Bombay
Seva samiti; Allahabad Hridyanath Kunzru Improving the status of the suffering
1914 classes through social service,
education
The Indian Women’s Annie Besant Upliftment of Indian Women; Annual
Association; Madras(1917) Conference (All India Women’s
conferences) were held.
PEASANT MOVEMENTS
Indigo Revolt by Bengal Indigo cultivators led Against terms imposed by European indigo
by Degambar and Bishnu Biswas(1859-1860; planters; Indigo Commission was set up in 1860
Nadia district) to view the situation
Champaran Satyagraha Against the tinkathia system imposed by the
European indigo planters; the champaran
63
INDIAN HISTORY
Agararian Act abolished the tinkathia system

Kheda Satyagraha by Peasants of Kheda, led Against ignored appeal for remission of land
by Gandhi (1918, Gujarat) revenue in case of crop failures; the demands
were finally fulfilled
Bardoli Satyagraha by the Kunbi- Patidar Against Oppression by upper castes and hike in
land-owning peasants and untouchables, revenue by 22% by the Bombay Government;
supported by Mehta brothers, Sardar the revenue was brought down to 6.03%
Vallabhai Patel(1928; Surat, Gujarat)
Eka Movement by members of Pasi and Ahir Against hike in rents.
castes (1921-22; Hardoi, Barabanki and
Sitapur districts)
CASTE MOVEMENTS
SatyaSodhak movement, Satyashodhak Against brahminic domination and for the
Samaj, founded by Jyotiba Phule(1873; emancipation of low castes, untouchables and
Maharastra) widows
Aravippuram movement, led by Shri Narayana For the rights of the depressed
Guru(1888; Kerala) classes (especially the Ezhavas or Iravas of
Kerala); the Shri Narayana Dharma
Paripalana Yogum was set up in 1902-1903
Justice Party Movement led by Against domination of Brahmins in
Dr.T.M.Nair, P.Tyagaraja Chetti and government service, education and political
C.N.Mudalair on behalf of intermediate field; the South Indian Liberation Federation
castes(1916;Madras) (SILF) was formed in 1916; the efforts yielded
in the passing of 1930 Government Order
providing reservations to groups
Nair Movement led by C.V.Raman Pillai, Against domination of Brahmins; the malayali
K.Rama Krishna Pillai and M.Padmanabha memorial was formed by Raman Pillai in 1891
Pillai(1891;Kerala) and Nair Service Society by Padmanabha Pillai
64
INDIAN HISTORY
was set up in 1914

Self-respect Movement led by E.V.Ramaswami Against caste bias by Brahmins; Kudi arasu
Naicker or Periyar(1925;Tamilnadu) journal was started by Periyar in 1910
The Depressed Classes (Mahars) movement For the upliftment of the Untouchables;
led by B.R.Ambedkar(1924; Maharastra) founded the Depressed Classes Institution in
1924, a Marathi fortnightly Bahisakrit Bharat
in 1927, the samaj samta sangh in 1927, the
Scheduled caste Federation in 1942 to
propagate their views.
Congress Harijan Movement(1917 onwards) For elevating the social status of the lower
and backward classes; All-India Anti-
Untouchability League was established in
1932; the weekly Harijan was founded by
Gandhi in 1933
Kaivartas’ Movements by Kaivartas who later Founded the Jati Nirdharani Sabha(1897) and
became the Mahishyas(1897 the Mahishya Samiti(1901)
onwards;Midnapore, Bengal)
THE REVOLT OF 1857 Nagpur and Sambhalpur were annexed by
The revolt of 1857 is an important landmark in the Doctrine of lapse.
the history of India which occurred during the ADMINISTRATIVE CAUSES:
governor generalship of Lord canning. CAUSES Rampant Corruption in the company’s
OF THE REVOLT: administration (especially Police, Petty
The revolt of 1857 was a combination of officials and lower law courts) and the
political, economic, socio-religious and absentee sovereignity character of British
military causes. rule imparted a foreign and alien look to it in
POLITICAL: the eyes of Indians.
Policies such as “Effective Control”, ECONOMIC:
“Subsidiary alliance”, “Doctrine of Heavy taxation, forcible evictions on
lapse” (Avadh was annexed in 1856 on charges non-payment of debt dues, annexation of
of mal-administration & Satara, Jhansi, Indian states by the Company cut off the
65
INDIAN HISTORY
major source of patronage, discriminatory have a greased cover made of beef and pig
tariff policy against indian products and fat sparked off the revolt.
THE BEGINNING AND SPREAD THE
destruction of traditional handicrafts that hit
REVOLT:
peasants and artisans. On march 29,1857 an Indian sepoy of
th
Socio Religious: 34 native infantry, Mangal Pandey, killed
two British officers Hugeson and Baugh on
British socio-religious reforms like
parade at Barrackpore .The Indian soldiers
abolition of Sati, support to widow
present, refused to obey orders to arrest
remarriage and women’s education hurted
Mangal Pandey. However, he was later on
the sentiments of orthodox and conservative
arrested and executed on April 6.
–people. Government’s decision to Tax
The mutiny really started at Meerut.
mosque and temple lands and Religious th
On 9 may 1857, Sepoys who refused to use
Disabilities Act, 1856 (like change of religion
the greased cartridges were dismissed and
did not debar a son from inheriting the
sentenced to 10years imprisonment. The
property of his heathen father).
soldiers along with other groups of civilians
Military:
went on a rampage shouting ‘Maro Firangi
Discrimination of Indian soldiers
Ko’. On May 10th they broke into jails,
racially and in matters of promotion and
murdered Europeans, burnt their houses and
privileges. Sepoys were like “Peasant in
marched towards Delhi after sunset.
Uniforms”. (New recruits had to travel across
The appearance of marching soldiers
the sea to reach Burma during War time,
next morning (11th may) in Delhi was a
crossing the sea was forbidden as per Hindu
signal to the local soldiers, who in turn
beliefs, i.e., General service Enlistment Act.
revolted, seized the city and proclaimed the
The highest post for an Indian was that of
82 year old Bahadur Shah ‘Zafar’ as
the Subedar.
Shahenshah-i-Hindustan (Emperor of
Immediate cause:
India). Within a month of the capture of
The reports about the mixing of bone
Delhi, the revolt spread to different parts of
dust in atta (flour) and the introduction of
the country.
Enfield rifles in which the cartridges had to
be bitten off before loading and were said to
CENTRE BEGINNING ENDING INDIAN LEADER BRITISH

DTAE DATE SUPPRESSOR
DELHI 11 May,1857 20 sep,1857 Bahadur shah II ‘Zafar’ and John Nicholson
General Bakht
Khan(commanding general)
66
INDIAN HISTORY
KANPUR 4 June,1857 6 Dec,1857 Nana saheb and his loyal Colin Campbell
commander Tantiya Tope
LUCKNOW 4 June,1857 21 Mar,1858 Begum Hazart Mahal Colin campbell
JHANSI 4 June,1857 18 June,1858 Rani Laxmibai (A.K.A. Huge Rose

Manikarnika)
ALLAHABAD 5 June,1857 March 1858 Liyahat Ali Colonel Neil
BIHAR Aug 1857 Dec 1858 Kunwar singh and Amar William Taylor
singh and Vincent
Eyre
NOTE: 3. Other Inmportant Leaders: Khan

1. After the suppression of revolt, Bahadur Bahadur Khan (Bareilly), Maulavi
shah II was deported to Rangoon, where he Ahmadullah (Faizabad), Azimullah
died in 1862. His sons were butchered. Khan(Fatehpur), Devisingh (Mathura),
Nana Saheb defeated at Kanpur, escaped Kadam singh (Merrut).
to Nepal in early 1859, never to be heard of 4. English authority was fully re-established
again. Begum Hazrat Mahal was compelled in India by the end of 1859.
to hide in Nepal; Tantia Tope escaped into CAUSES OF FAILURE:
the jungles of central India, was captured The Revolt of 1857 was unsuccessful but it is
and executed on 15th April, 1859; Rani a heroic effort to eliminate the foreign rule.
laxmi bai died in the battle field 1858; The main causes were:
Kunwar singh, Khan Bahadur Khan, Bakht 1. Limited territorial and social base.
Khan were all dead. Kunwar Singh was 2. Lack of complete nationalism – Scindias,
wounded and died on 24th April 1858. Holkars, Nizam and others actively helped
2. Sir Huge Rose described Laxmi Bai as the British.
‘the best and bravest military leader of the
rebel’.
67
INDIAN HISTORY
3. Lack of coordination between sepoys, Not quite the first war of

peasants, zamindars and other classes and independence but sowed the seeds of
lack of a central leadership. nationalism and quest for freedom from alien
4. Lack of coherent ideology and a political rule. There are two main views about the
perspective. nature of the Revolt of 1857:
5. Crucial support of certain sections of 1. It was described as “Sepoy Mutiny” by
Indian public to British Authorities. Syed ahmed Khan, Munish Jeevan Lal and
Durgadas Bandyopadhyaya (contemporary
SIGNIFICANCE: Historians); Stenley (Secretary of state for
The important element in the india), John lawrence, John seeley, Malleson,
revot lay in Hindu-Muslims unity. People R.C Mazumdar.
exhibited patriotic sentiment without any 2. It was described as National
touch of communal feelings. No doubt it has struggle/War of independence by
began as mutiny of soldiers but soon turned Benjamin Disraely, Karl Marx, V.D Savarkar,
into a revolt against British rule in general. K.M Pannikar, Ishwari Prasad, A.L.
Nature of the revolt of 1857: Shrivastva, Tarachand.
BOOK YEAR AUTHOR

The First Indian War of Independence 1857-1859 1857 Karl Marx & Freidrich Engels
Causes of Indian Revolt 1873 Sayed Ahmad Khan
The India War of Independence 1909 V.D.Savarkar
The Sepoy mutiny and the Rebellion of 1857 1957 R.C.Mazumdar
Civil Rebellion in India mutinies 1957 S.B.chowdary
Rebellion,1857:A Symposium 1957 P.C.Joshi
1857 1957 S.N.Sen
Impact of the Revolt of 1857: government inn India was transferred to the
1. In August 1858, the British parliament British Crown. The assumption of the
passed an act, which put an end to the rule Government of India by the Sovereign of
of the company.The control of the British Great Britain was announced by Lord
68
INDIAN HISTORY
Canning at a durbar at Allahabad in the 8. The revolt soon become a symbol of

“Queen’s Proclamation” issued on November challenge to the mighty British empire in
1, 1858. India and remained a Shining star for the
2. A minister of the British Government, rise and growth of the Indian national
called the Secretary Of The State for movement.
India, was made responsible for the
governance of India. Indian National Congress
3. The British Governor-General of India was HISTORY
now also given the title of Viceroy, who was  Formed in 1885 by A.O.Hume
also the representative of the monarch. (Englishman and a Retired Civil Servant).
4. Marked the end of British Imperialism and  First session in Bombay under
the Princely states were assured against W.C.Banerjee in 1885 (72 delegates
annexation. Doctrine of Lapse was attended it) at Tejpal University.
withdrawn.  In the first two decades (1885 –
5. After the revolt, the British pursued the 1905), quite moderate in its approach.
policy of ‘divide and rule’.  But the repressive measures of the
6. Far-reaching changes were made in the British gave rise to extremists within
administration and increase of white soldiers Congress like Bipin Chandra Pal, Bal
in the army. Gangadhar Tilak and Lala Lajpat Rai (Lal,
7. Total expenses for the suppression of the Bal, Pal).
revolt were thrown on the Indian people.
IMPORTANT SESSIONS:
1882- Bombay,Allahabad W.C.Banerjee First session of congress,attended by 72

1885 delegates;objectives of the Congress
outlined
1886 Kolkata Dada Bhai Naoroji Attended by 436 delegates;witnessed the
member of National Congress and National
Conference
1887 Madras Badruddin Tayabji First session to be presided by a
Muslim.Attended by 607 delegates; appeal
69
INDIAN HISTORY
made Muslims to join hands with other

national leaders.attended by 1248
delegates
1888 Allahabad George Yule
1889 Bombay William
Wedderburn
1890 Kolkatta Pheroz Shah
Mehta
1891 Nagpur P.Ananda Charlu
1892 Allahabad W.C.Bannerji
1893 Lahore Dadabhai Naoroji
1894 Madras Alfred Webb
1895 Poona Surendranath
Bannerji
1896 Kolkata Rahimtulla M The National Song, Vande Mataram was
Sayani sung for the first time.
1898 Madras A.M.Bose
1902 Ahmedabad Surendranath
Banerji
1905 Benaras Gopala Krishna Expressed resentment against the partition
Gokhale of Bengal
1906 Kolkatta Dadabhai Naoriji The word ‘Swaraj’mentioned for first time
1907 Surat Rashbihari Ghosh The INC split into two, one consisting of
Moderates, led by Gokhale and the other
consisting of Extremists, led by Tilak
1908 Madras Rashbihari Constitution of the Congress drawn
Ghosh
1909 Lahore Madan Mohan Expressed disapproval over formation of
Malaviya separate electorates on the basis of
70
INDIAN HISTORY
religion(Indian Councils Act,1909)

1910 Allahabad William
Wedderburn
1911 Kolkatta Pandit Bishan The National Anthem, Jana Gana Mana was
Narayan Das sung for the first time
1916 Lucknow Ambica Charan The First time
Mazumdar Joint session with Muslim league in which
the historic Lucknow pact was signed.
Even World War I happened.
1917 Kolkatta Mrs Annie Besant First session to be presided by a Lady.
1918 Delhi Madhan Mohan
Malviya
1919 Amritsar Motilal Nehru Strongly condemned the Jallianwalla
massacre;and boosted the Khilafat
Movement
1924 Belgaum M. K. Gandhi Only session Gandhiji being a president
1925 Kanpur Sarojini Naidu First session to be presided by an Indian
lady.
1927 Madras M.A.Ansari The Independence Resolution
adopted;resolved to boycott the Simon
Commission
1929 Lahore Pt Jawaharlal The decision to launch a civil disobedience
Nehru movement to achieve complete
independence and to observe 26 Jan as
Independence Day was taken. Nehru
became the president for the first time.
1931 Karachi Vallabhai Patel Endorsement of Gandhi-Irwin
pact,resolution on Fundamental Rights and
National Economic Programme passed
1938 Haripura Subash Chandra National Planning Commission set up under
Bose the chairmanship of Jawaharlal Nehru
1946 Meerut Acharya JB Last pre-independence session of the INC
71
Kripalani
1948 Jaipur Dr Pattabi First session after Independence
Sitaramayya
Dada Bhai Naoroji:

He was the first Asian to be a British MP.He was even the founder of the Indian National
Congress along with A.O Hume and Dinshaw Edulji Wacha. He was the Grand Old Man of
India. Naoroji published his famous indictment of British exploitation of India, Poverty and Un-
British Rule in India. This book guaranteed his position in the very front rank of the Indian
nationalist movement.
Annie Besant:
She founded a weekly newspaper 'Commonweal' in January 1914 for her political work. In
June 1914 she purchased the 'Madras Standard' and renamed it 'New India'.
Motilal Nehru:
Motilal Nehru chaired the famous Nehru Commission in 1928, that was a counter to the all-
British Simon Commisson. Nehru Report the first constitution written by Indians only, conceived
a dominion status for India. It was endorsed by the Congress Party, but rejected by more
nationalist Indians who sought complete independence. The report was rejected by the Muslim
leadership of India, specially MA Jinnah, who warned majority Hindu leadership of "Short
Sightedness And Oppressiveness Of Commission".
Vallabhai Patel:
He is popularly known by two names, the ‘Iron Man of India’ and ‘Bismarck of India’.
For his leadership activities and the ability to lead thousands of people, he was given
the forename ‘Sardar’.He was instrumental in the founding the Indian Administrative
Service and the Indian Police Service and is therefore known as the ‘Patron Saint’
of India's services.He successfully completed the uphill task of unifying the princely states
of India to join the Indian union. He persuaded the princes of 565 states to accede to India.
Subash Chandra Bose:
He found the “Forward block party” in 1939 and Indian National Army in 1942.
Madhan mohan malviya:
He started the 'Leader', an English daily in October 1909. He also started the 'Maryada' a
Hindi monthly in 1910 and another Hindi monthly, in 1921.He was the Chairman of the
Board of Directors of the 'Hindustan Times' from 1924 to 1946.He was the President of
the All India Seva Samiti from 1914 till 1946.
72
INDIAN HISTORY
INDIAN NATIONAL MOVEMENT

1885 The first meeting of the Indian National Congress, Bombay
1905 The first partition of Bengal
1906 Formation of the Muslim League
1920 Mahatma Gandhi leads the Congress; Non-cooperation Movement
1922 Civil Disobedience Movement
1928 Simon Commission comes to India: Boycott by all parties
1929 Lord Irwin promises Dominion Status for India
1930 Civil Disobedience Movement continues; Salt Satyagraha: Gandhi's Dandi
March; First Round Table Conference
1931 Second Round Table Conference; Irwin-Gandhi Pact
1932 Third Round Table Conference
1934 Civil Disobedience Movement ends
1935 The Government of India Act receives Royal Assent
22 Dec Observed as 'Deliverance Day' from Congress rule by the Muslim League.
1940 Lahore Resolution of the Muslim League demands for a separate state
for the Muslims of India
1942 Subhas Chandra Bose forms the Indian National Army
30 Mar 1942 Cripps proposals published
8-9 Aug 1942 Congress launches 'Quit India movement' and is declared an
unlawful organisation; Gandhi and all members of the Congress Working
Commmittee are arrested
1945 First trial of the Indian National Army men opened
Dec-Jan 1945 General Elections in India
1946
23 Mar-29 Jun Cabinet Mission visits India
29 Jul Muslim League passes resolutions retracting its acceptance of the
Cabinet Mission plan and calling upon Muslims to observe 16 August as
'Direct Action Day'
16 Aug 'Direct Action Day'
1947
24 March Mountbatten sworn in as Viceroy and governor-General
3 June Mountbatten, Nehru, Jinnah and Baldev Singh give a broadcast on the Plan
over All India Radio
4 July Indian Independence Bill is published
9 July Mountbatten advises Attlee of his decision to accept the Governor-Generalship
of India
18 July Indian Independence Bill receives Royal Assent
73
INDIAN HISTORY
11 August Jinnah elected President of the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan

14 - 15 August Power transferred
midnight
15 August Jinnah sworn in as Governor-General of Pakistan; Mountbatten sworn in as
Governor-General of India; Independence Day Celebrations in Delh
Government of India Act 1858: founded in December 1885. It was the

Queen Victoria issued a proclamation on visible embodiment of the national
November 1, 1858, placing India under awakening in the country. Its founder was
direct government of the Crown, whereby: an Englishman, Allan Octavian Hume, a
(a) A viceroy was appointed in India retired member of the Indian Civil Service.
(b) Princes were given the right to adopt a The Indian leaders, who cooperated with
son (Abolition of Doctrine of Lapse) Hume in launching the Congress, were
(c) Treaties were honoured patriots of high character. The first President
(d) Religious freedom was restored and of the Congress was W.C. Bannerjee.
equality treatment promised to Indians The aims of the Congress were: promotion of
The Proclamation was called the 'Magna friendship and cooperation amongst the
Carta of Indian Liberty'. The British rule in nationalist political workers from the
India was strongest between 1858 and 1905. different parts of the country; the
The British also started treating India as its eradication of racial, creed or provincial
most precious possession and their rule over prejudices and promotion of national unity;
India seemed set to continue for centuries to formulation of popular demands and their
come. Because of various subjective and presentation before the Government; and,
objective factors which came into existence most important of all, the training and
during this era, the feeling of Nationalism organisation of public opinion in the country.
among Indians started and grow. Partition of Bengal (1905):
Indian National Congress (1885): On December 30, 1898, Lord Curzon took
Although the British succeeded in over as the new Viceroy of India. The
suppressing the 1857 Revolt, they could not partition of Bengal came into effect on
stop the growth of political awareness in October 16, 1905, through a Royal
India. The Indian National Congress was Proclamation, reducing the old province of
74
INDIAN HISTORY
Bengal in size by creating a new province of Bengal, Militant Nationalism spearheaded by

East Bengal, which later on became East Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal,
Pakistan and present day Bangladesh. The Lala Lajpat Rai, and Aurobindo Ghosh
government explained that it was done to was, however, in favour of extending the
stimulate growth of underdeveloped eastern movement of the rest of India and carrying it
region of the Bengal. But, actually, the main beyond the programme of just Swadeshi and
objective was to 'Divide and Rule' the most boycott of goods to full-fledged political
advanced region of the country at that time. mass struggle.
Muslim League (1906): Morley-Minto Reforms (1909)
In 1906, All India Muslim League was set up Morley-Minto Reforms were introduced in
under the leadership of Aga Khan, Nawab 1909 during the period when Lord Minto
Salimullab of Dacca and Nawab Mohsin- was the GovernorGeneral of India. The
ul-Mulk. The League supported the partition reforms envisaged a separate electorate for
of Bengal, opposed the Swadeshi Movement, Muslims besides other constitutional
and demanded special safegurds for its measures. The government thereby sought
community and a separate electorates of to create a rift within the Congress on the
Muslims. This led to communal differences one hand by winning the support of the
between Hindus and Muslims. moderates, and on the other, to win favour
Swadeshi Movement (1905): of Muslims against Bindus. To achieve the
The Swadeshi movement has its genesis in latter objective, the reforms introduced the
the anti-partition movement which was system of separate electorates under which
started to oppose the British decision to Muslims could only vote for Muslim
divide Bengal. With the start of the Swadeshi candidates. This was done to encourage the
movement at the turn of the century, the notion that the political, economic and
Indian National Movement took a major leap cultural interests of Hindus and Muslims
forward. were separate and not common. Indian
The Indian National Congress took up the political leaders were however dissatisfied by
Swadeshi call in Benaras Session, 1905, these reforms.
presided over by G.K. Gokhale, supported
the Swadeshi and Boycott Movement of
75
INDIAN HISTORY
Lucknow Pact (1916): The Gandhian Era (1918-1947):

An important step forward in achieving Mahatma Gandhi dominated the Indian
Hindu-Muslim unity was the Lucknow Pact political scene from 1918-1947. This period
1916. AntiBritish feelings were generated of the Indian National Congress is also
among the Muslims following a war between referred to as the Gandhian Era. It was the
Britain and Turkey which opened way for most intense and eventful phase of India's
Congress and Muslim League unity. Both the freedom struggle. Mahatma Gandhi provided
Congress and the Muslim League held the leadership of the highest order and his
sessions at Lucknow in 1916 and concluded philosophy of non-violent Satyagraha
the famous Lucknow Pact. The Congress became the most potent weapon to drive out
accepted the separate electorates, and both .the British from the Indian soil.
organizations jointly demanded dominion Khilafat Movement (1920):
status for the country. The Caliph, Sultan of Turkey, was looked
Hindu-Muslim unity weakened the British upon by the Muslims as their religious head.
attitude and forced the government to During the First World War, when the safety
announce its future policy. In 1916 a British and the welfare of Turkey were threatened
policy was announced whereby association of by the British thereby weakening the Caliph's
Indians was increased and there was to be a position, Indian Muslims adopted an
gradual development of local self-governing aggressive anti-British attitude. The two
institutions. brothers, Mohammed Ali and Shaukat Ali
Home Rule Movement (1915-1916): launched an anti British movement in 1920 -
Dr. Annie Besant, inspired by the Irish the Khilafat Movement for the restoration.
rebellion, started a Home Rule Movement in The Rowlatt Act (1919):
India in September 1916. The movement While trying to appease Indians, the British
spread rapidly and branches of the Home Government was following a policy of
Rule League were established all over India. repression. Throughout the First World
Bal Gangadhar Tilak wholeheartedly War, repression of freedom fighters had
supported this movement. Rejoined forces continued. The revolutionaries had been
with Dr. Besant and persuaded the Muslim hunted down, hanged or imprisoned. The
League to support this programme. Government now decided to arm itself with
76
INDIAN HISTORY
more powers in order to suppress the unarmed but a large crowd had gathered in
freedom fighters. In March 1919, it passed Jallianwalla Bagh, Amritsar (Punjab) on
the Rowlatt Act. This Act authorised the April, 13, 1919 for a meeting. General Dyer
government to detain any person without ordered his troops to open fire on them
trial. The Rowlatt Act came like a sudden without warning. This massacre of unarmed
blow. The Indians had been promised people (hundreds died and thousands were
extension of democracy during the war. They wounded) in an enclosed place from which
felt humiliated and were filled with anger there was no exit, was followed by a reign of
when they found that their civil liberties were terror in several districts under martial law.
going to be curtailed still further. Unrest To enquire this massacre, Hunter
gripped the country and a powerful agitation Commission was formed in 1920.
against the Act started. During this agitation, Non-Cooperation Movement (1920):
Gandhiji took command of the nationalist With the Congress support of the Khilafat
movement. March and April 1919 witnessed movement, Hindu-Muslim unity was
a remarkable political awakening in the achieved which encouraged Gandhiji to
country. There were hartals, strikes and launch his non-violent, non-cooperation
demonstrations at various places. The movement. At the Calcutta Session in
slogans of Hindu-Muslim unity filled the air. September 1920, the Congress resolved in
Jallianwalla Bagh Massacre (1919): favour of the non-violent, non-cooperation
The Government was bent on suppressing movement and defined Swaraj as its
the mass agitation. In Bombay; Ahmedabad, ultimate aim. The movement envisaged: (i)
Calcutta, Delhi and at other places Surrender of titles and honorary officers; (ii)
demonstrators were lathi-charged and fired Resignation from nominated offices and
upon. Gandhiji gave a call for a general posts in the local bodies; (iii) Refusal to
hartal on April 6, 1919. The call was attend government darbars and official
responded to with great enthusiasm. The functions and boycott of British courts by the
Government decided to resort to repression lawyers; (iv) Refusal of general public to
to suppress the agitation. At this time the offer themselves for military and other
British Government committed one of the government jobs, and boycott of foreign
worst political crimes in modem history. An goods, etc. The non-cooperation movement
77
INDIAN HISTORY
also saw picketing of shops selling foreign and N.C. Kelkar, who organized the Swaraj
cloth and boycott of the foreign cloth by the Party. The foundations of the 'Swaraj
followers of Gandhiji. Party' were laid on January 1, 1923, as the
Chauri Chaura Incident (1922): 'CongressKhilafat-Swarajya Party'. It
The Congress session held at Ahmedabad in proposed then an alternative programme of
December 1921 decided to launch a Civil diverting the movement from widespread
Disobedience Movement while reiterating its civil disobedience programme to restrictive
stand on the non-violent, noncooperation one which would encourage its member to
movement of which Gandhiji was appointed enter into legislative councils (established
the leader. Before Gandhiji could launch the under Montford Reforms of 1919) by
Civil Disobedience Movement, a mob of contesting elections in order to wreck the
countrymen at Chauri Chaura, a place legislature from within and to use moral
near Gorakhpur in U.P., clashed with the pressure to compel the authority to concede
police which opened fire. In retaliation the to the popular demand for self-government.
mob burnt the police-station and killed 22 Simon Commission (1927):
policemen. This compelled Gandhiji to call off Under the 1919 Act, a statutory commission
the Civil Disobedience Movement on was to be appointed by the British
February 12, 1922. Despite this Gandhiji was Government at the end of ten years from the
arrested and sentenced to six years passing of the Act to inquire into the working
imprisonment. The Chauri Chaura incident of the system of government in the country
convinced Gandhiji that the nation was not and to recommend further reforms. Thus the
yet ready for the mass-dis6bedience and he commission was scheduled to be appointed
prevailed upon Congress Working Committee in 1929. It was actually appointed two
in Bardoli on February 12, 1922 to call off years earlier in 1927. The commission
the Non-Cooperation Movement. consisted of seven members of the British
Swaraj Party (1922): Parliament. It was headed by Sir John
Gandhiji's decision to call off the agitation Simon. As all its members were British, the
caused frustration among masses. His Congress decided to boycott it. The
decision came in for severe criticism from his Commission arrived in India in Feb. 1928. It
colleagues like Motilal Nehru, C.R. Das was greeted with black flags and hostile
78
INDIAN HISTORY
demonstrations everywhere it went. In one sparked off partriotism even among the
such demonstration at Lahore, Lala Lajpat Indian soldiers in the Army. The Garhwal
Rai was seriously injured in a wanton police soldiers refused to fire on the people at
lathi-charge on the demonstrators. Lalaji Peshawar.
died soon after from wounds received during Gandhi-Irwin Pact (1931):
the demonstration. Early in 1931 two moderate statesmen,
Dandi March (1930): Sapru and Jayakar, initiated efforts to bring
Also called the 'Salt Satyagraha'. To about rapprochement between Gandhiji and
achieve the goal of complete independence, the government. Six meetings with
Gandhiji launched another civil disobedience Viceroy Lord Irwin finally led to the
movement. Along with 79 followers, Gandhiji signing of a pact between the two on March
started his famous march from Sabarmati 5, 1931, whereby the Congress called off the
Ashram on March 20, 1930, for the small movement and agreed to join the Second
village Dandi to break the Salt Law. While Round Table Conference. The terms of the
Gandhiji was marching to Dandi. Congress agreement included the immediate release of
leaders and workers had been busy at all political prisoners not convicted for
various levels with the hard organizational violence, the remission of all fines not yet
tasks of enrolling volunteers and members, collected, the return of confiscated land not
forming grassroot Congress Committees, yet sold to third parties, and lenient
collecting funds, and touring villages and treatment of all the government officials who
towns to spread nationalist messages. had resigned.
On reaching the seashore on April 6, 1930, Gandhiji and other leaders were released
he broke the Salt Law by picking up salt from jail as Irwin agreed to release most
from the seashore. By picking a handful of political prisoners and to return the
salt, Gandhiji inaugurated the Civil properties that had been seized by the
Disobedience Movement, a movement that governments. The government also
was to remain unsurpassed in the history of conceded the right to make the salt for
the Indian National Movement for the consumption of villages along the coast, and
countrywide mass participation it unleashed. also the right to peaceful and non-aggressive
The movement became so powerful that it picketing. The Congress on its part, agreed
79
INDIAN HISTORY
to discontinue the Civil Disobedience unanimously rejected by the Congress. The

Movement and to participate in the next Congress demanded instead, the convening
Round Table Conference. of a Constituent Assembly elected on the
basis of adult franchise to frame a
The Government of India Act, 1935: constitution for an Independent India.
The Simon Commission report submitted in Quit India Movement (1942):
1930 formed the basis for the Government On August 8, 1942, the Congress in its
of India Act 1935. The new Government of meeting at Bombay passed a resolution
India Act received the royal assent on known as 'Quit India' resolution, whereby
August 4, 1935. Gandhiji asked the British to quit India and
The Act continued and extended all the gave a call for 'Do or die' to his
existing features of the Indian constitution. countrymen. On August 9, 1942, Gandhiji
Popular representation, which went back to was arrested but the other leaders continued
1892, dyarchy and ministerial responsibility, the revolutionary struggle. Violence spread
which dated from 1921, provincial throughout the country, several government
autonomy, whose chequered history went officers were destroyed and damaged,
back to eighteenth century presidencies, telegraph wires were cut and communication
communal representation, which first paralyzed. The movement was, however,
received recognition in 1909, and the crushed by the government.
safeguards devised in 1919, were all Cabinet Mission Plan (1946):
continued and in most cases extended. But The struggle for freedom entered a decisive
in addition there were certain new principles phase in the year 1945-46. The British Prime
introduced. It provided for a federal type of Minister, Lord Atlee, made a declaration on
government. Thus, the act: March 15, 1946, that British Cabinet Mission
(a) Introduced provincial autonomy would visit India to make recommendations
(b) Abolished dyarchy in provinces I regarding constitutional reforms to be
(c) Made ministers responsible to the introduced in India. The Cabinet Mission
legislative and federation at the centre which constituted of Lord Lawrence, Sir
The Act of 1935 was condemned by nearly Stafford Cripps and A.V. Alexander
all sections of Indian public opinion and was visited India and met the representatives of
80
INDIAN HISTORY
different political parties but a satisfactory Constitution of India. Mountbatten's formula

solution to the constitutional difficulties could was to divide India but retain maximum
not be found. The Mission envisaged the unity. The country would be partitioned but
establishment of a Constituent Assembly to so would be Punjab and Bengal, so that
frame the Constitution as well as an interim the limited Pakistan that emerged would
government. The Muslim League accepted meet both the Congress and the League's
the plan on June 6, 1946, while maintaining position to some extent. The League's
its rights of striving for a separate Muslim position on Pakistan was conceded in that it
state. The Congress also partially accepted would be created, but the Congress position
the plan. on unity would be taken into account to
Interim Government (1946): make Pakistan as small as possible. He laid
On September 2, 1946, an interim down detailed principles for the partition of
government was formed. Congress members the country and speedy transfer of political
led by Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru joined it but powers in the form of dominion status to the
the Muslim League did not as it withdrew its newly formed dominions of India and
earlier acceptance of the Cabinet Mission Pakistan. Its acceptance by the Congress
Plan. and the Muslim' League resulted in the birth
Formation of Constituent Assembly of Pakistan.
(1946): The Indian Independence Act, 1947:
The Constituent Assembly met on December The Bill containing the provisions of the
9, 1946, and Dr. Rajendra Prasad was Mountbatten Plan of June 3, 1947, was
elected its President. The Muslim League did introduced in the British Parliament and
not join the Assembly. passed as the Indian Independence Act,
Mountbatten Plan (1947): 1947. The Act laid down detailed measures
In March 1947, Lord Mountbatten replaced for the partition of India and speedy transfer
Lord Wavell. He announced his plan on of political powers to the new government of
June 3, 1947. It offered a key to the political India and Pakistan.
and constitutional deadlock created by the Partition of India (1947):
refusal of the Muslim League to join the In accordance with the Indian Independence
Constituent Assembly formed to frame the Act, 1947, India was partitioned on August
81
INDIAN HISTORY
15, 1947 into India and Pakistan. The Act Jatindranath Mukherjee (Bagha Jatin) in
made India and Pakistan independent 1910
dominions. Bloodshed and violence marked Bagha Jatin was one of the top leaders in
the exodus of refugees. The state of Kashmir Jugantar. He was arrested, along with
acceded to the Indian Union, after the several other leaders, in connection with the
raiders were helped by Pakistan, in October Howrah conspiracy case. Jugantar, along
1947. Lord Mountbatten was appointed with other revolutionary groups, and aided
the Governor-General of free1ndia and by Indians abroad, planned an armed revolt
M.A. Jinnah the first Governor-General against the British rulers during the First
of Pakistan. World War. After the First World War
Important Associations Jugantar supported Gandhi in the Non-
and Conspiracies Cooperation Movement and many of their
Anushilan Samiti leaders were in the Congress. Still, the group
Established by Pramathanath Mitra it continued its revolutionary activities, a
became one of the most organised notable event being the Chittagong armoury
revolutionary associations, especially in the raid.
Eastern Bengal where the Dhaka Uttar Pradesh
Anushilan Samiti had several branches Hindustan Socialist Republican
and carried out major activities. Jugantar Association
was initially formed by an inner circle of the Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev Thapar, and
Kolkata Anushilan Samiti. Jugantar: Shivaram Rajguru
Barin Ghosh was the main leader. Along Hindustan Republican Association
with 21 revolutionaries including Bagha (HRA) was established in October 1924 in
Jatin, he started to collect arms and Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh by revolutionaries’
explosives and manufactured bombs. The likeRamprasad Bismil, Jogesh Chatterjee,
attempted murder of district Judge Chandrashekhar Azad, Yogendra Shukla and
Kingsford of Muzaffarpur by Khudiram Bose Sachindranath Sanyal. The aim of the party
and Prafulla Chaki (30 April 1908) initiated was to organise armed revolution to end the
a police investigation that led to the arrest colonial rule and establish a Federal Republic
of many of the revolutionaries. of the United States of India. The Kakori
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INDIAN HISTORY
train robbery was a notable act of mutiny by school teachers. They decided to cut down
this group. The Kakori case led to the the electric pylons supplying electricity to
hanging of Ashfaqullah Khan, Ramprasad Mumbai city. From September 1942 through
Bismil, Roshan Singh, Rajendra Lahiri. The November 1942 they felled 11 pylons,
Kakori case was a major setback for the paralyzing the industries and railways.
group. However, the group was soon South India
reorganised under the leadership of The uprising against the British was
Chandrashekhar Azad and with members like evidenced at Halagali (Mudhol taluk of
Bhagat Singh, Bhagwati Charan Vohra and Bagalkot district). The prince of Mudhol,
Sukhdev on 9 and 10 September 1928– and Ghorpade, had accepted British overlordship.
the group was now christened Hindustan But the Bedas (hunters), a martial
Socialist Republican Association (HSRA) community, were seething with
In Lahore on 17 December dissatisfaction under the new dispensation.
1928, Bhagat Singh, Azad and Rajguru The British proclaimed the Disarming Act of
assassinated Saunders, a police official 1857 whereby men possessing fire arms had
involved in deadly lathi-charge on Lala to register them and secure a license before
Lajpat Rai. Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar 10 November 1857. Babaji Nimbalkar, a
Dutt threw a bomb inside the Central soldier thrown out of job from Satara Court,
Legislative Assembly. The Assembly Bomb had advised these people not to lose their
Case trial followed. Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev hereditary right to own arms.
Thapar and Shivaram Rajguru were hanged One of the leaders of the Bedas, Jadgia, was
on 23 March 1931. invited by the administrator at Mudhol and
Maharashtra was persuaded to secure a license on 11
Kotwal Dasta November, though Jadgia had not asked for
Veer Bhai Kotwal alias Veer Bhai Kotwal it. The administrator's expectation that
during Quit India Movement formed group of others would follow Jadgia was belied. So he
underground mercenaries called "Kotwal sent his agents to Halagali on 15 and 20
Dasta", a parallel government in the Karjat November and again on 21. But the
taluka of Thane district. They were about 50 entreaties of the agents did not succeed, and
in numbers including farmers and voluntary the agents sent on 21 November were
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INDIAN HISTORY
attacked by Jadgia and Baalya, another the Collector of Tirunelveli, Robert Ashe, was
leader, and they were forced to return. killed by R. Vanchi Aiyer, who subsequently
Another agent sent on 25 November was not committed suicide, which was the only
allowed to enter the village. instance of a political assassination by a
Meanwhile, the Bedas and other armed men revolutionary in South India.
from the neighbouring villages of Mantur, Outside India
Boodni and Alagundi assembled at Halagali. India House
The administrator reported the matter to The India House was an informal
Major Malcolm, the Commander at the Indian nationalist organization that existed in
nearby army headquarters, who sent Col. London between 1905 and 1910. Initially
Seton Karr to Halagali on 29 November. begun by Shyamji Krishna Varma as a
The insurgents, numbering 500, did not residence in High gate, in North London, for
allow the British to enter Halagali. There was Indian students to promote nationalist views
a fight during the night. On 30 November, and work, the house became a centre for
th
Major Malcolm came with 29 Regiment from intellectual political activities, and rapidly
Bagalkot. They set fire to the village and developed to be an organization that became
many insurgents died, including Babaji a meeting ground for radical nationalists
Nimbalkar. The British, who had a bigger among Indian students in Britain at the time,
army and better arms, arrested 290 and of the most prominent centres for
insurgents; and of those 29 were tried and revolutionary Indian nationalism outside
11 were hanged at Mudhol on 11 December, India. The Indian Sociologist published by
and six others, including Jadagia and Baalya the house was a noted platform for anti-
were hanged at Halagali on 14 December colonial work and was banned in India as
1857. No prince or jagirdar was involved in "seditious literature".
this uprising, but it was the common The India house was the beginnings of
soldiers. Violent revolutionary activities a number of noted Indian revolutionaries and
never took firm root in South India. The only nationalists, most famously V.D. Savarkar,
violent act attributed to the revolutionaries as well as others of the like of V.N.
was the assassination of Collector of Chatterjee, Lala Har Dayal, V.V.S. Iyer, M. P.
Tirunelveli (Tinnevelly). On 17 June 1911, T. Acharya who were, over the next decades,
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INDIAN HISTORY
key members of revolutionary conspiracies in party and promoter of the Gadar newspaper.
India as well as the founding fathers of The Komagata Maru incident in 1914
Indian Communism. The house came to be inspired several thousand Indians residing in
the focus of Scotland Yard's work against the USA to sell their businesses and rush
Indian sedetionists, as well as the focus of home to participate in the anti-British
work for the nascent Indian Political activities in India. The party had active
Intelligence Office. India house ceased to be members in India, Mexico, Japan, China,
potent organisation after its liquidation in the Singapore, Thailand, Philippines, Malaya,
wake of the assassination of William Hutt Indo-China and Eastern and Southern Africa.
Curzon Wyllie by a member of the India During World War I, it was among the chief
House by the name of Madan Lal Dhingra. participants of the Hindu German
This event marked the beginnings of London Conspiracy.
Police's crackdown on the activities of the Berlin Committee
house and a number of its activists and The "Berlin committee for Indian
patrons, including Shyamji Krishna Varma independence" was established in 1915 by
and Bhikaji Cama moved to Europe from Virendra Nath Chattopadhya, including
where they carried on works in support of Bhupendra Nath Dutt & Lala Hardayal under
Indian nationalism. Some Indian students, "Zimmerman plan" with the full backing of
including Har Dayal, moved to the United German foreign office.
States. The network that the House founded Their goal was mainly to achieve the
was key in the nationalist revolutionary following four objectives:
conspiracy in India during World War I. 1: Mobilize Indian revolutionaries abroad.
Gadar Party 2: Incite rebellion among Indian troops
Gadar party was a predominantly Sikh stationed abroad.
organization that started operating abroad in 3: Send volunteers and arms to India.
1913 with the view to do-away with the 4: Even to organized an armed invasion of
British rule in India. The party collaborated British India to gain India's independence
with revolutionaries inside India and helped and sent British back to home.
them get arms and ammunition. Lala
Hardayal was a prominent leader of the
85
INDIAN HISTORY
Pre World War I into the Viceroy’s Howdah when the

Alipore bomb conspiracy case ceremonial procession moved through the
A wing of the Cellular Jail, Port Blair Chandini Chowk suburb of Delhi. The Viceroy
Several leaders of the Jugantar party escaped with his injuries, along with Lady
including Aurobindo Ghosh were arrested in Hardinge, although the Mahout was killed. In
connection with bomb-making activities in the aftermath of the event, efforts were
Kolkata. Several of the activists were made to destroy the Bengali and Punabi
deported to the Andaman Cellular Jail. revolutionary underground, which came
Howrah gang case under intense pressure for some time. Rash
Most of the eminent Jugantar leaders Behari successfully evaded capture for nearly
including Bagha Jatin alias Jatindra Nath three years, becoming actively involved in
Mukherjee who were not arrested earlier, the Ghadar conspiracy before it was
were arrested in 1910, in connection with uncovered, and fleeing to Japanin 1916.
the murder of Shamsul Alam. Thanks to The investigations in the aftermath of the
Bagha Jatin's new policy of a decentralised assassination attempt led to the Delhi
federated action, most of the accused were Conspiracy trial. Although Basant Kumar
released in 1911. Biswas was convicted of having thrown the
bomb and executed, along with Amir Chand
Delhi-Lahore conspiracy case and Avadh Behari for their roles in the
The Delhi Conspiracy case, also known as conspiracy, the true identity of the person
the Delhi-Lahore Conspiracy, hatched in who threw the bomb is not known to this
1912, planned to assassinate the then day.
Viceroy of India, Lord Hardinge, on the World War I
occasion of transferring the capital of British Indo-German Conspiracy
India from Calcutta to New Delhi. Involving The Indo-German Conspiracy, also referred
revolutionary underground in Bengal and to as the Hindu-German Conspiracy or the
headed by Rash Behari Bose along with Ghadar conspiracy (or Ghadr conspiracy),
Sachin sanyal, the conspiracy culminated on was formulated during World War I between
the attempted assassination on 23 December Indian Nationalists in India, United States
1912 when a home-made bomb was thrown and Germany, the Irish Republicans, and the
86
German Foreign office to initiate a Pan- in Bengal, increasingly closely linked with the
Indian rebellion against the Raj with German unrests in Punjab, was significant enough to
support between 1914 and 1917, during nearly paralyse the regional administration.
World War I. The most famous amongst a With outlines of German links with the Indian
number of plots planned to foment unrest revolutionary movement already in place as
and trigger a Pan-Indian mutiny in February early as 1912, the main conspiracy was
1915, in the British Indian Army from Punjab formulated between the Ghadar Party in
to Singapore, to overthrow The Raj in the United States, the Berlin Committee in
Indian subcontinent. This conspiracy was Germany, Indian revolutionary underground
ultimately thwarted at the last moment as in India, Sinn Féinand the German Foreign
British intelligence successfully infiltrated the Office through the consulate in San Francisco
Ghadar movement and arrested key figures. at the beginning of World War I. A number of
The failed Singapore mutiny remains a failed attempts were made at mutiny, among
famous part of this plot while mutinies in them the February mutiny plan and the
other smaller units and garrisons within Singapore mutiny. This movement was
India were also crushed. suppressed by means of a massive
World War I began with an unprecedented international counter-intelligence operation
outpouring of loyalty and goodwill towards and draconian political acts (including the
the United Kingdom from within the Defence of India act 1915) that lasted nearly
mainstream political leadership, contrary to ten years. Other notable events that formed
initial British fears of an Indian revolt. India a part of the conspiracy include the Annie
contributed massively to the British war Larsen arms plot, the Mission to Kabul that
effort by providing men and resources. also attempted to rally Afghanistan against
About 1.3 million Indian soldiers and British India. The Mutiny of the Connaught
labourers served in Europe, Africa, and the Rangers in India, as well as by some
Middle East, while both the Indian accounts, the Black Tom explosion in 1916 is
government and the princes sent large also considered minor events linked to the
supplies of food, money, and ammunition. conspiracy.
However, Bengal and Punjab remained The Indo-Irish-German alliance and the
hotbeds of anti colonial activities. Terrorism conspiracy were the target of a worldwide
87
INDIAN HISTORY
intelligence effort by the British intelligence Deoband leaders then in Afghanistan, to

agencies which was ultimately successful in Mahmud al Hasan another leaders then in
preventing further attempts and plans, and Persia. The letters were written in Silk cloth,
in the aftermath of the Annie Larsen affair, hence the name of the Silk Letter
successfully directed the American Conspiracy.
intelligence agencies to arrest key figures at Between the wars
the time she entered World War I in 1917. Chittagong armoury raid
The conspiracy led to the Lahore conspiracy Surya Sen led Indian
case in India and the Hindu German revolutionaries to raid the armoury of police
Conspiracy Trial in the USA, of which the and auxiliary forces and to cut all
latter at the time was one of the longest and communication lines in Chittagong on 18
most expensive trials in that country. Largely April 1930. After successfully completing the
subdued and suppressed by the end of the raid, revolutionaries establish Provincial
war, the movement posed a significant National Government of India, after this in
threat to British India during World War I deadly clash with Government troops in
and its aftermath, and was a major factor Jalalabad Hill, revolutionaries scattered
guiding The Raj's India policy. themselves in small groups and Some
Tehrek e Reshmi Rumal revolutionaries were soon killed or arrested
During the war, the Pan- in a gun-fight with the police. Scores of
Islamist movement also attempted to Government officials, policeman were also
overthrow the Raj, and came to form a close killed. Pritilata Waddedar led the attack on
liaison with the Indo-German Conspiracy. European club in Chittagong in 1932. Surya
Out of the Deoband movement arose the Sen was arrested in 1933 and was hanged
Tehrek-e-Reshmi Rumal. The Deobandi on 8 January 1934.
leaders attempted to begin a pan-Islamic Central Assembly Bomb Case (1929)
insurrection in British India during World War Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt threw a
I by seeking support from Ottoman Turkey, bomb in the assembly house along with
Imperial Germany, Afghanistan. The plot was leaflets stating their revolutionary philosophy
uncovered by Punjab CID with the capture of – 'to make the deaf hear'. Bhagat Singh,
letters from Ubaidullah Sindhi, one of the Sukhdev and Rajguru were hanged and
88
INDIAN HISTORY
several others faced the verdict of Jail on 14 May 1934. He was only 28 years
imprisonment. Batukeshwar Dutt outlived all old.
his comrades and died in July 1965 in Delhi. On 27 February 1931, Chandrasekar Azad
died in a shootout when cornered by the
All of them cremated in Ferozpur (Punjab,
police.
India). It is unclear of the eventual fate of the
Baikuntha Shukla, the great nationalist was Association, but the common understanding
hanged for murdering Phanindrananth Ghosh is that it disbanded with the death of
who had become a government approver Chandrashekar Azad and the hanging of its
which led to hanging of Bhagat Singh, popular activists: Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev
Sukhdev and Rajguru. He was a nephew of and Rajguru.
Yogendra Shukla. Baikunth Shukla was also Dalhousie Square Bomb Case
initiated into the independence struggle at a A bomb was thrown on the Calcutta Police
young age taking active part in the 'Salt Commissioner, Charles Tegart on 25 August
Satyagraha' of 1930. He was associated with 1930.
revolutionary organisations like the Kakori train robbery
Hindustan Seva Dal and Hindustan Socialist Chandrasekhar Azad, Ramprasad Bismil,
Republican Association. The execution of the Jogesh Chatterjee, Ashfaqullah Khan,
great Indian revolutionaries Bhagat Singh, Banwari lal and their accomplices
Rajguru and Sukhdev in 1931 as a result of participated in the robbery of treasury
their trial in the 'Lahore conspiracy case' was money that was being transported by train.
an event that shook the entire country. The looting took place between Kakori
Phanindra Nath Ghosh, hitherto a key station and Alamnagar, within 40 miles (64
member of the Revolutionary Party had km) of Lucknow on 9 August 1925. Police
treacherously betrayed the cause by turning started an intense man-hunt and arrested a
an approver, giving evidence, which led to large number of rebels and tried them in the
the execution. Baikunth was commissioned Kakori case. Ashfaqullah Khan, Ramprasad
to plan the execution of Ghosh as an act of Bismil, Roshan Singh, Rajendra Lahiriwere
ideological vendetta which he carried out hanged, four others were sent to the Cellular
successfully on 9 November 1932. He was Jail in Port Blair, Andaman for life and
arrested and tried for the killing. Baikunth seventeen others were sentenced to long
was convicted and hanged in Gaya Central terms of imprisonment.
Name Activity
Khudiram Bose The Muzaffarpur killing
Chandra Shekhar Azad Kakori Conspiracy
Ram Prasad Bismil Kakori Conspiracy
Bhagat Singh Central Assembly Bomb Case 1929
Trichy: opp BSNL office, Juman Center, 43 Promenade Road, Cantonment. Mob: 9360703030
89
Salem: #209, Muthu Plaza, Junction Main Rd, State Bank Colony, Salem. Mob: 7305958080
Coimbatore: #545, First Floor, Diwan Bahadur Road, RS Puram. Mob: 7667673030 / 7667678080
INDIAN HISTORY
Udham Singh Shooting in Caxton Hall

Hemu Kalani Sabotage of Railway Track
Ashfaqulla Khan Kakori Conspiracy
Sachindra Bakshi Kakori Conspiracy
Manmath Nath Gupta Kakori Conspiracy
Vasudev Balwant Phadke Deccan Rebellion
Anant Laxman Kanhere Shooting of British Officer Jackson
Krishnaji Gopal Karve Shooting of British Officer Jackson
Ganesh Damodar Savarkar Armed movement against the British
Vinayak Damodar Savarkar Father of Hindu Nationalism
Bagha Jatin The Howrah-Sibpur conspiracy case, Hindu–German Conspiracy
Batukeshwar Dutt Central Assembly Bomb Case 1929
Sukhdev Thapar Central Assembly Bomb Case 1929
Shivaram Hari Rajguru Murder of a British police officer, J. P. Saunders
Roshan Singh Kakori Conspiracy, Bamrauli Action
Pritilata Waddedar Pahartali European Club attack
Jatindra Nath Das Hunger strike and Lahore conspiracy case
Durgawati Devi (Durga Running the bomb factory 'Himalayan Toilets'
Bhabi)
Bhagwati Charan Vohra Philosophy of Bomb
Madan Lal Dhingra Curzon Wyllie's assassination
Alluri Sitarama Raju Rampa Rebellion
World War II occurrences and hardly any large scale

The scenario changed with the years. The planned terrorism took place that could
British were thinking to quit India and shake the British administration. Meanwhile,
religious politics came into play. The basic Subhas Chandra Bose was organising an
political background of revolutionary ideas Indian National Army outside India and
seemed to evolve in a new direction. The leading the army towards India, while at the
organised revolutionary movements can be same time the Congress was negotiating
said to have nearly ceased by 1936, apart with the British. Finally India was
from some stray sparks, like the killing of Sir independent on 15 August 1947, virtually by
Michael O'Dwyer, generally held responsible non-violence against the British but with
for the Amritsar Massacre, on 13 March much of bloodshed, rioting and violence
1940, by Udham Singh in London. among the countrymen (and near-future
During the Quit India movement of 1942, neighbours) during the partition, which was
several other activities took place in different quite shocking to the past revolutionaries
parts of India. However, those were discrete and also to Gandhi.
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INDIAN HISTORY
Governor Generals of Bengal  Separate the revenue administration

1. Warren Hastings (1772-1785) from the judiciary
 First Governor General of Bengal  Police Reforms: Each district was
 Introduce Dual Government of Bengal divided into 400 sq. miles and placed under
to an end by the Regulating Act, 1773. a police superintendent.
 Deprived Zamindars of their judicial  The Civil service was brought into
power Civil and Criminal court were existence.
established. 3. Sir John Shore (1793-1798)
 Maintenance of records was made  Sir John Shore followed a policy of non-
compulsory. intervention in the affairs of the native states
 Introduced “Quinquennial Settlement” for  Prohibition of female infanticide.
Land Revenue. 4. Lord Wellesley (1798-1805) – Tiger
 Supreme Court was established and First of Bengal
CJI was Elijah Impey.  Adopted the policy of Subsidiary
 Also known as Father of Judicial Alliance - a system to keep the Indian
Reforms in India rulers under the control of British and to
 Great patron of oriental learning make them a paramount power.
 Founded the Asiatic Society of Bengal  The states that accepted this policy were
with William Jones in 1784. Nizam of Hyderabad, the ruler of Mysore,
 He wrote introduction to the English the Raja of Tanjore, the Nawab at
translation of ‘The Gita’ by Awadh, the Peshwa, the Bhonsle Raja of
Charles Wilkins. Berar, the Scindia, the Rajputs of
 Impeachment proceedings Jodhpur, Jaipur, etc.
started against him when he returned  Formed Madras Presidency annexation
on the charges of taking bridge. of the Kingdoms of Tanjore and Carnatic.

 After a trial of 7 years, he was finally 5. George Barlow (1805-1807)
acquitted.  He followed a policy of non-intervention
2. Lord Cornwallis (1786-1793) and the only important event of his reign
 Permanent Settlement of Bengal was the mutiny at Vellore in 1806.
(also called Zamindari System)
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INDIAN HISTORY
6. Lord Minto 1 (1807-1813) Governor Generals of India

 Concluded the treaty of Amritsar with 1. Lord William Bentinck (1828-1835)
Maharaja Ranjit Singh (1809).  Carried out the social reforms like
 Charter Act 1813 was passed Prohibition of Sati (1829) and Elimination
7. Lord Hastings (1813-1823) of Thugs (1830)
 Gorkhas in a war from 1814 to 1816 and  Made English as the medium of higher
the Treaty of Saguali was signed in 1816. education in the country (on Macaulay
 Bengal Tenancy Act was passed in recommendation)
1822 by which the cultivators had hereditary  Suppressed female infanticide and child
right of possession of the land as long as sacrifice.
they paid the rent.  Charter Act 1833 was passed made
 First Tea(Assam) and Coffee(West him the First Governor General of India.
Bengal) plantation was done. Introduced  Before that, his designation was
Ryotwari System. Governor General of Bengal.
rd
 Formed Bombay Presidency by the 3 2. Sir Charles Metcalfe (1835-1836)
Maratha War.  Abolished all restrictions in vernacular
 The first Vernacular paper was published press (called Liberator of the Press).
called 'Samachar Darpan' in the year 1823 3. Lord Auckland (1836-1842)
8. Lord Amherst (1823-1828)  The most important event of his reign
 The First Burmese war started in (1824 was the First Afghan War (1839-1842)
– 1826). which proved to be a disaster for the English.
 The treaty of Yandaboo was concluded in 4. Lord Ellenborough (1842-1844)
1826 was of great advantage for the British  His period witnessed the end of the Anglo
as they could now penetrate deep into North Afghan relations, annexation of Sind in 1843.
east.  Abolished Slavery in 1843.
 Barrackpore Mutiny happened(1824). 5. Lord Hardinge I (1844-1848)
 First Sikh war 1845-1846 concluded
with Treaty of Lahore 1846
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INDIAN HISTORY
6. Lord Dalhousie (1848-1856)  The University of Calcutta, Bombay and

 Introduced the Doctrine of Lapse and Madras were established in 1857.
captured Satara (1848), Jaipur and  Indian Councils Act was passed in
Sambhalpur (1849), Udaipur (1852), Jhansi 1861.
(1853) and Nagpur (1854). 2. Lord Elgin (1862-1863)
 Opened the First Indian Railway in  Wahabi movement broke out.They
1853(From Bombay to Thane). were defeated in 1863.
 Laid out the telegraph lines in  Inauguration of High Court judicature in
1853(First was From Calcutta to Agra). Bengal.
 Established the postal system on the  Transfer of Indian navy to admiralty.
modern lines through the length and breadth  Ambala campaign of NWFP.
of the country, which mode communication  Amalgamation of the Supreme Court and
easier. Sadr courts into High Courts.
 Started the Public Works Department. 3. Lord Lawrence (1864-1869)
 Many bridges were constructed and work  Telegraphic communication was opened
on Grand Trunk Road was started. with Europe.
 The harbors of Karachi, Bombay and  High court was established at Calcutta,
Calcutta were also developed. Bombay and Madras in 1865.
 Made Shimla as the summer capital.  Expanded canal work and railways.
 Started Engineering College at  Created the Indian Forest
Roorkee. Department.
 Encouraged science, forestry, commerce, 4. Lord Mayo (1869-1872)
mineralogy and industry.  Started the process of financial
 In 1854, ‘Wood’s Dispatch’ was decentralization in India.
passed, which provided for the properly  Established the Rajkot College at
articulated system of education from the Kathiawar and Mayo College at Ajmer for
primary school to the university. the Indian Princes.
 Due to Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar’s  For the first time in Indian history, a
efforts, remarriage of widow was legalized by census was held in 1871.
Widow Remarriage Act, 1856.  Organised the Statistical Survey of
Viceroys of India India.
1. Lord Canning (1856-1862)  He was the only Viceroy to be murdered
 The last Governor General and the First in office by a Pathan convict in the
Viceroy of India Andamans in 1872.
 Mutiny took place in his time. 5. Lord Northbrook (1872-1876)
 On November 1858, the rule was passed  In 1872 Kuka revolt took place.
to the crown.  In 1873 the Simla Conference and
 Withdrew Doctrine of Lapse. famine took place in Bihar.
 Trial of Gaekwad of Baroda
93
INDIAN HISTORY
 Visit of Prince of Wales in 1875.  Appointment of Durand Commission to

6. Lord Lytton (1876-1880) define the line between British India and
 Known as the Viceroy of reverse Afghanistan.
characters. 10. Lord Elgin II (1894-1899)
 Organished the Grand ‘Delhi Durbar’ in  The Bubonic Plague that started at
1877 to decorate Queen Victoria with the Bombay in 1896, Great famine of 1896-
title of ‘Kaiser-I-Hind’. 1897
 Arms Act (1878) made it mandatory for  Lyall Commission was appointed.
Indians to acquire license for arms. 11. Lord Curzon (1899-1905)
 Passed the infamous Vernacular Press  Passed the Indian University Act 1904
Act (1878). in which official control over the Universities
7. Lord Ripon (1880-1884) was increased.
 Liberal person, who sympathized with  Partition of Bengal (October 16,
Indians. 1905) into two provinces – Bengal
 Repealed the Vernacular Press Act (proper), East Bengal and Assam.
(1882).  Appointed a Police Commission under
 Took steps to improve primary and Sir Andrew Frazer to enquire into the
secondary education (on William Hunter police administration of every province.
Commission’s recommendations).  The risings of the frontier tribes in 1897-
 Factory Act I (1881), aimed at 98 led him to create the North Western
prohibiting child labour. Frontier Province (NWEP).
 Passed the Bill (1883) which enabled  Passed the Ancient Monuments
Indian district magistrates to try European Protection Act (1904), to restore India’s
Criminals. But this was withdrawn later. culture heritage.Thus the Archaeological
8. Lord Dufferin (1884-1888) Survey of India was established.
 Third Burmese War in 1885  Passed the Indian Coinage and Paper
 Indian National Congress (1885) was Currency Act (1899). Extended railways to
formed during his tenure. a great extent
9. Lord Lansdowne (1888-1894) 12. Lord Minto (1905-1910)
 Factory Act II (1891) granted a  Various acts were passed to curb the
weekly holiday and stipulated working hours revolutionary activities.
for women and children, although it failed to  Extremists like Lala Lajpat Rai and Ajit
address concerns such as work hour for Singh (in May, 1907) and Bal Gangadhar
men. Tilak (in July, 1908) were sent to Mandalay
 Categorization of Civil Service into jail in Burma.
Imperial, Provincial and Subordinate.  The Indian Council Act of 1909 or the
 Indian Council Act 1892 was passed. minto-morley Reforms was passed.
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INDIAN HISTORY
13. Lord Hardinge (1910-1916)  Communal riots of 1923-25 in Multan,

 Held a durbar in December, 1911 to Amritsar, Delhi, etc.
celebrate the coronation of King George V.  Swami Shraddhanand a great
 Partition of Bengal was cancelled (1911) nationalist and a leader of the Arya
 Capital shifted from Calcutta to Delhi Samajists, was murdered in communalorgy.
(1911). 16. Lord Irwin (1926-1931)
 A bomb was thrown at him, but he  Simon Commission visited India in
escaped unhurt (Dec.13, 1919). 1929.
 Gandhiji came back to India from  Congress passed the Indian Resolution
South Africa (1915). in 1929.
 Annie Besant announced the Home Rule  Dandi March (March5, 1930).
Movement  First Round Table Conference held in
14. Lord Chelmsford (1916-1921) England in 1930.
 August Declaration of 1917, whereby  Gandhi-Irwin Pact (March5, 1931) was
control over the Indian Government would signed and Civil Disobedience Movement was
be gradually transferred to Indian people. withdrawn.
 The Government of India Act in 1919  Martyrdom of Jatin Das after 64 days
(Montague-Chelmsford) was passed. hunger strike (1929).
 Rowlatt Act of 1919, Jallianwala Bagh 17. Lord Willingdon (1931-1936)
Massacre (April13, 1919), Non-Cooperation  Second Round Table Conference in
Movement (1920). London in 1931.
 An Indian Sir S.P. Sinha was appointed  Communal Award (August16, 1932)
as the Governor of Bengal. assigned seats to different religious
 A Women’s University was founded at communities.Gandhiji went on an epic fast in
Poona in 1916. protest against this division.
 Saddler Commission was appointed in  Third Round Table Conference in 1932.
1917 to envisage new educational policy.  Poona Pact was signed.
15. Lord Reading (1921-1926)  Government of India Act (1935) was
 Rowlatt act was repealed along with the passed.
Press act of 1910. 18. Lord Linlithgow (1936-1944)
 Suppressed non-cooperation movement.  Government of India Act enforced in the
 Prince of Wales visited India in provinces.
November, 1921.  Congress ministries formed in 8 out of 11
 Moplah rebellion (1921) took place in provinces.
Kerala.  The Muslim League observed the day as
 Ahmadabad session of 1921. ‘Deliverance Day’ (22December).
 Formation of Swaraj Party.  Churchill became the British PM in
 Vishwabharti University started May, 1940. He declared that the Atlantic
functioning in 1922. Charter (issued jointly by the UK and US,
95
INDIAN HISTORY
stating to give sovereign rights to those who

have been forcibly deprived of them) does
not apply to India.
 Outbreak of World War 2 in 1939.
 Cripps Mission in 1942, Quit India
Movement plan (May16, 1942).
19. Lord Wavell (1944-1947)
 Shimla Conference on June25, 1945 Sponsored by
with Indian National Congress and Muslim WWW.PAVITHRAN.NET
League, failed.
 Elections to the constituent assembly
were held and an Interim Government was
appointed under Nehru.
 First meeting of the constituent assembly
was held on December 9, 1946.
20. Lord Mountbatten (March 1947-
August 1947)
 Last viceroy of British India and the First
Governor General of Free India.
 Partition of India decided by the June 3
plan.
 Indian Independence Act passed by
the British Parliament on July 4, 1947 by
which India became independence on August
15, 1947.
 Retired in June 1948 and was succeeded
by C. Rajgopalachari.
21. C.Rajgopalachari (1947-1950)
 The first and last Indian Governor
General of Independent India.
96
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INDIAN POLITY
POLITY the Eleventh session of the Constituent

Making of the Indian Constitution Assembly.
1. The constituent assembly was formed on 9. This date finds mention in the Preamble to
the recommendation of the Cabinet the Indian Constitution thus IN OUR
Missionwhich visited India in 1946. CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY this twenty‐sixth
2. The Constituent Assembly met for the first day of November, 1949, do HEREBY ADOPT,
time in New Delhi on 9 December, 1946 in ENACT AND GIVE TO OURSELVES THIS
the Constitution Hall which is now known as CONSTITUTION.
the Central Hall of Parliament House. 10. The honourable members appended their
3. Mr. Sachchidanand Sinha was elected signatures to the constitution on 24 January,
provisional chairman of the assembly. 1950.
4. Dr Rajendra Prasad later became the 11. The Constitution of India came into force
permanent chairman of the constituent on 26 January, 1950. On that day, the
assembly. Constituent Assembly ceased to exist,
5. On 13 December, 1946, Pandit Jawaharlal transforming itself into the Provisional
Nehru moved the Objectives Resolution Parliament of India until a new Parliament
which resolved to proclaim India as an was constituted in 1952.
Independent Sovereign Republic and to draw THE PREAMBLE
up for her future governance a Constitution.  The Indian Constitution starts with the
6. The Constituent Assembly took almost preamble which outlines the main objectives
three years (two years, eleven months and of the Constitution. It reads:
seventeen days to be precise) to complete  "WE, THE PEOPLE OF INDIA, having
its historic task of drafting the Constitution solemnly resolved to constitute India into a
for Independent India. SOVEREIGN, SOCIALIST, SECULAR,
7. The Constituent Assembly held eleven DEMOCRATIC, REPUBLIC and to secure all
sessions covering a total of 165 days. its citizens."
8. India is governed in terms of the  JUSTICE- social economic and political.
Constitution, which was adopted on 26  LIBERTY- of thought, expression, belief,
November, 1949, which was the last day of faith and worship.

INDIAN POLITY
 EQUALITY- of status and of opportunity,  The Constitution of India is the supreme

and to promote among them all. law of the country.
 FRATERNITY assuring the dignity of the  The Constitution has established India as
individual and unity and integrity of the a Socialist and Secular country.
nation.  The Constitution provides for single
 IN OUR CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY, this citizenship in India.
twenty sixth day of November, 1949, do  The Constitution declares certain
HEREBY ADOPT, "ENACT AND GIVE TO fundamental rights of the individual.
OURSELVES HIS CONSTITUTION ".  The Constitution introduces the principle
 Idea of preamble borrowed from of Universal Adult Franchise.
Constitution of US.  The Constitution has made provision to
 The words ‘SOCIALIST’, ‘SECULAR’ and provide an independent and impartial
‘UNITY’ &‘INTEGRITY’ were added by the Judiciary. The Supreme Court acts as the
42nd Amendment in 1976. guardian of the Constitution and is the
 Preamble is not justifiable. highest court of appeal.
SALIENT FEATURES OF THE  The Constitution has conferred on the
CONSTITUTION: Judiciary the power of Judicial Review.
 The Constitution of India is a written  The Constitution of India is federal in
document. It is the second lengthiest and nature with unitary features.
the most comprehensive of all the written  The Constitution recognises the President
Constitution of the world. as the Constitutional head of the Union.
 The Constitution, as originally adopted,  The Constitution of India has provided
had 22 Parts, 395 Articles and 9 Schedules. Directive Principles of State Policy to be
 The Indian Constitution is partly rigid and followed by the Government to secure a truly
partly flexible. welfare state.
 The Constitution declares India as a  Although the Constitution has declared
Sovereign, Democratic and Republic. India as a Union of States but no State can
 The Constitution established the declare itself separate from the Indian
Parliamentary form of Government both at Union.
the Centre and the States.
3
INDIAN POLITY
 BORROWED FEATURES OF residuary powers in the

CONSTITUTION Centre, appointment of
Sources Features Borrowed state governors by the
1. Federal Scheme, Office of Centre, and advisory
Government governor, Judiciary, Public jurisdiction of the Supreme
of India Act Service Commissions, Court.
of 1935 Emergency provisions and 6. Australian Concurrent List, freedom of
administrative details. Constitution trade, commerce and inter-
2. British Parliamentary government, course, and joint sitting of
Constitution Rule of Law, legislative the two Houses of
procedure, single Parliament.
citizenship, cabinet system, 7. Weimar Suspension of Fundamental
prerogative writs, Constitution Rights during Emergency.
parliamentary privileges of Germany
and bicameralism. 8. Soviet Fundamental duties and
3. US Fundamental rights, Constitution( the ideal of justice (social,
Constitution independence of judiciary, USSR, now economic and political) in
judicial review, Russia) the Preamble.
impeachment of the 9. French Republic and the ideals of
president, removal of Constitution liberty, equality and
Supreme Court and high fraternity in the Preamble.
court judges and post of 10. South Procedure for amendment
vice-president. African of the Constitution and
4. Irish Directive Principles of State Constitution election of members of
Constitution Policy, nomination of mem- Rajya Sabha.
bers to Rajya Sabha and 11. Japanese Procedure established by
method of election of Constitution Law.
president.
5. Canadian Federation with a strong PARTS DESCRIBED IN THE
Constitution Centre, vesting of CONSTITUTION

INDIAN POLITY
Part I The Union and its territory Art. 1 to IMPORTANT ARTICLES IN THE INDIAN
4 CONSTITUTION
Part II Citizenship Art. 5 to 11 Article Specify the Fundamental Rights
Part Fundamental Rights Art. 12 to 35 12-35 available
III Article Specify the Directive Principles of
Part Directive Principles Art. 36 to 51 36-50 state policy
IV Article Specifies the Fundamental Duties
Part Fundamental Duties Art. 51A 51A of every citizen
IVA Article Procedure for impeachment
Part V The Union Art. 52 to 151 61 of the President
Part The States Art. 152 to 237 (1) When a President is to be
VI impeached for violation of the
Part Repealed by Const. (7th Constitution, the charge shall be
VII Amendment) Act,1956 preferred by either House of
Part The Union Territories Art. 239 to Parliament
VIII 242 (2) No such charge shall be
Part The Panchayats Art. 243 to 243O preferred unless
IX (a) the proposal to prefer such
Part The Muncipalities Art. 243P to charge is contained in a
IXA 243ZG resolution which has been moved
Part The Co‐operative Societies Art. after at least fourteen days
IXB 243ZH to 243ZT notice in writing signed by not
Part X The Scheduled and Tribal Areas Art. less than one fourth of the total
244 to 244A number of members of the

House has been given of their
intention to move the resolution,
and
(b) such resolution has been
passed by a majority of not less
than two thirds of the total
5
INDIAN POLITY
membership of the House Article Imposition of President’s Rule in

(3) When a charge has been so 356 states
preferred by either House of Article Amendment to the Constitution
Parliament, the other House shall 368
investigate the charge or cause Article Special status to Kashmir
the charge to be investigated and 370
the President shall have the right Article Repeals India Independence Act
to appear and to be represented 395 and Government of India Act,
as such investigation 1935
(4) If as a result of the
investigation a resolution is IMPORTANT CONSTITUTIONAL
passed by a majority of not less AMENDMENTS:
than two thirds of the total 1. First Amendment 1951: Added Ninth
membership of the House by Schedule.
which the charge was 2. Seventh Amendment 1956 Necessitated
investigated or cause to be on account of reorganization of States on a
investigated, declaring that the linguistic basis.
charge preferred against the 3. Eighth Amendment 1959 Extended special
President has been sustained, provisions for reservations of seats for SCs,
such resolution shall have the STs and Anglo – Indians in Lok Sabha and
effect of removing the President Leg.Assemblies for a period of 10 years from
from his office as from the date 1960 to 1970.
on which the resolution is so 4. The Ninth Amendment 1960 Gave effect
passed to transfer certain territories to Pakistan
Article Specifies the number of seats for following the 1958 Indo – Pak agreement.
80 the Rajya Sabha 5. The Tenth Amendment 1961 Incorporated
Article Specifies the number of seats for Dadra & Nagar Haveli as a UT.
81 the Lok Sabha 6. Twelfth Amendment 1962 Incorporated
Article Hindi as official language Goa, Daman & Diu as a UT.
343

INDIAN POLITY
7. Thirteenth Amendment 1962 Created 17. Thirty eighth Amendment 1975 Provided
Nagaland as a State. that the President can make a declaration of
8. Fourteenth Amendment 1963 Pondicherry, emergency, and the promulgation of
Karaikal, Mahe and Yanam, the former ordinances by the President,Governors and
French territories were included in the the Administrative Heads of UTs would be
schedule as UT of Pondicherry. final and could not be challenged in any
9. Eighteenth Amendment 1966 Reorganized court.It also authorized the President to
Punjab into Punjab, Haryana and UT of declare different kinds of emergencies.
Chandigarh. 18. Thirty ninth Amendment 1975 Placed
10. Twenty first Amendment 1967 Included beyond challenge in courts, the election to
Sindhi as the Fifteenth Regional language. Parliament of a person holding the office of
11. twenty second Amendment 1969 Created PM or Speaker and election of the President
a sub – state of Meghalaya within Assam. and Prime Minister.
12. Twenty third Amendment 1969 Extended 19. Forty second Amendment 1976 Provided
the reservation of seats for SC / ST and supremacy of Parliament and gave primacy
nomination of Anglo – Indians for a further to Directive Principles over Fundamental
period of 10 years (till 1 980). Rights. It also added 10 Fundamental Duties.
13. Twenty sixth Amendment 1971 New words – Socialist, Secular and Unity and
Abolished the titles and special privileges of Integrity of the Nation, were added in the
former rulers of princely states. preamble.
14. Twenty seventh Amendment 1971 20. Forty fourth Amendment 1978 The Right
Established Manipur and Tripura as States to Property was deleted from Part III. Article
and Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh as UTs. 352 was amended to provide ‘Armed
15. Thirty first Amendment 1973 Increased Rebellion’ as one of the circumstances for
the elective strength of LS from 525 to declaration of emergency.
545.The upper limit of representatives of 21. Forty fifth Amendment 1985 Extended
States went up from 500 to 525. reservation for SC / ST by another 10 years
16. Thirty sixth Amendments 1975 Made (till 1990).
Sikkim a State. 22. Fifty second Amendment 1985 Added the
Tenth Schedule (regarding anti – defection).
7
INDIAN POLITY
23. Fifty third Amendment 1986 Mizoram municipalities, reservation of seats in every
was made a state. municipality for the SC and ST, women and
24. Fifty fifth Amendment 1986 Conferred the backward classes.
statehood to Arunachal Pradesh. 31. Eighty second Amendment 2000
25. Fifty sixth Amendment 1987 Hindi Reinstalled the provision of reservation of SC
version of the Constitution of India was and STs in matters related to
accepted for all purposes. promotion.Besides, the qualifying marks for
The UT of Goa, Daman and Diu was divided passing an examination for them have also
and Goa was made a State. Daman and Diu been lowered.
remained as a UT. 32. Eighty fourth Amendment 2001
26. Sixty first Amendment 1989 Reduced the Extended freeze on Lok Sabha and State
voting age from 21 to 1 8 years for the LS as Assembly seats till 2026.
well as Assemblies. 33. Eighty sixth Amendment 2002 makes
27. Sixty first Amendment 1989 Also education a fundamental right for children in
extended reservation of seats for SC / ST till the age group of 6 – 14 years.
2000 AD. 34. Eighty seventh Amendment 2003 made
28. Seventy first Amendment 1992 Konkani, the 2001 census the basis for delimitation of
Manipuri and Nepali were included in the VIII constituencies of the Lower House of
Schedule. Parliament (Lok Sabha) and State
29. Seventy third Amendment 1993 assemblies (Vidhan Sabhas).
(Panchayati Raj Bill) Provided among other 35. Ninety first Amendment 2003 Amended
things Gram Sabha in Villages, constitution the Anti – Defection Law and also made a
of panchayats at the village and otherlevels, provision that the number of ministers in the
direct elections to all seats in panchayats Central & State Govts, cannot be more than
and reservation of seats for the SC and ST 15% of the strength of Lok Sabha &
and fixing of tenure of 5 years for respected Vidhan Sabha.
panchayats. 36. Ninety second Amendment 2003 Bodo,
30. Seventy fourth Amendment 1993 Maithili, Santhali and Dogri added into the
(Nagarpalika Bill) Provides for, among other VIII Schedule.
things, constitution of three types of

INDIAN POLITY
PRESIDENT:
Election of the 1. The President is elected by electoral college consisting of-
President: (i) the elected members of both Houses of Parliament, and
(ii) the elected members of the Legislative Assemblies of the State.[Article
54]
(States include the National Capital Territory of Delhi and the Union Territory
of Pondicherry)
2. The election of the President shall be held in accordance with the system of
proportional representation by means of the single transferable vote and the
voting at such election shall be by secret ballot.
3. There shall be uniformity in the scale of representation of the different
states at the election of the President.[Article 55]
Tenure of the The President holds office for a term of five years from the date on which he
President: enters upon his office, provided that-
1. the President may, by writing under his hand addressed to the Vice-
President, resign his office;
2. the President may, for violation of Constitution be removed from office by
impeachment in the manner provided in Article 61;
3. the President shall, notwithstanding the expiration of his term, continue to
hold office untill his successor enters upon his office.
Any resignation addressed to the Vice-president shall forwith be
communicated by him to the Speaker of the House of the People (Lok
Sabha).[Article 56]
4. The oath of office to the President is administered by the Chief Justice of
India and in his absence, by the senior most judge of the Supreme Court
available.
5. An election should be held to fill the vacancy of Presidential post before the
expiration of President’s term.[Article 62(1)]
6. When a vacancy occurs in the Presidents office due to his death, resignation
or removal or otherwise, the Vice-president acts as the President until a new
9
INDIAN POLITY
President is elected.
7. An election to fill such vacancy should be held within six months from the
date of occurrence of such vacancy.
8. A person can be re-elected to the post of the President.
Eligibility: No person shall be eligible for election as President unless he-
1. is a citizen of India,
2. has completed the age of thirty five years,
3. is qualified for election as a member of the House of the People, and
4. must not hold any office of profit under the Government of India or the
Government of any State or under any local or other authority subject to the
control of any of the said Government.[Article 58]
The President shall not be member of either House of Parliament or a House of
the Legislature of any State.[Article 59]
Salary: 1. The President is entitled to such salary, allowances and privileges as may
be determined by Parliament by law.
2. He is entitled to use his official residences as free of rent.
3. His salary and allowances are charged on the Consolidated Fund of India.
4. The salary and allowances of the President shall not be diminished during
his term of office.
Impeachment: 1. President may be impeached from his office for violation of the Constitution.
2. Either Lok Sabha or Rajya Sabha may prefer impeachment charges and
a 14 days written notice may be given signed by not less than one-fourth of
the total membership of the House.
3. The resolution of the charges for impeachment of the President should be
passed by at least two-thirds of the total membership of the House.
4. If after investigation of the charge it is declared that the charge preferred
against the President has been sustained, such resolution shall have the effect
of removing the President from his office from the date on which such
resolution is passed.
Protection The following protection is given to the President of India-

INDIAN POLITY
given to the 1. He is not answerable to any court for the exercise and performance of
President of the powers and duties of his office or for any act done or purporting to be
India: done by him in the exercise and performance of those powers and duties:
Provided that his conduct may be brought under review by any court, tribunal
or body appointed or designated by either House of Parliament for the
investigation of a charge under Article 61.
2. No criminal proceedings whatsoever can be instituted or continued
against him in any court during his term of office.
3. No process for arrest or imprisonment shall issue from any court during
his term of office.
4. No civil proceedings in which relief is claimed against him can be
instituted during his term of office in any court in respect of any act done or
purporting to be done by him in his personal capacity whether before or after
he entered upon his office as President, until the expiration of two months
next after notice in writing has been delivered to him.[Article 361]
VICE PRESIDENT:
Election: 1. The Vice-President is elected indirectly.
2. He is elected by the members of an electoral college consisting of the
members of both Houses of Parliament in accordance with the system of
proportional representation by means of the single transferable vote.
3. The voting at such election is by secret ballot.
4. The Vice-President shall not be a member of either House of
Parliament.
5. For resolving disputes and doubts relating to the election of the Vice-
President the Supreme Court has the final and exclusive jurisdiction.
Eligibility: No person shall be eligible for election as Vice-President unless he-
1. is a citizen of India,
2. has completed the age of thirty five years,
3. possess the qualification for membership of Rajya Sabha,
4. must not hold any office of profit under the Government of India or the
11
INDIAN POLITY
Government of any State or under any local or other authority subject to

the control of any of the said Government
Tenure of the 1. The Vice-President holds office for a term of five years from the date on
Vice-President: which he enters upon his office.
2. He may be writing under his hand and addressed to the President
resign his office.
3. The Vice-President can be removed from his office by a resolution of
Council of States passed by a majority of all the then members of the
Council of States and agreed to by the House of the People.
4. The Vice-President can be re-elected.
Functions: 1. He is the ex-officio Chairman of Rajya Sabha.
2. He presides over the sessions of the Rajya Sabha and has the right of
casting vote in the case of an equality of votes.
3. In the event of the occurrences of any vacancy in the office of the
President by reason of his death, resignation or otherwise, the Vice-
President shall act as President until a new President is elected and enters
upon his office.
4. When the President is unable to discharge his functions owing to
absence, illness or any other cause, the Vice-President shall discharge his
functions until the date on which the President resumes his duties.
5. When the Vice-President acts as the President, he gets the emoluments
of the President and enjoys all the powers and immunities of the
President.
COUNCIL OF MINISTERS: advice.
Constitution of Council of Ministers: 2. The Prime Minister is appointed by the
1. As per provisions in the Constitution, President and other Ministers are also
there must be a Council of Ministers with the appointed by the President on the advice of
Prime Minister as the head to aid and advice the Prime Minister. The Minister hold office
the President who shall in the exercise of his during the pleasure of the President.
functions, act in accordance with such 3. The Council of Ministers is formed as soon

INDIAN POLITY
as the Prime Minister is sworn in. budget of the Union Government and moves
4. A Minister who for any period of six demand for grants.
consecutive months is not a member of 4. The foreign policy of India is formulated
either house of Parliament shall at the by the Council of Ministers and the
expiration of the period cease to be a emergency powers of the President are
Minister. mostly exercised by the Ministers.The
5. Although the Constitution provides that duties of the Prime Minister for
the President appoints the Prime Minister, furnishing information to the President-
his choice is limited. A person cannot be a It is the duty of the Prime Minister -
Prime Minister who does not command 1. to communicate to the President all
majority in the House of the People (Lok decisions of the Council of Ministers relating
Sabha). Thus, the President has to appoint a to the administration of the affairs of the
person as Prime Minister who commands Union and proposals for legislation.
majority in the House of the People. 2. to furnish such information relating to the
6. The Council of Ministers is collectively administration of the affairs of the Union and
responsible to the House of the People (Lok proposals for legislation as the President
Sabha). may call for, and
7. A member of the Rajya Sabha can also be 3. if the President so require, to submit for
appointed the Prime Minister. the consideration of the Council of Ministers
8. At Present there are three types of any matter on which a decision has been
Minister- (i) Cabinet Minister (ii) Minister of taken by a Minister but which has not been
State, and (iii) Deputy Minister. considered by the Council of
[Article 76]Powers and Functions: Ministers.[Article 78]
1. The main function of the Council of the LOK SABHA:
Ministers is to aid and advice the President. Lok 1. Lok Sabha is composed of
2. The Council of Ministers determines the Sabha: representatives of the people
legislative programme of the Union and uses chosen by direct election on the
its initiative in the introduction and passage basis of the adult suffrage.
of Government legislation. 2. The maximum strength of
3. The Council of Ministers prepares the the House envisaged by the
13
INDIAN POLITY
Constitution is 552 which is beyond the five year term,

made up by- when a proclamation of
(i) 530 members chosen by emergency under Article 352 is
direct election from territorial in force.
constituencies in the States, 6. But the Parliament cannot
and extend the normal life of the
(ii) 20 members to represent Lok Sabha for more than one
the Union Territories, and year at a time (no limit on the
(iii) not not more than 2 number of times in the
members of the Anglo-Indian Constitution).
Community to be nominated by Eligibility No person shall be eligible for
the President, if, he is of the of the election unless he-
opinion that the community is members: 1. is a citizen of India,
not adequately represented in 2. has completed the age of
the Lok Sabha. twenty five years,
3. The total elective 3. is not holding any office of
membership is distributed profit,
among the States in such a way 4. is not of unsound mind or
that the ratio between the insolvent, and
number of seats allotted to 5. has registered as voter in
each State and the population any Parliamentary constituency.
of the State is, so far as
practicable, the same for all Other Important Information on Lok
States. Sabha and Lok Sabha Speaker:
4. The normal tenure of the Lok 1. Presiding Officer of the Lok Sabha is the
Sabha is 5 years but it may be Speaker. The Speaker is elected in the very
dissolved earlier by the first meeting of the Lok Sabha following
President. general elections.
5. The life of the Lok Sabha can 2. Speaker of the Lok Sabha is elected for a
be extended by the Parliament period of 5 years.

INDIAN POLITY
3. Speaker of the Lok Sabha is chosen from Speaker is fixed by the President.
amongst the members of the Lok Sabha. 13. The first meeting after the election when
4. The Speaker of the Lok Sabha continues the Speaker and the Deputy Speaker are
in office even after the dissolution of the Lok selected by members of the Parliament is
Sabha till a newly elected Lok Sabha meets. held under the senior most member of
5. The Salary of the Speaker of the Lok Parliament called Protem Speaker.
Sabha is charged on the Consolidated Fund
of India. RAJYA SABHA:
6. In absence of the Speaker, the Deputy Rajya Sabha:
Speaker acts as Speaker and in the absence 1.The maximum strength of the Rajya Sabha
of both a committee of six member selected envisaged by the Article 80 of the
by the Speaker will act as Speaker according Constitution is 250 which is made up by-
to their seniority. (i) 12 members nominated by the President,
7. Speaker of the Lok Sabha tenders his and
resignation to the Deputy Speaker. (ii) 238 representative of the States and of
8. After giving a 14 days notice the majority the Union Territories, and
of the total membership of the Lok Sabha 2. The present strength of Rajya Sabha,
can remove the Speaker. however, is 245, out of which 233 are
9. Speaker of the Lok Sabha decides whether representatives of the States and Union
a bill is a money bill or not. territories of Delhi and Puducherry and 12
10. Speaker of the Lok Sabha maintains are nominated by the President.
discipline and decorum in the house and can 3. The members nominated by the President
punish a member for their unruly behaviour are persons having special knowledge or
by suspending them. practical experience in respect of such
11. Speaker of the Lok Sabha permits the matters as literature, science, art and social
moving of various kinds of motions and service.
resolutions like the motion of no confidence, Allocation of Seats:
motion of adjournment, motion of censure, 1. The Fourth Schedule to the Constitution
etc. provides for allocation of seats to the States
12. The date of election of Lok Sabha and Union Territories in Rajya Sabha.
15
INDIAN POLITY
2. The allocation of seats is made on the 3. Vice-President is the ex-officio Chairman

basis of the population of each State. of Rajya Sabha. He presides over the
Representation of States: proceedings of the Rajya Sabha.
The representatives of each State in the 4. If Rajya Sabha passes a resolution by a
Rajya Sabha shall be elected by the elected majority of not less than two-thirds of the
members fo the Legislative Assembly of the members present and voting declaring that it
State in accordance with the system of is necessary or expedient in the national
proportional representation by means of the interest to create one or more All India
single transferable vote. Services common to the Union and the
States, Parliament becomes empowered to
Representation of Union Territory: create by law such services.
The representative of the Union Territories in Panchayati Raj – Part IX – Articles 243
the Rajya Sabha shall be chosen in such to 243 O
manner as Parliament may by law prescribe. Grass root level democracy or rural local
Eligibility: Article 84 of the Constitution lays self government or three tier government =
down the following qualifications for Panchayati Raj. Decentralized the power to
membership of Parliament- the grass root level from the Centre for
1. he must be a citizen of India, development in rural areas.
2. he must be not less than 30 years of age, Evolution of Panchayat Raj:
and  Balwant Rai Mehta Committee – 1957
3. he must possess such other qualifications  Nagaur district, Rajasthan was the
as may be prescribed in that behalf by or first state to adopt Panchayati Raj in 1959
under anylaw made by Parliament. while Tamil Nadu adopted two-tier system
Other Important Information: and West Bengal adopted four-tier system.
1. There are no seats reserved for Scheduled  In Rajasthan-Andhra Pradesh = Panchayat
Castes and Scheduled Tribes in Rajya Sabha. Samiti was powerful whereas in
2. The members of Rajya Sabha are elected Maharashtra-Gujarat = Zila Parishad was
for a term of 6 years and one-third of its powerful and some states adopted Nyaya
members retire every 2 years. Panchayat to look after petty civil and
criminal cases.

INDIAN POLITY
 Ashok Mehta Committee – 1978  The act does not imply to the states of
 Hanumantha Rao Committee – 1984 – Jammu and Kashmir, Nagaland, Meghalaya
Collectors should be coordinator at the and Mizoram and certain other areas. These
district level for all developmental and areas include (a) the scheduled areas and
planning activities. the tribal areas in the states; (b) the hill
 G.V.K.Rao Committee - 1985 – Major area of Manipur for which a district council
role of Panchayat in development exists; and (c) Darjeeling district of West
administration and reduction of the role of Bengal for which Darjeeling Gorkha Hill
District Collector. Council exists.
 L M Singhvi Committee – 1986 – For  Parliament has enacted the ‘Provisions
‘Revitalisation of Panchayati Raj Institutions of the Panchayats(Extension to the
for Democracy and Development’ during Schedule Areas)Act’, 1996(PESA).
Rajiv Gandhi period as initiative of “Garibi  At present, there are nine states having
Hatao”. Fifth Schedule Areas(Article 244). They
 During P V Narasimha Rao government, are: Chattisgarh, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh,
Panchayat Raj bodies were Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra,
rd
constitutionalised. Thus in 73 Constitutional Odisha and Rajasthan. There are ten tribal
Amendment Act, 1992 a bill was passed and areas in four states of Assam, Meghalaya,
th
it came into force on 24 April, 1993. So Tripura and Mizoram.
that all states except few adopted the three Important Articles Related to
tier system. Panchayats at a Glance
th
 A new 11 Schedule was added in this Article Subject-matter
amendment and it deals with article 243-G. No.
This schedule contains 29 functional items. 243D Reservation of seats
Facts: 243G Powers, authority and
 Gram Sabha is the foundation of responsibilities of panchayats
Panchayat raj system. 243K Elections to the panchayats
 No person shall be disqualified on the Municipalities – Part IX A – Articles
ground that he is less than 25 years of age if 243P to 243ZG
he has attained the age of 21 years.
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As by the 74th Constitutional (viii)Under the provincial autonomy scheme

Amendment Act, 1992, Municipalities came introduced by the Government of India Act
into force in India for Urban local of 1935, Local self-government was declared
government. a provincial subject.
The major events in this context are as Previously, during Rajiv Gandhi period, 65th
follows: Constitutional Amendment Bill(i.e.,
(i) In 1687-88, the first municipal Nagarpalika Bill) was introduced in Lok
corporation in India was set up at Madras. Sabha but lapsed in Rajya Sabha.
(ii) In 1726, the municipal corporations were Three types of Municipalities:
set up in Bombay and Calcutta.  Nagar Panchayat – Transition area from
(iii) Lord Mayo’s Resolution of 1870 on rural to urban area
financial decentralisation visualized the  Municipal council – For smaller area
development of  Municipal corporation – For larger area
Local self-government institutions. Articles Related to Constitutional Bodies
(iv) Lord Ripon’s Resolution of 1882 has at a Glance
been hailed as the ‘Magna Carta’ of local self Article Constitutional Bodies
government. No.
He is called as the father of local-self 76 Attorney-General of India
government in India. 148 Comptroller and Auditor-General
(v) The Royal Commission on of India
decentralisation was appointed in 1907 and 165 Advocate-General of the State
it submitted its report 243-I State Finance Commission
in 1909. Its chairman was Hob house. 243-K State Election Commission
(vi)Under the dyarchical scheme introduced 243ZD District Planning Committee
in Provinces by the Government of India Act 243ZE Metropolitan Planning Committee
of 1919, Local self-government became a 263 Inter-State Council
transferred subject under the charge of a 280 Finance Commission
responsible Indian minister. 307 Inter-State Trade and Commerce
(vii) In 1924, the Cantonments Act was Commission
passed by the Central legislature.

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315 Union Public Service Commission economic paradigm and comprise sectorial
and State Public Service experts and states' representative.
Commission  The NITI Aayog will comprise the
324 Election Commission following:
338 National Commission for  Chairperson: Prime Minister
Scheduled Castes  Vice-Chairperson: To be appointed by the
338A National Commission for Prime Minister
Scheduled Tribes  Members: Full-time
339 Scheduled Areas and Scheduled  Part-time members: Maximum of 2 from
Tribes Commission leading universities research organizations
340 Backward Classes Commission and other relevant institutions in an ex-
344 Official Language Commission and officio capacity. Part time members will be
Official Language Committee of on a rotational basis.
Parliament  Ex Officio members: Maximum of 4
350B Special Officer for Linguistic members of the Union Council of Ministers to
Minorities be nominated by the Prime Minister.
NON CONSTITUTIONAL BODIES  Chief Executive Officer: To be appointed
1. NITI Aayog by the Prime Minister for a fixed tenure, in
 India's Planning Commission will be the rank of Secretary to the Government of
renamed "Niti Ayog" (National Institution for India.
Transforming India) as part of a plan to  Secretariat as deemed necessary.
restructure the institution that the 2. National Development Council:
government believes has run its course. The  NDC was established in August 1952 by
name, replacing "Yojana (planning)" with an executive resolution of Government of
"Niti (policy)" will be announced in an India on recommendation of first five year
amended resolution for the new plan body. plan.
The Planning Commission had suggested to a  It is neither a constitutional body nor a
group chaired by Prime Minister Narendra statutory body.
Modi that its replacement body should be  Consists of Prime minister, all Union
structured to meet the need of changing cabinet ministers, Chief ministers,
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CMs/administrators of UT’s and members of  The chairman and members hold office for
Planning Commission. a term of five years or until they attain the
 Secretary of Planning Commission acts as age of 70 years, whichever is earlier.
the secretary to the NDC.  Only the president can remove the
NDC is the highest body next to Parliament chairman or any other member.
because Draft Five-year Plan prepared by 4. State Human Rights Commission:
Planning Commission should be submitted  It is also a statutory body established
before NDC for its approval and then it goes along with National Human Rights
to Parliament approval and then emerges as Commission.
official Plan and is published in the official  They can inquire only when human rights
gazette. in State List and Concurrent List are
3. National Human Rights Commission: violated.
 It is a statutory body and no constitutional 5. Central Information Commission:
body established in 1993 under Protection  CIC was established in 2005 under the
of Human Rights Act, 1993 and was provisions of the Right to Information
amended in 2006. Act(2005)
 It consists of chairman (retired chief  It is not a constitutional body and it has
justice of India) and four other members independent powers which looks into the
(serving or retired judges of Supreme Court, complaints made to it and decide the appeals
High Court and two persons with practical pertaining to offices, financial institutions,
experience in Human rights). public sector undertakings etc., under
 Chairman and members are appointed by Central Government and the UTs.
President on recommendation of Prime  It consists of Chief Information
Minister, Speaker of Lok Sabha, Deputy Commissioner and not more than ten
Chairman of Rajya Sabha, leaders of Information Commissioners appointed by the
Opposition in both the Houses and Central President on the recommendation of a
Home minister. Further, a sitting judge of committee consisting of Prime Minister as
the Supreme Court or a sitting chief justice Chairperson, Leader of Opposition in Lok
of High court can be appointed only after Sabha and Union Cabinet Minister nominated
consultation with CJI. by the Prime Minister.

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 They should not be a member of Commission / Body

Parliament or Member of the Legislature of Central Information Ministry of
any state or UT and should not hold any Commission Personnel
office of profit and politically connected to Finance Commission Ministry of Finance
any party. Union Public Service Ministry of
 The Chief Information Commissioner and Commission Personnel
an Information Commissioner hold office for Inter State Council Ministry of Home
a term of 5 years or until they attain the age Affairs
of 65 years, whichever is earlier and they Staff Selection Ministry of
are not eligible for reappointment. Commission Personnel
 Only the President of India can remove National Commission Ministry of Social
the Chief Information Commissioner and for SCs Justice &
Information Commissioner of India however Empowerment
the President has to refer the matter to the National Commission Ministry of Tribal
Supreme Court for enquiry. for STs Affairs
 Their salaries, allowances are similar to Central Vigilance Ministry of
Election Commissioner. Commission Personnel
State Information Commission: Zonal Councils Ministry of Home
 Along with Central Information Affairs
Commission, this was also established under Central Bureau of Ministry of
Right to Information Act, 2005 Investigation Personnel
 It is not a constitutional body and it has
National Investigation Ministry of Home
independent powers which looks into the
Agency Affairs
complaints made to it and decide the appeals
Commissioner for Ministry of Minority
pertaining to offices, financial institutions,
Linguistic Minorities Affairs
public sector undertakings etc., under state
National Commission
Government.
for Protection of
National Commissions / Falls Under
Child Rights Ministry of Women
Central Bodies and the
and Child
Related Ministries
21
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Development  Previously it was a neither a constitutional

National Commission Ministry of Social body nor a statutory body but recently in
for Backward Classes Justice & 2003, it was made a statutory body.
Empowerment  In 2004, the Government of India
Central Commissioner Ministry of Social authorized the CVC as the “Designated
for Disabled Persons Justice & Agency” to receive written complaints for
Empowerment disclosure on any allegation of corruption or
Central Social Welfare Ministry of Women misuse of office and recommend appropriate
Board and Child action.
Development  It is a multi-member body consisting of
North Eastern Council Ministry of Central Vigilance Commissioner
Development of the (Chairperson) and not more than two
North Eastern vigilance commissioners appointed by the
Region President by warrant under his hand and
Central Administrative Ministry of seal on the recommendation of a three
Tribunal Personnel member committee consisting of the prime
National Commission Ministry of Minority minister, Union minister of Home affairs and
for Minorities Affairs the Leader of the Opposition in the Lok
National Human Rights Ministry of Home Sabha.
Commission Affairs  They hold office for a term of four years or
National Commission Ministry of Women until they attain the age of 65 years and
for Women and Child they are not eligible for reappointment.
Development  Only the President can remove the Central
7. Central Vigilance Commission: Vigilance Commissioner or any Vigilance
 The CVC is the main agency for commissioner.
preventing corruption in the Central 8. Central Bureau of Investigation:
government established in 1964 by an CBI was set up in 1963 by a resolution of
executive resolution recommended by the the Ministry of Home Affairs and later was
Santhanam Committee on Prevention of transferred to the Ministry of Personnel
Corruption. and now it enjoys the status of an attached

office. Also Special Police Establishment Government of India in-charge of the
setup in 1941 was merged to CBI. ministry of Home Affairs and the Secretary
 It was recommended by Santhanam (Coordination and Public Grievances) in the
Committee on Prevention of Corruption Cabinet Secretariat.
(1962-1964).  CBI Academy is located in Ghaziabad,
 CBI is not a statutory body but derives its Uttar Pradesh and started functioning in
powers from the Delhi Special Police 1996. Earlier training were given in CBI
Establishment Act, 1946 and it is the main Training Centre, New Delhi. Other Regional
investigating agency of Central Government training centres are at Kolkata, Mumbai and
to prevent corruption and maintain integrity Chennai.
in administration by assisting CVC. 9. Lokpal and Lokayuktas:
 It is headed by a Director who is assisted The success of democracy and realization
by a special director or an additional director of socio-economic development depends on
and a number of Joint Directors, Deputy the extent to which citizens’ grievances are
Inspector Generals, Superintendents of redressed. Therefore, in different parts of
Police and all other usual ranks of police the world, institutional devices were created.
personnel. They are
 The Director of CBI as Inspector-General  The Ombudsman System
of Police, Delhi Special Police Establishment  The Administrative Courts System
is responsible for the administration of the  The Procurator System
organization. Sweden was the first to create an
 Prevention of Corruption Act, 1988. ombudsman in the world in 1809. “Ombud”
 The Director of CBI is provided security of refers to a person who acts as the
two-year tenure in office by the CVC Act, representative or spokesman of another
2003. person. He is appointed by the legislature to
 He is appointed by Central government on handle complaints against administrative and
the recommendation of a committee judicial action.
consisting of the Central Vigilance New Zealand is the first commonwealth
Commissioner as chairperson, the Vigilance country to adopt ombudsman system in
Commissioners, the Secretary to the 1962.
23
The Ombudsman in India is called  Even though Lokpal is still being debated,
Lokpal/Lokayukta. In France, it is called Lokayuktas have been established in many
Administrative Courts and in socialistic states.
countries like former USSR, China,  The first state to create Lokayukta was
Poland, Hungary, Czechoslovakia and Maharashtra in 1971.
Romania called as “Procurator System”.  Till now, 18 states and 1 Union Territory
Lokpal: (Delhi) have established Lokayukta.
 The Administrative Reforms Commission  States which have not created the
(ARC) of India(1966-1970) recommended institution are Arunachal Pradesh, Jammu &
the setting up of two special authorities Kashmir, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram,
designated as “Lokpal” and “Lokayukta”. Nagaland, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu, Tripura and
 According to ARC, Lokpal would be West Bengal.
appointed by the President after consulting  Rajasthan, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh
with CJI, the speaker of Lok Sabha and and Maharashtra call lokayukta as
Chairman of Rajya Sabha. upalokayukta.
 It was a not possible from the  Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and Himachal
recommendations for the Lokpal to be Pradesh have created only the lokayuktas.
established but in 2011, a new  Some states like Punjab and Orissa have
comprehensive Lokpal and Lokayuktas bill officials as Lokpal.
was established in which Lokpal at centre  The term of office for Lokayukta is of 5
and Lokayukta at the state level was years or 65 years of age and not eligible for
possible. reappointment.
Lokayukta:
STATES CAPITALS LANGUAGES
Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad (founded in the year Telugu and Urdu.
1591 by Mohammed Quli Qutub
Shah)
Arunachal Pradesh Itanagar Apatani, Bangni, Tagin, Hills
Miri, Galo, Adi.
Assam Dispur Assamese, Bodo.

INDIAN POLITY
Bihar Patna (earlier known as Hindi, Urdu, Maithili, Bhojpuri,

Patliputra) Magadhi.
Chattisgarh Raipur Chhattisgarhi and Hindi.
Goa Panaji (Christianity is one of the Konkani and Marathi.
dominant religions followed in
the region)
Gujarat Gandhinagar Gujarati.
Haryana Chandigarh (also the capital of Haryanvi and Hindi.
Punjab)
Himachal Pradesh Shimla Hindi and Pahari.
Jharkhand Ranchi Santhali, Mundari, Kurukh,
Khortha, Hindi, Bengali, Oriya.
Jammu & Kashmir Srinagar(Summer) & Urdu, Kashmiri, Ladakhi.
Jammu (Winter)
Karnataka Bengaluru Kannada.
Kerala Thiruvananthpuram (Sri Malayalam.
Padmanabhaswamy Temple
dedicated to Lord Vishnu is the
symbol of Thiruvananthpuram)
Madhya Pradesh Bhopal Hindi.
Maharashtra Mumbai (earlier known as Marathi.
Bombay)
Manipur Imphal (Loktak Lake, the Manipuri.
biggest freshwater lake in
North-Eastern India is in
Imphal)
Meghalaya Shillong (Shillong was originally Khasi, Garo, English.
Assam's capital from 1874 to
January 1974)
25
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Mizoram Aizwal Mizo.

Nagaland Kohima English, Konyak, Angami.
Orissa Bhubaneshwar Oriya.
Punjab Chandigarh (also the capital of Punjabi.
Haryana)
Rajasthan Jaipur (also known as Pink City) Hindi, Rajasthani.
Sikkim Gangtok Nepali, Bhutia, Lepcha, Limbu,
Hindi, English.
Tamil Nadu Chennai (earlier known as Tamil.
Madras)
Tripura Agartala (it lies on the bank of Bengali and Kokborok.
Haora River)
Uttar Pradesh Lucknow (also known as City of Hindi.
Nawabs)
Uttarakhand Dehradun Kumaoni, Garhwali.
West Bengal Kolkata (earlier known as Bengali.
Calcutta)
UNION TERRITORY CAPITAL LANGUAGE

Delhi (National Capital Delhi Hindi and English.
Territory)
Andaman & Nicobar Portblair Bengali, Hindi, Tamil,
Islands Nicobarese and Telugu.
Chandigarh Chandigarh (designed by Le Hindi, Punjabi.
Corbusier)
Dadra and Nagar Haveli Silvassa Bhili, Bhilodi, Hindi, Gujarati.
Daman & Diu Daman (lies on the Gujarat Gujarati, Marathi.
Coast)
Lakshadweep Kavaratti Malayalam.

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(smallest Union Territory)

Pondicherry Pondicherry Malyalam, Telugu, Tamil,
French.
DEFINITIONS
The draft of a legislative proposal Bill
Bill passed by both the Houses of Parliament and assented to by Act
the President
A member of the House of the People (Lok Sabha) Member
A member other than a Minister Private Member
Annual Financial statement of the estimated receipts and Budget
expenditure of the Government of India for a financial year
A Form in which estimates of expenditure from the Consolidated Demand for Grant
Fund, included in the annual financial statement and required to be
voted upon in the Lok Sabha, are submitted in pursuance of Article
113 of the Constitution.
A bill containing only provisions dealing with all or any of the Money Bill
matters specified in sub‐clauses (a) to (g) of Clause (1) of Articel
110 of the Constitution. (Such a bill cannot be introduced without
the recommendation of the President and it also cannot be
introduced in the Rajya Sabha
A Bill passed annually (or at various times of the year) providing Appropriation Bill
for the withdrawal or appropriation from and out of the
Consolidated Fund of India of moneys by Lok Sabha and moneys
charged on the Consolidated Fund for the services of a financial
year or a part thereof.
A motion for reduction of a demand for grant by or to a specified Cut motion
amount. Cut motion can be of three types ‐ Disapproval of policy
cut, Economy cut and Token cut
A grant made by Lok Sabha in advance in respect of the estimated Vote on Account
27
INDIAN POLITY
expenditure of the Government of India for a part of a financial

year pending the voting of
Demands for Grants for the financial year. A Motion for Vote on
Account is dealt with in the same way as if it were a demand for
grant.
Termination of a sitting of a House without any definite date being Adjournment sine die
fixed for the next sitting
The termination of a session of the House by an order made by the Prorogation
President under article 85(2) (a) of the Constitution.
The first hour of a sitting of the House normally allotted for asking Question Hour
and answering of questions
The minimum number of members required to be present at a Quorum
sitting of the House or the Committee for valid transaction of its
business. The quorum to constitute a sitting of the House is
one‐tenth of the total number of members of the House and in
respect of a Committee it is one‐third of the total number of
members of the Committee .
A self‐contained independent proposal submitted for the approval Resolution
of the House and drafted in such a way as to be capable of
expressing a decision of the House.
The vote cast by the Speaker or the Chairman in the case of an Casting vote
equality of votes on a matter
IMPORTANT WRITS IN THE INDIAN CONSTITUTION:
Type of Writ Meaning of the Purpose of issue
word
Habeas Corpus You may have the To release a person who has been detained
body unlawfully whether in prison or in private custody.
Mandamus We Command To secure the performance of public duties by
lower court, tribunal or public authority.

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Certiorari To be certified To quash the order already passed

by an inferior court, tribunal or quasi judicial
authority.
Prohibition To forbid To prohibit an inferior court from continuing the
proceedings in a particular case where it has no
jurisdiction to try.
Quo Warranto What is your To restrain a person from holding a public office
authority? which he is not entitled.
IMPORTANT AGE LIMITS Chief Minister 25 years ---
The President 35 years --- Members of 25 years ---
The Vice-President 35 years --- Legislative Assembly
Lok Sabha Speaker 25 years --- Members of 30 years ---
Deputy Speaker of 25 years --- Legislative Council
Lok Sabha Advocate General --- 62 years
Chief Justice of India --- 65 years Members of State --- 62 years
Other Judges of the --- 65 years Public Service
Supreme Court Commission
Members of Lok 25 years --- Chief Justice of High --- 62 years
Sabha Court
Members of Rajya 30 years --- Other Judges of High --- 62 years
Sabha Court
Attorney General of --- 65 years CHAIRMEN OF VARIOUS COMMITTEES
India IN THE CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY
Comptroller and --- 65 years Committee on the Rules Rajendra Prasad
Auditor General of of Procedure
India Steering Committee Rajendra Prasad
Chairman, U.P.S.C. --- 65 years Finance and Staff Rajendra Prasad
Members, U.P.S.C. --- 65 years Committee
Governor 35 years --- Credential Committee Alladi
29
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Krishnaswami Minorities Sub‐Committee H.C. Mookherjee

Ayyar Fundamental Rights J.B. Kripalani
House Committee B. Pattabhi Sub‐Committee
Sitaramayya North‐East Frontier Tribal Gopinath
Order of Business K.M. Munsi Areas and Assam Exluded Bardoloi
Committee & Partially Excluded Areas
Ad hoc Committee on the Rajendra Prasad Sub‐Committee
National Flag Excluded and Partially A.V. Thakkar
Committee on the G.V. Mavalankar Excluded Areas (Other
Functions of the than those in Assam)
Constituent Assembly Sub‐ Committee
States Committee Jawaharlal Union Powers Committee Jawaharlal
Nehru Nehru
Advisory Committee on Vallabhbhai Union Constitution Jawaharlal
Fundamental Patel Committee Nehru
Rights,Minorities and Drafting Committee B.R. Ambedkar
Tribal and Excluded Areas
Constitutional Bodies
Bodies Election Commission UPSC State PSC
Part Part XV Part XIV Part XIV
Articles 324 315–323 315-323
Appointed President President Governor
by
Consists of Chief Election Chairman and other Chairman and other
Commissioner and other members members
Election members
Tenure 6 years or until they 6 years or until they attain 6 years or until they
attain the age of 65 the age of 62 years attain the age of 62
years years

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How/for Same manners as judge If he is adjudged an If he is adjudged an

what he can of supreme court i.e., if insolvent, any paid insolvent, any paid
be removed a resolution is passed by employment outside office, employment outside
both houses of unfit to the eyes of office, unfit to the eyes
parliament with special President of President
majority
Functions It ensures free and fair Central recruiting agency Conducts examinations
elections for all India services, for appointments to
Central services and public the services of the
services of centrally state
administered
Bodies Finance National National Commission for

Commission Commission for SC’s ST’s
Part Part XII Part XVI Part XVI
Articles 280 338 338-A(89th Constitutional
Amendment Act, 2003)
Appointed by President President President
Consists of Chairman and other Chairperson, a vice- Chairperson, a vice-
members chairperson and three chairperson and three other
other member member
Tenure They hold office on They hold office on They hold office on President’s
President’s order President’s order order
How/for They can be - -

what he can reappointed on their
be removed performance
31
INDIAN POLITY
Functions Distribution of the Investigate, monitor, Investigate, monitor, inquire

net proceeds of inquire and advise on and advise on the matters
taxes to be shared the matters relating to relating to the progress of ST’s
between the Centre the progress of SC’s
and the States,
governs grants-in-
aid to states etc
Bodies Special officer Comptroller and Attorney General Advocate

for Linguistic Auditor General of of India General of
minorities India India
Part Part XVII Part V Part V Part VI
Articles 350-B(7th 148 -151 76 165
Constitutional
Amendment
Act,1956)
Appointed President President President Governor
by
Consists Commissioner for Independent office He is the highest law Independent
of Linguistic and head of the officer in India. In and highest
Minorities(Allahab Indian Audit and addition, Solicitor law officer in
ad) assisted by Accounts General and addtl. State
Asst. Solicitor General of
Commissioner at India assist him.
three
headquarters in
Belgaum, Chennai
and Kolkata

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Tenure They hold office on 6 years or until they No tenure or No tenure or

President’s order attain the age of 65 removal mentioned removal
and not the years but he holds during mentioned but
Parliament the pleasure of he holds
President and so during the
President alone can pleasure of
remove him Governor and
so Governor
alone can
remove him
How/for - Same manners as President can Governor can
what he judge of supreme remove him at any remove him at
can be court i.e., if a time, when the any time,
removed resolution is passed government resigns when the
by both houses of or is replaced, as he government
parliament with is appointed on its resigns or is
special majority advice replaced, as he
is appointed on
its advice
Functions Takes up all He audits the Advices the Gives advice to
matters pertaining expenditure from Government of India the
to the grievances Consolidated and on matters referred government of
of the linguistic Contingency Fund of by President, appear the state upon
minority India, for each state on behalf of all legal
individuals or and UT’s Government of India matters
groups in states in all cases
and UT’s and
brings remedial
actions
33
INDIAN POLITY
IMPORTANT SCHEDULES IN THE CONSTITUTION

First schedule contains the list of states and union territories and their territories
Second schedule contains provisions as to the President, Governors of States, Speaker
and the Deputy Speaker of the House of the People and the Chairman
and the Deputy Chairman of the Council of States and the Speaker and
the Deputy Speaker of the Legislative Assembly and the Chairman and
the Deputy Chairman of the Legislative Council of a State, the Judges
of the Supreme Court and of the High Courts and the Comptroller and
Auditor‐General of Indiathe list of states and union territories and
their Territories
Third Schedule contains the Forms of Oaths or Affirmations.
Fourth Schedule contains provisions as to the allocation of seats in the Council of
States.
Fifth Schedule contains provisions as to the Administration and Control of Scheduled
Areas and Scheduled Tribes.
Sixth Schedule contains provisions as to the Administration of Tribal Areas in the
States of Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram.
Seventh Schedule contains the Union list, State list and the concurrent list.
Gives allocation of powers and functions between Union & States. It
contains 3 lists
1. Union List (For central Govt.) 99 Subjects.
2. States List (Powers of State Govt.) 66 subjects
3. Concurrent List (Both Union & States) 46 subjects.
Eighth Schedule contains the list of 22 consitutionally recognised languages
 Assamese, Bengali, Gujarati,Hindi , Kannada , Kashmiri, Manipuri
,Malayalam ,Konkani ,Marathi ,Nepali , Oriya ,Punjab, Sanskrit ,Sindhi,
Tamil ,Telegu ,Urdu, Santhali, Bodo ,Maithili , Dogri.
 Sindhi was added in 1967 by 21 Amendment.
 Konkani, Manipuri ad Nepali were added in 1992 by 71 amendment

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 Santhali, Maithili, Bodo and Dogri were added in 2003 by 92

amendment
Ninth Schedule contains provisions as to validation of certain Acts and Regulations
Tenth Schedule contains provisions as to disqualification on ground of defection.
Eleventh Schedule contains the powers, authority and responsibilities of Panchayats.
(73rd amendment)
Twelfth Schedule (74th contains the powers, authority and responsibilities of Municipalities.
amendment)
IMPORTANT POINTS
1 Who was the permanent President of the Constituent Dr. Rajendra Prasad.
Assembly?
2 Who was the Chairman of the Drafting Committee? Dr. B. R. Ambedkar.
3 Who was the legal advisor of the Constituent B. N. Rao.
Assembly?
4 How long the Constituent Assembly took to prepare 2 year 11 month and
the Indian Constitution, the largest in the world? 18 days.
5 Indian Constitution was adopted by the Government 26 November 1949.
of India on?
6 Indian Constitution was enforced by the Government 26 January 1950.
of India on?
7 Part III (article 12 - 35) of the Constitution deals Fundamental Right.
with?
8 Which article contains Right to freedom of speech? Article 19.
9 After which amendment Right to Property became a 44th Amendment.
legal right?
10 Which Article describes the election of President? Article 55.
11 The term of the president is? 5 years.
12 Which Articel lays down the procedure for Article 61.
impeachment of the President?
35
INDIAN POLITY
13 Who is the ex-officio chairman of the Council of Vice-President.

States (Rajya Sabha)?
14 Who is the authority to decide any dispute in The Supreme Court of
connection with the election of the President and the India.
Vice-President?
15 Who gave advice to the Government of India upon Attorney General of
legal matters? India.
16 Who is the authority to decide whether the Speaker of the Lok
introduced bill is a Money Bill or not? Sabha.
17 Money Bill can be introduced only in the Lok Sabha, True
True or False?
18 A bill which is related with revenue and expenditure Finance Bill
of the Government is called?
19 The term of members of Rajya Sabha is? 6 years
Who was the temporary President of Indian Dr. Sachitananda
20 Constitution? Sinha
NATIONAL SYMBOLS: (4) The Lion Capital was erected in the third
NATIONAL ANTHEM: century B.C. by Emperor Ashoka.
(1) The National Emblem of India is an (5) The National Emblem was adopted by the
adaptation form the Sarnath Lion Capital of Government of India on 26th January 1950.
Ashoka. (6) The words SATYAMEVA JAYATE taken
(2) In the original there are four Lions from Mundaka Upanishad are inscribed
standing back to back mounted on an below the abacus in the Devanagri script.
abacus. NATIONAL CALENDER:
(3) The four animals at the bottom of the 1)The National Calendar based on the SAKA
national emblem are a galloping horse and a ERA with Chaitra as its first month and a
bull (visible) and a lion and a elephant (not normal year of 365 days was adopted on
visible) separated by intervening wheels over 22nd March 1957.
a bell-shaped lotus.

INDIAN POLITY
(2) Chaitra is the first month of the year, (2) It was adopted by the Constituent
falling on 22nd March normally and on 21st Assembly of Sovereign India on 24 January
March in a leap year. 1950.
(3) The dates of the National Calendar have (3) It was rendered in English by Tagore
a permanent correspondence with the dates himself.
of the Gregorian Calendar. (4) It was first sung on 27th December,
NATIONAL FLAG: 1911 at the Calcutta Session of the Indian
(1) The design of the National Flag was National Congress.
adopted by the Constituent Assembly of (5) The complete song consists of five
Sovereign India on 22nd July 1947. stanzas. The first stanza constitutes the full
(2)The National Flag is a horizontal tricolour version of the National Anthem.
of saffron at the top, white in the middle and (6) The playing time of the National Anthem
green at the bottom. is 52 seconds.
(3) The ratio of the width of the National NATIONAL SONG:
Flag to its length is 2:3. (1) Bankim Chandra Chatterji's composed
(4) The design of the wheel song "VANDE MATARAM" taken from ANAND
(DHARMACHAKRA) is taken from the abacus MATH has been adopted as the National
of the Sarnath Lion Capital of Ashoka. Song of India.
(5)The wheel (DHARMACHAKRA) or Ashoka (2) It was also adopted by the Constituent
Chakra at the centre has 24 spokes and is Assembly of Sovereign India on 24 January
navy blue in colour. 1950.
(6) Flag code of India, 2002 (effected on 26 (3) It has an equal status with JANA GANA
January 2002) governs the display of MANA.
National Flag of India. (4) It was first sung in the 1896 session of
NATIONAL ANTHEM: the Indian National Congress.
(1) The national anthem JANA GANA MANA NATIONAL ANIMAL: Tiger (Panthera tigris)
was composed by poet Rabindranath Tagore NATIONAL BIRD: Peacock (Pavo cristatus)
in Bengali. NATIONAL FRUIT: Mango (Mangifera
indica)
37
INDIAN POLITY
NATIONAL FLOWER: Lotus (Nelumbo  Arvind Subramanian Committee – on

nucifera) Possible Tax rates under Goods and Services
NATIONAL BIRD: Banyan (Ficus Tax (GST)
benghalensis)  MB Shah Committee – on Black Money
NATIONAL RIVER: The Ganges  RV Easwar Committee – to simplify the
NATIONAL AQUATIC ANIMAL: Gangetic provisions of the Income Tax Act, 1961.
dolphin  T Haque committee – NITI Aayog
Important Indian Committees constituted T Haque Expert Group on Land
 Kamlesh Chandra Committee – to Leasing
examine the wage structure, service  R Gandhi committee – recommended
conditions of the Gramin Dak Sevaks (GDS) conversion of Urban Cooperative Banks
in the Department of Posts (DoP). (UCBs) with business size of 20,000 crore
 Adam Lewis Panel – to safeguard integrity rupees or more into regular banks.
in International tennis.  Deepak Mohanty committee – to frame
 Shyam Benegal Committee – to look into action plan on financial inclusion.
revamp the film certification nuances by  A P Shah committee – A high level
Central Board of Film Censors (CBFC). committee on the controversial issue of
 RM Lodha Committee – on the IPL betting payment of Minimum Alternate Tax (MAT) by
scandal. foreign institutional investors.
 Dr T K Viswanathan Committee – on  Vijay Kelkar committee: on Revisiting and
Bankruptacy Law Reforms Revitalizing the Public Private Partnership
 A P Shah committee – to look into the (PPP) Model of Infrastructure Development.
dispute between Oil and Natural Gas  AK Bhargava committee: to look into the
Corporation Limited (ONGC) and Reliance issues of “Net neutrality”.
Industries Limited (RIL) on Krishna Godavari  Ajay Shankar Committee: To review
(KG) gas fields. functioning of PPP Cell
 L Narasimha Reddy Committee – to look  Prof. NR Madhava Menon Panel: Reported
into the implementation of One Rank One guidelines for regulating expenditure and
Pension (OROP) scheme for the ex- content of advertisement in govt. adds
servicemen.

INDIAN POLITY
 H Devaraj Commitee: Reported most  P J Nayak Committee: Governance of

deemed university Boards of Bank in India
 H R Khan Panel: To evaluate unclaimed  Bibek Debroy: for Restructuring the
PPF and Post Office Savings railway
 V V Daga Committee: To conduct forensic  Justice CS Dharmadhikari
audit of NSEL Committee: recommended complete ban on
 Sivaramakrishnan committee: Submit dance bars in hotels and restaurants.
Report to build the capital city for Andhra  Pratyush Sinha: To assess compensation
Pradesh for coal blocks.
 Ramanujam committee: To avoid obsolete  Jairam Ramesh: On sustainable
laws development
 Bimal Jalan: To head the Expenditure  K.V. Kamath panel: to examine the
Management Commission financial architecture for Micro, Small and
 Hari Gautam Committee: To review the Medium Enterprises (MSME) sector.
status of UGC  Gopalakrishna Committee: on Capacity
 Justice SB Sinha (One Member Building in Banks and non-Banks
Commission):To Probe 2006 Meerut Fire  G N Bajpai Committee: Guidelines for
Tragedy national pension system (NPS) schemes in
 Suresh Prabhu Committee: To review gas private sector.
pricing formula  Scientist Raghunath Anant Mashelkar
 R S Sharma Expert Committee: To review panel: To recommend best technologies for
the Company (Cost Records and Cost Audits) Prime Minister Narendra Modi's "Swachh
Rules 2014 Bharat" national sanitation campaign.
 Justice MB Shah: On Black Money  T S R Subramanian Committee: To review
 Deepak Mohanty Committee: Data and five key green laws concerning protection
Information Management in the RBI and conservation of environment, forest,
 Arvind Mayaram Committee: To clear wildlife, water and air among others.
definition to the FDI and FII  Tandon Committee:Follow Up Of Bank
 Nachiket Mor Committee: To permit Credit
NBFC's to work as Business correspondence  DR Gadgil Committee:Agricultural Finance
39
INDIAN POLITY
 Godwala Committee:Rural Finance  Usha Thorat Panel: Financial Inclusion

 ML Dantwala Committee: Regional Rural  Chatalier Committee:Finance To Small
Banks Scale Industry
 SS Nadkarni Committee:Trading In Public  K Madhav Das Committee:Urban
Sector Banks Cooperative Banks
 Venketaiya Committee:Review Of Rural  R S Saria Committee:Agricultural Finance
Financing System And Cooperative Society
 Bhide Committee:Coordination Between  SS Kohli Committee:Rationalization Of
Commercial Banks And SFC’s Staff Strength In Banks
 AK Bhuchar Committee:Coordination  J.V. Shetty:Consortium Lending by Banks
Between Term Lending Institutions And  I.T. Vaz: Norms for Working Capital
Commercial Banks. Finance by Banks
 R. Jilani: Inspection System in Banks  Y.V. Reddy: Financial Aggregate System
 Goiporia Committee:Customer Service In  Rakesh Mohan:Small Savings: Tax and
Banks Interest Rates
 LC Gupta Committee:Financial Derivatives  M Damodaran:Customer Service in Banks
 James Raj Committee:Functioning Of  Pillai Committee:Pay Scales Of Bank
Public Sector Banks Officers
 Vipin Malik Committee:Consolidated  Rangrajan Committee:Computerization Of
Accounting By Banks Banking Industry
 A Ghosh Committee:Frauds & Malpractices  Cook Committee (On Behalf Of BIS –
In Banks Under Basel Committee ):Capital Adequacy
 BD Thakar Committee:Job Criteria In Bank Of Banks
Loans (Approach)  Pendarkar Committee:Review The System
 A K Khandelwal:HR Issues of Public Sector Of Inspection Of Commercial, RRB And
Banks Urban Cooperative Banks
 R.H. Khan:Harmonization of the Role of  Dave Committee:Mutual Funds
Financial Institution in Banks (Functioning)
 Rajamannar Committee: Changes In
Banking Laws , Bouncing Of Cheques Etc.

INDIAN ECONOMY
ECONOMY consumer, a large labour force and

INTRODUCTION: considerable foreign investments.
`An economy is a system whereby goods are India is the fourteenth largest exporter
produced and exchanged. In otherwords, the and eleventh largest importer in the
state of a country or region in terms of the world. Recently India has become one of
production and consumption of goods and the most attractive destinations for
services and the supply of money. investment owing to favourable government
The Economy of India is the ninth policies and reforms.
largest in the world by nominal GDP and The approval of Foreign Direct
the third largest by purchasing power Investment(FDI) in several sectors have
parity (PPP). allowed investments to pour into the
The independence-era Indian economy Economy.
before and a little after 1947 was inspired by
the economy of the Soviet Union with
socialist practices, large public sectors, high
import duties and lesser private participation
characterising it, leading to massive
inefficiencies and widespread corruption.
However, later on India adopted free
market principles and liberalised its economy
to international trade. Following these strong
economic reforms, the country's economic
growth progressed at a rapid pace with very IMPORTANT TERMS:
high rates of growth and large increases in DEMAND
the incomes of people. India recorded the  Demand:- Quantity of the commodity
highest growth rates in the mid-2000s, and that a consumer is able and willing to
is one of the fastest-growing economies in purchase in a given period and at a given
the world. price.
The growth was led primarily due to a huge  Demand Schedule:- It is a tabular
increase in the size of the middle class representation which shows the relationship
41
INDIAN ECONOMY
between price of the commodity and different purposes is called composite

quantity purchased. demand.
 Demand Curve:- It is a graphical IMPORTANT POINTS TO REMEMBER:
representation of demand schedule.  First Industrial Resolution Policy in India –
 Individual Demand:- Demand by an 1948
individual consumer.  New Industrial Policy – 1991
 Planning Commission was set up in - 1950
DEMAND TYPES:  First Five year plan started from - 1951
 Cross demand: Demand primarily  Major aim of planning - To improve
dependent upon prices of related goods is standards of living of people
called cross demand. The complementary  Removal of Poverty (Garibi Hatao) - 4th
goods and substitutes are called related Five Year Plan (Indira Gandhi)
goods. ECONOMY TYPES:
 Income demand: Demand primarily Without a viable economy, a state will
dependent upon income is called income collapse. There are three main types of
demand. economies: free market, command, and
 Direct demand: Demand for goods and mixed. The chart below compares free-
services made by final consumers to satisfy market and command economies; mixed
their wants or needs is called direct demand. economies are a combination of the two.
For example guest of hotels make the  FREE-MARKET ECONOMIES:
demand for food. In free-market economies, which are
 Derived demand: Demand for goods and essentially capitalist economies, businesses
services made according to direct demand is and individuals have the freedom to pursue
called derived demand. their own economic interests, buying and
 Joint demand: Demand made for two or selling goods on a competitive market, which
more goods and services to satisfy single naturally determines a fair price for goods
need or want is called joint demand. and services.
 Composite demand: Demand for a  COMMAND ECONOMIES:
single commodity made in order to use for A command economy is also known as a
centrally planned economy because the

INDIAN ECONOMY
central, or national, government plans the When the activity involves providing
economy. In a communist society, the intangible goods like services then this is
central government controls the entire part of the tertiary sector. Financial services,
economy, allocating resources and dictating management consultancy, telephony and IT
prices for goods and services are good examples of service sector.
 MIXED ECONOMIES: MICRO ECONOMICS: It is a study of
A mixed economy combines elements of behaviour of individual units of an economy
free-market and command economies. Even such as individual consumer, producer etc.,
among free-market states, the government  PRODUCTION POSSIBILITY CURVE
usually takes some action to direct the (PPC): PP curve shows all the possible
economy. These moves are made for a combination of two goods that can be
variety of reasons; for example, some are produced with the help of available resources
designed to protect certain industries or help and technology.
consumers.  MARGINAL OPPORTUNITY COST: MOC
ECONOMY SECTORS: of a particular good along PPC is the amount
 PRIMARY SECTOR: of other good which is sacrificed for
Agriculture and agriculture related activities production of additional unit of another
are the primary sectors of economy. The good.
Indian agriculture sector accounts for 18 per  Marginal rate of transformation:
cent of India's Gross Domestic Product MRT is the ratio of units of one
(GDP) and employs just a little less than 50 goodsacrificed to produce one more unit of
per cent of the country's workforce. other good.
 SECONDARY SECTOR: NEW ECONOMIC POLICY:
When the main activity involves The new economic policy 1991 was
manufacturing then it is the secondary introduced to revive the economy. It
sector. All industrial production where emphasised a bigger role for Private sector.
physical goods are produced come under the It focused on FDI on supplement growth. It
secondary sector. aimed at export led growth along with
 TERTIARY SECTOR: reducing the role of state and making
planning liberal and market driven.
43
INDIAN ECONOMY
The main characteristics of new Economic 6. Liberalisation of Foreign Policy: The

Policy 1991 are: government granted approval for FDI up to
1. Delicencing: Only six industries were 51per cent in high priority areas.
kept under Licencing scheme. The private 7. In 1991 the rupee was devalued against
sectors were allowed to set up industrial foreign currencies. This led to an increase in
units without taking any licences. Industrial the inflow of foreign exchange.
licensing was abolished for almost all but 8. Liberalisation in Technical Area: Automatic
product categories. permission was given to Indian companies
2. Entry to Private Sector: The role of for signing technology agreements with
public sector was limited only to four foreign companies.
industries; rest all the industries were 9. Setting up of Foreign Investment
opened for private sector also. Promotion Board (FIPB): This board was set
3. The threshold limit of assets in respect of up to promote and bring foreign investment
MRTP companies and other major in India.
undertakings was abolished. They were free 10. Sick public sector units were
to undertake investments without any ceiling recommended to Board for Industrial and
prescribed by MRTP. Financial Reconstruction (BIFR) for revival.
4. Disinvestment: Disinvestment was 11. Setting up of Small Scale Industries:
carried out in many public sector enterprises. Various benefits were offered to small scale
5. The role of RBI reduced from regulator to industries.
facilitator of financial sector. This means that 12. PSU were given more autonomy There
the financial sector may be allowed to take are three major components or elements of
decisions on many matters without new economic policy—Liberalisation,
consulting the RBI. The reform policies led to Privatisation, Globalisation.
the establishment of private sector banks,
Indian as well as foreign. Foreign investment SALIENT FEATURES OF INDIAN
limit in banks was raised to around 50 per ECONOMY:
cent.  The economy of India is the tenth-largest
in the world by nominal GDP and the third-
largest by purchasing power parity (PPP).

INDIAN ECONOMY
 India was 6th largest exporter of services  Bombay Plan, aimed at doubling the per
and 19th-largest exporter of merchandise in capita income in the next 15 years, was
2013. prepared by eight noted businessmen of the
 It is the 12th-largest merchandise and 7th country in 1943.
largest services importer. Agriculture sector  People’s Plan was prepared by Shri M
is the largest employer in India's economy N Roy in April, 1945.
but contributes a declining share of its GDP  Gandhian Plan was prepared by
(13.7% in 2012-13). Shriman Narayan in 1944.
 Its manufacturing industry has held a  Sarvodaya Plan was prepared by Shri
constant share of its economic contribution, Jaiprakash Narayan in January, 1950.
while the fastest-growing part of the NATIONAL INCOME IN INDIA:
economy has been its services. The first attempt to estimate the
National income of India was made 1868 by
ECONOMIC PLANNING IN INDIA: Dadabhai Naoroji in his book ‘Poverty and
General Objectives: Un-British Rule in India.
 To improve national income and raise the The first scientific estimate of National
standard of living in the country. Income of India was made by Dr. V K R V
 To attain rapid industrialization with an Rao.
emphasis on basic and heavy industries. NATIONAL INCOME:
 To create and expand employment Definition:
opportunities.  The total amount of money earned within
 To ensure distributional justice through a country.
reduction in inequalities in income and  In other words, the total amount of
wealth. income accruing to a country from economic
 To increase employment opportunities. activities in a year’s time is known as
 Economic planning is the method of national income. It includes payments made
allocating resources (physical and human) to all resources in the form of wages,
among different uses in order of preferences interest, rent and profits.
and the detailed scheme prepared for that is CONCEPTS:
called as the economic plan. (A) Gross Domestic Product (GDP):
45
INDIAN ECONOMY
 GDP is a broad measurement of a nation’s added up. This is also known as the value
overall economic activity. added method to GDP or GDP at factor cost
 GDP includes all private and public by industry of origin. In other words, it is the
consumption, government outlays, sum of gross value added.
investments and exports minus imports that 2. The Income Method:
occur within a defined territory. The people of a country who produce GDP
 Gross domestic product (GDP) is the during a year receive incomes from their
monetary value of all the finished goods and work. Thus GDP by income method is the
services produced within a country's borders sum of all factor incomes: Wages and
in a specific time period. Salaries (compensation of employees) +
Rent + Interest + Profit.
3. Expenditure Method:
Gross domestic product can be calculated
using the following formula:
GDP = C + G + I + NX
Where
C all private consumption, or consumer
spending, in a nation's economy
G the sum of government spending
I the sum of all the country's
investment, including businesses capital
Three different ways to measure GDP:
expenditures
1. Product Method
NX the nation's total net exports,
2. Income Method
calculated as total exports minus total
3. Expenditure Method
imports (NX =
These three methods of calculating GDP yield
Exports - Imports) which can be
the same result because National Product =
positive or negative
National Income = National Expenditure.
(B) GDP at Factor Cost:
1. The Product Method: In this method,
GDP at Factor Cost = Net value added +
the value of all goods and services produced
Depreciation.
in different industries during the year is

INDIAN ECONOMY
GDP at factor cost includes: (E) GDP Deflator:

(i) Compensation of employees i.e., wages, The GDP deflator is a tool used to measure
salaries, etc. the level of price changes over time so that
(ii) Operating surplus which is the business current prices can be accurately compared to
profit of both incorporated and historical prices. In other words, it eliminates
unincorporated firms. [Operating Surplus the effects of price changes over time.
= Gross Value Added at Factor Cost— (F) Gross National Product (GNP):
Compensation of Employees—Depreciation] GNP (Gross National Income) is the market
(iii) Mixed Income of Self- employed. value of all final goods and services
(C) Net Domestic Product (NDP): produced within the country in a year plus
NDP is the value of net output of the net factor income abroad is called gross
economy during the year. Some of the national product.
country’s capital equipment wears out or GNP includes four types of final goods
becomes obsolete each year during the and services:
production process. The value of this capital (1) Consumers’ goods and services to satisfy
consumption is some percentage of gross the immediate wants of the people;
investment which is deducted from GDP. (2) Gross private domestic investment in
GDP at Factor Cost = GDP at Market capital goods consisting of fixed capital
Price – Indirect Taxes + Subsidies. formation, residential construction and
Net Domestic Product = GDP at Factor inventories of finished and unfinished goods;
Cost – Depreciation (3) Goods and services produced by the
(D) Nominal and Real GDP: government; and
When GDP is measured on the basis of (4) Net exports of goods and services, i.e.,
current price, it is called GDP at current the difference between value of exports and
prices or nominal GDP. On the other hand, imports of goods and services, known as net
when GDP is calculated on the basis of fixed income from abroad.
prices in some year, it is called GDP at (G) GNP at Market Prices:
constant prices or real GDP. GNP at Market Prices = GDP at Market Prices
+ Net Income from Abroad.
47
INDIAN ECONOMY
(H) GNP at Factor Cost: than NNP at factor cost when government
GNP at Factor Cost = GNP at Market Prices – subsidies exceed indirect taxes.
Indirect Taxes + Subsidies. (L) Domestic Income:
(I)Net National Income: Income generated (or earned) by factors of
NNP is the amount which comes after the production within the country from its own
minus of depreciation in the gross national resources is called domestic income or
product (GNP). This is known as depression. domestic product.
In order to arrive at NNP, we deduct
depreciation from GNP. The word ‘net’ refers Domestic income includes:
to the exclusion of that part of total output (i) Wages and salaries, (ii) rents, including
which represents depreciation. imputed house rents, (iii) interest, (iv)
NNP = GNP—Depreciation dividends, (v) undistributed corporate
(K) NNP at Factor Cost: profits, including surpluses of public
Net National Product at factor cost is the net undertakings, (vi) mixed incomes consisting
output evaluated at factor prices. It includes of profits of unincorporated firms, self-
income earned by factors of production employed persons, partnerships, etc., and
through participation in the production (vii) direct taxes.
process such as wages and salaries, rents, Since domestic income does not include
profits, etc. It is also called National income earned from abroad, it can also be
Income. shown as:
NNP at Factor Cost = NNP at Market Domestic Income = National Income-
Prices – Indirect taxes+ Subsidies Net income earned from abroad.
= GNP at Market Prices – Depreciation – (M) Private Income:
Indirect taxes + Subsidies. Private income is income obtained by private
= National Income. individuals from any source, productive or
Normally, NNP at market prices is higher otherwise, and the retained income of
than NNP at factor cost because indirect corporations.
taxes exceed government subsidies. Private Income = National Income (or NNP
However, NNP at market prices can be less at Factor Cost) + Transfer Payments +

INDIAN ECONOMY
Interest on Public Debt — Social Security — economy handicapped; leaders had the
Profits and Surpluses of Public Undertakings challenges to make country’s
(N) Personal Income: economy strong. A formal model of planning
PI is the total income received by all was adopted. The Planning commission was
individuals and household of a country from established on 15th March 1950, with
all possible sources before payment of direct Former Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru as
taxes. It is the actual income received by a the Chairman. The Planning Commission is
individual and household during a year. directly reporting to the Prime Minister of
Personal Income = Private Income – India. Now, it is known as NITI Aayog
Undistributed Corporate Profits – Profit (National Institute for Transforming India
Taxes. Aayog) and established by Prime Minister
(O) Disposable Income: Narendra Modi on 1st January 2015.
DI is the total income by all individuals and Planning Commission was assigned the task
household of a country from all possible of formulating plans for the most effective
sources after a payment of direct taxes. and balanced utilisation of resources and
(P) Real Income: determining priorities. Since then the
Real income is national income expressed in Planning Commission frames the centralized
terms of a general level of prices of a and integrated national economic programs
particular year taken as base. at the interval of every five years, thereby
Real NNP = NNP for the Current Year x Base known as the Five-Year Plans.
Year Index (=100) / Current Year Index The First Five-Year Plan of India was
(Q) Per Capita Income: presented by Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru in
The average income of the people of a 1951.
country in a particular year is called Per First Plan (1951-56):
Capita Income for that year.  It was based on Harrod-Domar Model.
FIVE YEAR PLAN  Focus on Agriculture, Price Stability,
When India became an Power and Transport
independent country, many questions had  It was a successful plan primarily because
arisen in front of the country’s leaders at of good harvests in the last two years of the
that time. The British had left the Indian plan.
49
INDIAN ECONOMY
Second Plan (1956-61): fertilizers, exploitation of irrigation potential

 It also called Mahalanobis plan named and soil conservation.
after the well known economist.  During the Annual Plans, the economy
 Focus on rapid industrialization. absorbed the shocks generated during the
 Advocated huge imports through foreign Third Plan.
loans. Fourth Plan (1969-74):
 Shifted basic emphasis from agriculture to  Main emphasis was on growth rate of
industry. agriculture to enable other sectors to move
 During this plan prices increased by 30%, forward
against a decline of 13% during the First First two years of the plan saw record
plan production. The last three years did not
Third Plan (1961-66): measure up due to poor monsoon.
 It stressed agriculture and improvement  Influx of Bangladeshi refugees before and
in the production of wheat, but the brief after 1971 Indo-Pak war was an important
Sino-Indian war of 1962 exposed issue.
weaknesses in the economy and shifted the Fifth Plan (1974-79)
focus towards the defence industry and the  It proposed to achieve two main
Indian Army. objectives: 'removal of poverty' (Garibi
 Complete failure in reaching the targets Hatao) and 'attainment of self reliance'.
due to unforeseen events-Chinese  Promotion of high rate of growth, better
aggression (1962), Indo-Pak war (1964), distribution of income and significant growth
severe drought 1965-66. in the domestic rate of savings were seen as
Three Annual Plans (1966-69): key instruments.
 Prevailing crisis in agriculture and serious  The plan was terminated in 1978 (instead
food shortage necessitated the emphasis on of 1979) when Janta Party government rose
agriculture during the Annual Plans. to power.
 During these plans a whole new Rolling Plan (1978-80):Janta government
agricultural strategy was implemented. It put forward a plan for 1978- 1983. However,
involving wide-spread distribution of high- the government lasted for only 2 years.
yielding varieties of seeds, extensive use of

INDIAN ECONOMY
Congress government returned to power in and allied sector, and manufacturing sector,
1980 and launched a different plan. growth in exports and imports, improvement
Sixth Plan (1980-85): in trade and current account deficit.
 Focus - Increase in national income, Ninth Plan (1997-2002):
modernization of technology, ensuring  It was developed in the context of four
continuous decrease in poverty and important dimensions: Quality of life,
unemployment, population control through generation of productive employment,
family planning etc regional balance and self-reliance.
Seventh Plan (1985-90): Tenth Plan (2002-2007):
 Focus - rapid growth in food-grains  To achieve 8% GDP growth rate
production, increased employment  Reduction of poverty ratio by 5
opportunities and productivity within the percentage points by 2007
framework of basic tenants of planning.  Providing gainful high quality employment
 The plan was very successful, the to the addition to the labour force over the
economy recorded 6% growth rate against tenth plan period
the targeted 5%  Universal access to primary education by
Eight Plan (1992-97): 2007
 The eighth plan was postponed by two  Reduction in gender gaps in literacy and
years because of political uncertainty at the wage rates by atleast 50% by 2007
centre  Reduction in decadal rate of population
Worsening Balance of Payment position and growth between 2001 and 2011 to 16.2%
inflation during 1990-91 were the key issues  Increase in literacy rate to 72% within the
during the launch of the plan. plan period and to 80% by 2012
 The plan undertook drastic policy  Increase in forest and tree cover to 25%
measures to combat the bad economic by 2007 and 33% by 2012.
situation and to undertake an annual  Cleaning of all major polluted rivers by
average growth of 5.6% 2007 and other notified stretches by 2012.
 Some of the main economic outcomes
during eighth plan period were rapid
economic growth, high growth of agriculture
51
INDIAN ECONOMY
Eleventh Plan (2007-2012):  It is also expected to create employment

 Accelerate GDP growth from 8% to 10%. through developing India’s manufacturing
Increase agricultural GDP growth rate to 4% sector and move the nation higher up the
per year. value chain.
 Create 70 million new work opportunities TAX STRUCTURE IN INDIA:
and reduce educated unemployment to Taxes are the amount of money government
below 5% imposes on an individual or corporates
 Raise real wage rate of unskilled workers directly or indirectly so as to generate
by 20 % revenue or to keep in check any black
 Lower gender gap in literacy to 10 money activities in India.
percentage point. Increase the percentage of The tax on incomes, customs duties,
each cohort going to higher education from central excise and service tax are levied by
the present 10% to 15 % the Central Government. The state
 Reduce Total Fertility Rate to 2.1 Government levies agricultural income tax
 Raise the sex ratio for age group 0-6 to (income from plantations only), Value Added
935 by 2011-12 and to 950 by 2016-2017 Tax (VAT)/ Sales Tax, Stamp Duty, State
 Provide clean drinking water for all by Excise, Land Revenue, Luxury Tax and Tax
2009 On Professions. The local bodies have the
 Attain WHO standards of air quality in all authority to levy tax on properties,
major cities by 2011-12 octroi/entry tax and tax for utilities like
 Increase energy efficiency by 20 water supply, drainage etc.
percentage points by 2016-17 DIRECT TAXES:
Twelfth Plan: 2012-17 Taxes can be either direct or indirect.
 This plan’s focus is on instilling “inclusive “A direct tax is one that the taxpayer
growth”. pays directly to the government”. These
 The plan is concentrated to encourage the taxes cannot be shifted to others. A
development of India’s agriculture, homeowner pays personal property taxes
education, health and social welfare through directly to the government. A family pays its
government spending. own federal income taxes.These contributes

INDIAN ECONOMY
major chunk of the total taxes collected in material etc. and earn profit on it then you
India. are supposed to pay capital gain tax.
INCOME TAX: PROPERTY TAX
The Indian Income Tax Department  GIFT TAX
is governed by CBDT and is part of the  HOUSE TAX
Department of Revenue under the Ministry of  PROFESSIONAL TAX
Finance, Govt. of India.  DTC
Corporate Income Tax – This is the tax INDIRECT TAXES:
levied on the profits a corporate house An indirect tax can be passed on to
earned in a year. In India, the Corporate another person or group. A business may
Income tax rate is a tax collected from recover the cost of the taxes it pays by
companies. charging higher prices to customers. A tax
Securities Transaction Tax Introduced in shift occurs when the business shifts its
2004, STT is levied on the sale and purchase taxes to others. This is a type of tax levied
of equities (ie Shares, Debentures or any on the individuals whose income falls under
other security). more clearly, The income a the taxable category (2.5 lakhs per annum).
individual generate through the securities Indirect Taxes:-
market be it through reselling of shares or  SALES TAX
through debentures is taxed by the  VAT(VALUE ADDED TAX)
government of India and the same tax is  CUSTOM DUTY
called as Securities Transaction Tax.  OCTROI
Banking Cash Transaction Tax - A bank  EXCISE DUTY
transaction tax is a tax levied on debit  ANTI DUMPING DUTY
(and/or credit) entries on bank accounts. It  ENTERTAINMENT TAX
can be automatically collected by a central  TOLL TAX
counterparty in the clearing or settlement  SERVICE TAX
process.  GST-GOODS & SERVICE TAX
Capital Gains Tax:- Capital Gain tax as  Value Added Tax
name suggests it is tax on gain in capital. If When we pay an extra amount of price for
you sale property, shares, bonds & precious the goods and services we consume or buy,
53
INDIAN ECONOMY
that extra amount of money is called as VAT. INFLATION:

This taxes is about to be replaced by Goods - a sustained increase in the aggregate or
and Services Tax. Customs Duty – Customs general price level in an economy. Inflation
Duty is a type of indirect tax levied on goods means there is an increase in the cost of
imported into India as well as on goods living.
exported from India. In India, the basic law “Inflation means that your money
for levy and collection of customs duty is won’t buy as much today as you
Customs Act, 1962. It provides for levy and could yesterday”
collection of duty on imports and exports. Formula for calculating Inflation =
Service TaxService Tax is a tax imposed by (WPIin month of current year-WPIin
Government of India on services provided in samemonth of previous year) ×100 WPI
India. The service provider collects the tax in samemonth of previous year
and pays the same to the government. It is INFLATION TYPES:
charged on all services except the services in Comprehensive Inflation: When the
the negative list of services. prices of allcommodities rise throughout the
Sales Tax:- Sales tax charged on the sales economy.
of movable goods. Sporadic Inflation: When prices of only
Custom duty & Octroi (On Goods):- few commodities in few regions (areas) rise.
Custom Duty is a type of indirect tax Open Inflation: When government does
charged on goods imported into India. One not attempt torestrict inflation, it is known as
has to pay this duty, on goods that are Open Inflation. In a free market economy,
imported from a foreign country into India where prices are allowed to take its own
Octroi is tax applicable on goods entering course, open inflation occurs.
from one state to another for consumption or Suppressed Inflation: When government
sale. In simple terms one can call it as Entry prevents price rise through price controls,
Tax. rationing, etc., it is known as Suppressed
Excise Duty:- An excise duty is a type of Inflation or Repressed Inflation.
tax charged on goods produced within the Hyperinflation: It refers to a situation
country. Another name of this tax is CENVAT where the prices rise at an alarming high
(Central Value Added Tax). rate. Theprices rise so fast that it becomes

INDIAN ECONOMY
very difficult to measure its magnitude. Profit Inflation: When entrepreneurs are
However, in quantitative terms, when prices interested inboosting their profit margins,
rise above 1000% per annum (quadruple or prices rise.
four digit inflation rate), it is termed as Demand-Pull Inflation: Inflation which
Hyperinflation. arises due to various factors like rising
Deficit Inflation: Deficit inflation takes income, exploding population, etc., leads to
place due to deficit financing. aggregate demand and exceeds aggregate
Credit Inflation: Credit inflation takes supply, and tends to raise prices of goods
place due toexcessive bank credit or money and services. This is known as Demand-Pull
supply in the economy. or Excess Demand Inflation.
Scarcity Inflation: Scarcity inflation occurs
due tohoarding. Hoarding is an excess
accumulation of basic commodities by
unscrupulous traders and black marketers.
Creeping Inflation- Price Rise by 2%- not
controlled in time- prove disastrous-
economic and political stability of the
economy
Walking Inflation – mild and tolerable
Cost-Push Inflation: When prices rise due
>10% PA- moderate- stable inflation-
to growingcost of production of goods and
people expectations remain more or less
services, it is knownas Cost-Push (Supply-
stable.
side) Inflation.
Running Inflation- rises rapidly <10%
MONEY SUPPLY:
ranges 10-20%- exceeds “Galloping
The four main monetary aggregates of
inflation. Causes economic distortions and
measures of money supply which reflect the
disturbances in the economy.
state of the monetary sector are:-
Hyper Inflation - 1000% PA. Low
(i) M1 (Narrow money) = Currency with
purchasing power, real wages fall and
the public + demand deposits of the public;
inequalities increases- serious distortions-
overall economic condition.
55
INDIAN ECONOMY
(ii) M2 = M1 + Post Office Savings Implicit cost: Cost incurred on the self -
deposits; owned factors of production.
(iii) M3 (Broad money) = M1 + time For example, interest on owners
deposits of the public with banks; capital, rent of own building, salary for the
and (iv) M4 = M3 + Total post office services of entrepreneur etc.
deposits. Opportunity cost: is the cost of next best
Price movement in the country is reflected alternative foregone / sacrificed.
by the Wholesale Price Index (WPI) and the Fixed cost: are the cost which are incurred
Consumer Price Index (CPI). WPI is used to on the fixed factors of production.
measure the change in the average price These costs remain fixed whatever
level of goods traded in the wholesale may be the scale of output. These costs are
market, while the Consumer Price Index present even when the output is zero. These
(CPI) captures the retail price movement for costs are present in short run but disappear
different sections of consumers. in the long run.
COST Total Variable Cost: TVC or variable cost –
Cost of production: Expenditure incurred are those costs which vary directly with the
on various inputs to produce goods and variation in the output. These costs are
services. incurred on the variable factors of
Cost function: Functional relationship production.These costs are also called “prime
between cost and output. costs”, “Direct cost” or “avoidable cost”.
C= f(q) Where f=functional relationship These costs are zero when output is zero.
Where c= cost of production Total cost: is the total expenditure incurred
q=quantity of product on the factors and non-factor inputs in the
Money cost: Money expenses incurred by a production of goods and services. It is
firm for producing a commodity or service. obtained by summing TFC and TVC at
Explicit cost: Actual payment made on various levels of output.
hired factors of production. REVENUE
For example wages paid to the hired Revenue:- Money received by a firm from
labourers, rent paid for hired the sale of a given output in the market.
accommodation, cost of raw material etc

INDIAN ECONOMY
Total Revenue: Total sale receipts or a) Plan expenditure of Railways and

receipts from the sale of given output. b) Posts
TR = Quantity sold × Price (or) output sold Two examples of Non-Developmental
× price expenditures:
Average Revenue: Revenue or Receipt i) Expenditure on defence
received per unit of output sold. ii) Interest payments
 AR = TR / Output sold Surplus Budget
 AR and price are the same. A Surplus Budget is one where the estimated
 TR = Quantity sold × price or output sold revenues are greater than the estimated
× price expenditures.
 AR = (output / quantity × price) / Output/ Four different concepts of Budget
quantity Deficits:
 AR= price a) Budget Deficit: It is the difference
 AR and demand curve are the same. between the total expenditure, current
Shows the various quantities demanded at revenue and net internal and external capital
various prices. receipts of the government.
Marginal Revenue: Additional revenue b) Revenue Deficit - It is the excess of
earned by the seller by selling an additional governments revenue expenditures over
unit of output. revenue
BUDGET receipts.
Two types of Revenue Receipts. c) Primary Deficit - It is the fiscal deficit
i) Tax Revenue ii) Non-tax Revenue MINUS Interest payments
Capital Receipts: It includes d) Fiscal Deficit - It is the difference between
a) Market Loans (loans raised by the the total expenditure of the government, the
government from the public) revenue receipts PLUS those capital receipts
b) Borrowings by the Government which finally accrue to the government.
c) Loans received from foreign governments Revenue Expenditure
and International financial Institutions. It is the expenditure incurred for the normal
Two examples of Developmental running of government departments and
Expenditure:
57
INDIAN ECONOMY
provision of various services like interest a) Visible items of trade: The balance of
charges on debt, subsidies etc. exports and imports of goods is called the
balance of visible trade.
Capital Expenditure b) Invisible trade: The balance of exports
It consists mainly of expenditure on and imports of services is called the balance
acquisition of assets like land, building, ofinvisible trade e.g. Shipping insurance etc.
machinery, c) Unilateral transfers: Unilateral transfers
equipment etc., and loans and advances are receipts which resident of a country
granted by the Central Government to States receive (or) payments that the residents of a
& Union Territories. country make without getting anything in
BALANCE OF TRADE: Balance of trade is return e.g. gifts.
the difference between the money value of The net value of balances of visible trade
exports and imports of material goods and of invisible trade and of unilateral
(visible item) transfers is the balance on current account.
BALANCE OF PAYMENTS:  Capital Account: It records all
The balance of payments of a country is a international transactions that involve a
systematic record of all economic resident of the domestic country changing
transactions between residents of a country his assets with a foreign resident or his
and residents of foreign countries during a liabilities to a foreign resident.
given period of time. It includes both visible PUBLIC SECTOR UNDERTAKING (PSUs)/
and invisible items. Hence the balance of PSEs:
payments represents a better picture of a A state-owned enterprise in India is called
country’s economic transactions with the rest a public sector undertaking (PSU) or
of the world than the balance of trade. a public sector enterprise. These
A balance of payments statement is a companies are owned by the union
summary of a Nation’s total economic government of India, or one of the many
transaction undertaken on international state or territorial governments, or both. The
account. There are two types of account. company stock needs to be majority-owned
 Current Account: It records the following by the government to be a PSU.
3 items

INDIAN ECONOMY
MAHARATNA/NAVRATNA/MINIRATNA net worth in a project, limited to an absolute

STATUS FOR PUBLIC SECTOR ceiling of Rs 5,000 crore.
UNDERTAKINGS List of Maharatnas:
The status of Maharatna, Navratna, Bharat Heavy Electricals
Miniratna to CPSEs is conferred by the  Coal India Ltd.
Department of Public Enterprises to  GAIL (India) Ltd.
various Public Sector Undertakings. These  Indian Oil Corporation
prestigious titles provide them greater  NTPC Ltd.
autonomy to compete in the global market.  Oil and Natural Gas Corporation
As on 30 September 2015 there are 7  Steel Authority of India Ltd.
Maharatnas, 17 Navratnas and 73  Navratna:
Miniratnas.There are nearly 300 CPSEs in  The Central Public Sector Enterprises
total. (CPSEs) fulfilling the following criteria are
Maharatna: eligible to be considered for grant of Having
 A company qualifying for the Maharatna Schedule 'A' and Miniratna Category-1
should have an average annual turnover of status.
Rs 20,000 crore during the last three years  Having at least three 'Excellent' or 'Very
against Rs 25,000 crore prescribed earlier. Good' Memorandum of Understanding (MoU)
 The average annual net worth of the ratings during the last five years.
company should be Rs 10,000 crore.  The Navratna status empowers PSEs to
 The Maharatna status empowers mega invest up to Rs. 1000 crore or 15% of their
CPSEs to expand their operations and net worth on a single project without seeking
emerge as global giants. government approval.
 The coveted status empowers the boards  In a year, these companies can spend up
of firms to take investment decisions up to to 30% of their net worth not exceeding Rs.
Rs 5,000 crore as against the present Rs 1000 cr. They also enjoy the freedom to
1,000 crore limit without seeking enter joint ventures, form alliances and float
government approval. subsidiaries abroad.
 The Maharatna firms would now be free List of Navratna:
to decide on investments up to 15% of their Bharat Electronics Ltd.
59
INDIAN ECONOMY
 Bharat Petroleum Corporation offices but with certain conditions. This

 Container Corporation of India designation applies to PSEs that have made
 Engineers India Ltd. profits continuously for the last three years
 Hindustan Aeronautics or earned a net profit of Rs. 30 crore or
 Hindustan Petroleum Corporation more in one of the three years.
 Mahanagar Telephone Nigam Ltd.  Miniratna Category-II CPSEs
 National Aluminium Company Ltd. Category II miniratnas have autonomy to
 National Buildings Construction incurring the capital expenditure without
Corporation government approval up to Rs. 300 crore or
 National Mineral Development Corporation up to 50% of their net worth whichever is
 Neyveli Lignite Corporation lower.
 Oil India 30 Important facts about RBI:
 Power Finance Corporation  Name of Central Bank of India: Reserve
 Power Grid Corporation of India Bank of India (RBI)
 Rashtriya Ispat Nigam Ltd.  No of Central Bank in India: One (1)
 Rural Electrification Corporation  Reserve Bank of India Act passed in 1934.
 Shipping Corporation of India  Reserve Bank of India (RBI) established
 Miniratna Category: For Miniratna on 1 April 1935. RBI was nationalize in the
category I status, the CPSE should have year of 1st January, 1949.
made profit in the last three years  The bank was set up based on the
continuously, the pre-tax profit should have recommendations of the 1926 Royal
been Rs. 30 crores or more in at least one of Commission on Indian Currency and Finance,
the three years and should have a positive also known as the Hilton–Young
net worth. Commission.
 For category II, the CPSE should have  Initially RBI was constructed as a Private
made profit for the last three years Share holders’ bank with fully paid up capital
continuously and should have a positive net of Rs 5 Crores.
worth.  RBI is a statutory body. RBI is not a
 Miniratnas can enter into joint ventures, Commercial Bank.
set subsidiary companies and overseas

INDIAN ECONOMY
 RBI is the sole authority in India to issue  RBI does not have second class
Bank notes in India. Minting of coins and employees. It has 17000 Class I, Class III &
priting 1 RS notes are done by the Class IV employees.
Government of India.  The Executive head of RBI is known as
 RBI has the authority to issue bank notes Governor.Present Governor of Reserve Bank
of denominational values of Rs. 2, 5, 10, 20, of India (RBI) is Raghuram Rajan who
50, 100, 500, 1,000, 5,000 and 10,000.RBI replaced Duvvuri Subbarao on September 4,
demonetized notes in the denominations of 2013.He is the 23rd RBI Governor of India
five thousand rupees (Rs. 5,000) and ten  The governor is associated by Four
thousand rupees (Rs. 10,000) in 1938. They Deputy Governors.
were reintroduced in 1954 and again List of Deputy Governor:
demonetized in 1978. RBI can print these 1. Name: Shri H.R.Khan
notes according to the RBI act of 1934. 2. Name: Urijit Patel (New Appointment,
 RBI prints currency in 15 Languages. Replaced Subir Gokarn.)
 RBI can issue currency notes as much as 3. Name: Shri R. Gandhi (Appointed on
the country requires, provided it has to make April 3, 2014.)
a security deposit of Rs. 200 crores, out of 4. Name: Shri S.S. Mundra.
which Rs. 115 crores must be in gold and Rs.  Manmohan Singh is the only Prime
85crores must be FOREX Reserves. Minister to have also served as the Governor
 Emblem of RBI: Panther and Palm Tree. of RBI.He was the Governor of RBI from
th
The RBI logo was inspired from the East 1982-1985.He was the 15 RBI Governor of
India Company Double Mohur. India
 Initially the headquarter of RBI was in  The bank has also two training colleges for
Calcutta (Now Kolkata) but in 1937 it was its officers, viz. Reserve Bank Staff College
permanently moved to Mumbai, at Chennai and College of Agricultural
Maharastra. Banking at Pune.
 The Reserve Bank of India has 19 regional  RBI is a member bank of the Asian
offices, most of them in state capitals and 9 Clearing Union.
Suboffices.  The first RBI Governor was Osborne
Smith
61
INDIAN ECONOMY
 The Indian to hold the position of the  In 2013-14, RBI transferred Rs 52679
Governor of RBI was Mr. Chintaman crores of its profits to Government of India
Dwarkanath Deshmukh (C.D. Deshmukh).  RBI runs a Monetary Museum in the
He was the third governor of RBI. premises of the Mumbai head
 C D Deshmukh, then Governor of RBI, 20 Facts about State Bank of India:
represented India at the Bretton Woods  State Bank of India is the largest Indian
negotiations in 1944. banking and financial services company by
 1st women Deputy Governor of RBI yearly turnover and total assets.
K.J.Udeshi.She was appointed in 2003.  The headquarters of SBI is in Mumbai,
 RBI is a member of IMF (International India.
Monetary Fund).At present there are total 90  SBI is a State owned Bank.
bank in the second schedule of Reserve  Bank of Bengal was established in 1806
Bank of India Act, 1934. [Latest inclusion – in Kolkata. It was the first presidency bank
Bhartiya Mahila Bank] of India.
 RBI was also the central bank for two  Two other presidency bank was
other countries. It played the role of Central established, Bank of Bombay in 1840 and
Bank of Pakistan till June 1948 and the Bank of Madras in 1843.These three banks
Central Bank of Burma ( Myanmar) till April were private shareholders’ bank.
1947  East India Company also contributed to
 RBI’s Nagpur branch holds the biggest the share capital of each of them.These
chunk of India’s gold deposits banks were given monopoly of Govt.
 The institution is country’s major holder of After1823,These three banks received the
Gold Deposits. exclusive right to issue paper currency in
 RBI has launched a website to raise 1861 with the Paper Currency Act
awareness among masses about fake notes  Presidency Banks were amalgamated into
in the market.The website is the Imperial Bank of India (IBI) which
www.paisaboltahai.rbi.org.in. Here, you was established in 27 January 1921
will find detailed information on how to spot  According to the parliamentary Act, State
fake currency. Bank of India Act (1955), Imperial Bank of

INDIAN ECONOMY
India (IBI) was acquired by the Reserve  As of 31st March, 2014: SBI group
Bank of India. (including associate banks) has 51,491
 On 30 April 1955 RBI renamed Imperial ATMs.
Bank of India (IBI) as State Bank of India.  As of 31st March, 2014: SBI has 15,869
 State Bank of India (Subsidiary branches.
Banks) Act passed in 1959.In 1959, eight  On October 7, 2013, Arundhati
banks were converted as associate banks of Bhattacharya became the first woman to
SBI be appointed Chairperson of the bank.
1. State Bank of Bikaner  Slogans of SBI:
2. State Bank of Jaipur  1. With you all the way
3. State Bank of Hyderbad 2. Pure banking nothing else
4. State Bank of Indore 3. The Banker to every Indian
5. State Bank of Mysore 4. The Nation banks on us
6. State Bank of Saurashtra
7. State Bank of Patoila FINANCE COMMISSION
8. State Bank of Travancore It is a body set up under Article 280 of the
In 1963, State Bank of Bikaner and State Constitution.
Bank of Jaipur were merged to form State Functions:
Bank of Bikaner and Jaipur (SBBJ).  Its primary job is to recommend measures
 In 2008, State Bank of Saurashtra was and methods on how revenues need to be
merged with the Parent Bank,SBI distributed between the Centre and states.
 In 2010, State Bank of Indore was  The Commission also lays down the
merged with – SBI principles for giving out grant-in-aid to
 The total number of Associate Banks of states and other local bodies.
SBI currently working in India Five(5)  The commission has to take on itself the
 State Bank of India has 137 foreign offices job of addressing the imbalances that often
in 32 countries across the globe. arise between the taxation powers and
 As of 31st March, 2014: SBI has 43,515 expenditure responsibilities of the centre and
AMTs. the states, respectively.
63
INDIAN ECONOMY
 Primarily, it has to ensure a sense of List of Chairmans of Finance

equality in public services across the states. Commission:
Members of the Commission: First FC KC Neogy (1952-1957)
Chairman: Mr. Y.V. Reddy (Former Second FC K Santhanam (1957-1962)
Governor of the Reserve Bank of India) Third FC AK Chandra (1962-1966)
Other members: Fourth FC PV Rajamannar (1966- 69)
1. Abhijit Sen, Member, Planning Fifth FC Mahaveer Thyagi (1969–74)
Commission Sixth FC K Brahmananda Reddy (1974-
2. Sushama Nath, Former Union Finance 1979)
Secretary Seventh FC J M Shelat (1979 -1984)
3. M Govinda Rao, former Director of Eighth FC Y B Chavan (1984 -1989)
National Institute of Public Finance and Ninth FC N K P Slave (1989 - 1995)
Policy Tenth FC K C Pant (1995-2000)
4. Sudipto Mundle, former Acting Chairman, Eleventh FC A M Khusro (2000 - 2005)
National Statistical Commission
Twelfth FC C Rangarajan (2005-2010)
5. AN Jha, Secretary to the Commission.
Thirteenth Dr Vijay L Kelkar (2010-15)
Head quarters: New Delhi
FC
Tenure for the commission: 5 years
Fourteenth Dr.Y VReddy. (2015 - 2020)
Formed on: 22 November 1951
FC
Key recommendation:
It has recommended an increase in the share
of states in the centre's tax revenue from
the current 32 per cent to 42 per cent.
This is indeed the single largest increase
ever recommended by a Finance
Commission.

INDIAN ECONOMY
from labour force we get the number of

unemployment. The unemployment rate
means the number of persons unemployed
per 1000 persons in the labour force.
TYPES OF UNEMPLOYMENT
Following are the important types of
unemployment.
1. Voluntary unemployment: Voluntary
unemployment happens when people are not
ready to work at the prevailing wage rate
even if work is available. It is a type of
unemployment by choice.
2. Involuntary Unemployment: It is a
situation when people are ready to work at
the prevailing wage rate but could not find
job.
UNEMPLOYMENT
3. Natural Unemployment: This is
Unemployment is a major developmental
postulated by the Post Keynesians.
issue in Indian economy is unemployment.
According to them in every economy there
When the labour possesses necessary ability
exists a particular percentage of
and health to perform a job, but does not
unemployment.
get job opportunities that state is called as
4. Structural unemployment: This type of
unemployment. Number of unemployed is
unemployment is not a temporary
equal to labour force minus workforce. The
phenomenon. This type of unemployment
labour force refers to the number of persons
occurs due structural changes in the
who are employed plus the number who are
economy. It results due the result of
willing to be employed. The work force
backwardness and low rate of economic
includes those who are actually employed in
development.
economic activity. If we deduct work force
65
INDIAN ECONOMY
5. Disguised Unemployment: When more people moved from one occupation to

people are engaged in a job than actually another.
required, then it is called disguised Important schemes in INDIA
unemployment. 1952: Community Development Programme
6. Under Employment: This exists when (CDP) overall development of rural areas and
people are not fully employment ie; when people’s participation.
people are partially employed. 1960-61: Intensive Agriculture Development
7. Open Unemployment: Open program (IADP) To provide loan for seeds
unemployment is a situation where a large and fertilizers to farmers
labour force does not get work opportunities 1964-65: Intensive Agriculture Area
that may yield regular income to them. It is programme (IAAP) To develop special
just opposite to disguised unemployment. It harvest in agriculture area.
exists when people are ready to work but are 1965: Credit Authorization Scheme (CAS)
not working due to non availability of work. Involved qualitative credit control of reserve
8. Seasonal unemployment: Generally this bank of India
type of unemployment is associated with 1966-67: High yielding variety programme
agriculture. This type of unemployment (HYVP) To increase the productivity of food
occurs when the workers are engaged in a grains by adopting latest varieties of inputs
season products. of crops.
9. Cyclical Unemployment: It is generally 1966-67: Green Revolution: To Increase
witnessed in developed nations. This type of productivity. Confined to wheat production.
unemployment is due to business fluctuation 1969: Rural Electrification Corporation To
and is known as cyclical unemployment. provide electricity in rural areas
10. Technological Unemployment: This 1972: Scheme of Discriminatory Interest
type of unemployment occur when there is Rate To provide loan to the weaker sections
introduction of a new technology which of society at a concessional interest rate of
causes displacement of workers. 4%
11. Frictional Unemployment: It is a 1972-73: Accelerated Rural water Supply
temporary unemployment which exists when Programme (ARWSP) Providing drinking
water in villages

INDIAN ECONOMY
1973: Drought Prone Area Programme: 1979: Training Rural Youth for Self
Protection from drought by achieving Employment TRYSEM (launched on 15th
environement balace and by developing August) educational and vocational training
ground water 1980: Integrated Rural Development
1973: Crash Scheme for Rural Employment Programme: IRDP (launched on October 2,
CSRE For rural employment 1980) overall development of rural poor
1973-74: Marginal Farmer and Agriculture 1980: National Rural Development
Labor Agency (MFALA) Technical & financial programme NREP employment for rural
assistance to marginal farmers manforce
1974-75: Small Farmer Development 1982: Development of Women & Children in
Scheme SFDS Technical & financial Rural Areas (DWCRA) sustainable
assistance to small farmers opportunities of self employment to the
1975: Command Area Development women belonging to the rural families who
Programme: (CADP) Better utilization of are living below the poverty line.
irrigational capacities 1983: Rural Landless Employment
1975: Twenty Point Programme (TPP) Guarantee Programme (RLEGP) (Launched
Poverty eradication and an overall objective on August 15) employment to landless
of raising the level living farmers and laborers
1977: National Institution of Rural 1983-84: Farmers Agriculture Service
Development Training, investigation and Centers FASCs Tell the people use of
advisory for rural development improved instruments of agriculture
1977-78: Desert Development Programme: 1984: National Fund for Rural Development:
(DDP) To control the desert expansion by To grant 100% tax rebate to donors and also
maintaining environment balance to provide financial assistance for rural
1977-78: Food For Work Programme: development projects
providing food grains to labor 1985: Comprehensive Crop Insurance
1977-78: Antyodaya Yojna: Scheme of Scheme: Crop Insurance
Rajasthan, providing economic assistance to 1986: Council of Advancement of People’s
poorest families Action & Rural Technology (CAPART)
Assistance to rural people
67
INDIAN ECONOMY
1986: Self Employment Programme for the 1993: Members of parliament Local Area
Poor SEPUP Self employment through credit Development Scheme MPLADS (December
and subsidy 23, 1993) Sanctioned 1 crore per year for
1986: National Drinking Water Mission: For development works
rural drinking water renamed and upgraded 1994: Scheme for Infrastructural
to Rajiv Gandhi National Drinking Water Development in Mega Cities: SIDMC Water
Mission in 1991. supply, sewage, drainage, urban
1988: Service Area Account Rural Credit transportation, land development and
1989: Jawahar Rozgar Yojna: JRY improvement slums projects in metro cities
Employment to rural unemployed 1993: District Rural Development Agency
1989: Nehru Rozgar Yojna NRY Employment DRDA Financial assistance to rural people by
to Urban unemployed district level authority
1990: Agriculture & Rural Debt Relief 1993: Mahila Samridhi Yojna (October 2,
Scheme: ARDRS Exempt Bank loans up to 1993) Encourage rural women to deposit in
Rs. 10000 for rural artisans and weavers Post office schems
1990: Scheme for Urban Micro Enterprises 1994: Child labor Eradication Scheme Shift
SUME Assist urban small entrepreneurs child labour from hazardous industries to
1990: Scheme of Urban wage Employment schools 1995: prime Minister Integrated
SUWE Scheme for urban poor’s Urban Poverty Eradication programme
1990: Scheme of Housing and Shelter PMIUPEP To eradicate urban poverty
Upgradation (SHASU) Providing employment 1995: Mid day Meal Scheme: Nutrition to
by shelter Upgradation students in primary schools to improve
1991: National Housing Bank Voluntary enrolment, retention and attendence
Deposit Scheme Using black money by 1996: Group Life Insurance Scheme for
constructing low cost housing for the poor. Rural Areas Insurance in rural area for low
1992: National Renewal Fund This scheme premium 1995: national Social Assistance
was for the employees of the public sector programme: Assist BPL people.
1993: Employment Assurance Scheme (EAS) 1997-98; Ganga Kalyan Yojna Provide
(Launched on October, 2) Employment of at financial assistance to farmers for exploring
least 100 days in a year in villages ground water resources 1997 Kastoorba

INDIAN ECONOMY
Gandhi Education Scheme: (15 August 1997) 2004: Vande mataram Scheme VMS
Establish girls schools in low female literacy Initiative of public Private partnership during
areas (district level) pregnecy check up.
1997: Swaran Jayanto Shahari Rojgar Yojna: 2004: National Food for Work programme
Urban employment Supplementary wage as foodgrains for work
1998: Bhagya Shree Bal Kalyan Policy 2004: Kastoorba Gandhi Balika Vidyalaya
Upliftment of female childs March Setting up residential schools at upper
1999: Annapurna Yojna 10 kgs food grains primary levels for girls belonging to
to elderly people April predominantly OBC, SC & ST
1999: Swaran Jayanto Gram Swarojgar 2005: Janani Suraksha Yojna Providing care
Yojna Self employment in rural areas to pregnant women 2005, Dec. 16: Bharat
April 1999: Jawahar Gram Samriddhi Yojna Nirman Development of India through
Village infrastructure irrigation, Water supply, Housing, Road,
August 2000: Jan Shree Bima Yojna Telephone and electricity
Insurance for BPL people 2005: National Rural Health Mission:
2000: Pradhan Mantri Gramodaya Yojna Accessible, affordable, accountable, quality
Basic needs of rural people December 25, health survices to the poorest of the poor on
2000: Antyodaya Anna Yojna To provide remotest areas of the country.
food security to poor December 25, 2005: Rajeev Gandhi Grameen Vidyuti Karan
2000: Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojna: Yojna: Extending electrification of all villages
Connect all villages with nearest pukka road. and habitations and ensuring electricity to
September 2001: Sampoorna Grameen every household.
Rozgar Yojna Employment and food security 2005: Jawahar Lal Nehru national Urban
to rural people Renewal Mission: (JNNURM)
December 2001: Valmiki Ambedkar Awas 2006: February 2: National Rural
Yojna VAMBAY Slum houses in urban areas Employment Guarantee Scheme NREGS 100
2003: Universal health Insurance Scheme: days wage employment for development
Health insurance for Rural people works in rural areas.
69
INDIAN ECONOMY
2007: Rastriya Swasthya Bima Yojna: Health shown remarkable expansion during the last
insurance to all workers in unorganized area decade? – Tertiary Sector
below poverty line. 2. Hindu Rate of growth refers to the rate of
2007: Aam Aadmi Bima Yojna Insurance growth of which sector? – GDP
cover to the head of the family of rural 3. In India, Hindu Rate of Growth is
landless households in the country. associated with which income? – National
2009: Rajiv Awas Yojna To make India slum Income
free in 5 years 4. What is the base year for computation of
National Income in India? – 1993-94
Which scheme merged with which? 5. As the economy develops, what happens
 National Food for Work program was in the share of the tertiary sector in the
merged with NREGA. GDP? – Increases
 Sampoorna Grameen Rojgar Yojna 6. Who coined the term ‘Hindu rate of
merged with NREGA. growth’ for Indian Economy? – Raj Krishna
 Intesified Jawhar Rozgar Yojna 1993 was 7. Who wrote a book describing the theory of
merged with Employment Assurance Scheme economic drain of India during British rule? –
1996 which was later merged with Dadabhai Naoroji
Sampoorna grameen Rozgar Yojna 2001. 8. Which is definitely a major indication of
 IRDP , TRYSEM, DWCRA, Million Wells the State of the economy of a country?
Scheme, SITRA & Ganga kalian Yojna – Rate of GDP growth
merged with Swaran jayanti Gram Swarojgar 9. Where is the Indian Sugarcane Research
Yojna. Institute situated? – Lucknow
 Rural Landless Employment Guarantee 10. The impact of Green Revolution was felt
programme merged with Jawahar Rojgar most in the production of which crop? –
Yojna which was replaced by Jawahar Gram Wheat
Samridhi Yojna (1999) and Jawahar Gram 14. Where first Agriculture University of
Samridhi Yojna was merged with Sampoorna India was established? – Pantnagar
grameen Rojgar Yojna (2001) 15. In which year was the Food Corporation
IMPORTANT POINTS ON ECONOMICS: of India (FCI) set up? – 1965
1. Which sector of Indian Economy has

INDIAN ECONOMY
16. Which bank provides the largest credit to 29. Commercial paper is a source of credit
agriculture and allied sectors? – Commercial for which industry? – Corporate Industry
Banks 30. Which car companies has launched a
17. Which is the apex institution in the small cheaper car ‘Nano’? – Tate Motors Ltd.
sphere of Agriculture credit? – NABARD 31. What is the classification of industries on
18. The Bonded Labour System (Abolition) the basis of raw-materials? – Primary and
Act was legislated in which year? – 1976 Secondary
19. The Green Revolution in India was the 32. Which is the biggest enterprise of the
outcome of the efforts of which person? Government of India? – Railway
– M. S. Swaminathan 33. Raurkela Steel Plant was set up with the
20. Who is known as Father of White assistance from which country? – West
Revolution in India? – V. Kurien Germany
21. Where is the Central Rice Research 34. In India, liberal Industrial Policy was
Institute located? – Cuttack adopted in which year? – 1991
22. Dr. M. S. Swaminathan has distinguished 35. Bhilai Steel Plant is the collaborative
himself in which fields? – Agriculture project of Indian Government and which
23. Agriculture sector directly employs what other country? – Soviet Union
percentages of labour force in India? – 65 % 36. Since when disinvestment started in
24. Which method of soil conservation is public enterprises? – 1991-92
most effective in arid areas? – Shelter belt 37. Which entity holds the Number 1 position
25. Which state is the most industrially among Indian international trading
advanced State in India? – Maharashtra company? –MMTC
26. Industrial licensing was finally abolished 38. Which one of the following Indian States
(with a few exception) in which policy? – does not keep its own High Court? – Manipur
Industrial Policy, 1991 39. Which one of the following is not the
27. First Industrial Policy of free India was main jurisdiction of the High Court of a
announced in which year? – 1948 State? – Advisory Jurisdiction
28. Who was the Chairman of the National 40. Omkar Goswami Committee was set up
Commission for Enterprises in the by the Government for examining the issue
Unorganised Sector? – Arjun Sengupta of which matter? – Industrial sickness
71
INDIAN ECONOMY
41. The licensing policy for the industries 53. National Horticulture Mission was
drew strength from which act? – Industrial
launched in which Five Year Plans? – Tenth
Act, 1951
Five Year Plan
42. Where is the Forest Reserve Institute of
India located? – Dehradun 54. ‘Twenty Point Programme’ (Beessutri
43. Which State in’ India is estimated to
Karyakrama) was first launched in which
have the largest coal reserves in India? –
Year? – 1975
Jharkhand
44. Which is a ‘Hot Spot’ for biological 55. Who presides over the National
diversity in India? – Sundarban
Development Council of India? – Prime
45. Major coalfields of India are located in
Minister of India
the river valley of – Damodar
46. Which one of the following is the highest 56. Which is an extra- constitutional and
gravity dam which river? – Bhakra Dam
non- statutory body? – Planning Commission
47. What is the minimum forest cover to
57. Which experienced the fastest expansion
maintain ecological balance in the plains? –
33% during the plan in India? – Services
48. Which is the longest irrigation canal in
58. Primary emphasis during Second Plan
India called? – Indira Gandhi Canal
was laid on the development of which
49. When was the first National Forest Policy
issued by the Government of India? – 1952 industry? – Basic and Key industries
50. The national forest policy aims at
59. Who was the First Chairman of Planning
maintaining how much of the total
commission of India? – Pt. Jawahar Lal
geographical area under forests? – One-fifth
51. The Government of India has decided to Nehru
declare which river a ‘National River’? –
60. Whose name is associated with
Ganga
formulation of Planning Strategy in Second
52. Which ‘geographical indicators’ has not
been recognised for patent protection? – Five Year Plan? – Prasanta Chandra (P.C.)
Darjeeling Basmati
Mahalanobis

INDIAN ECONOMY
61. Which is the highest body that approves was given in which Five Year Plan? – Fifth
Five Years Plans in the country? – National plan
Development Council 69. In which one of year ‘Rolling Plan’ was
62. By whom was the Rolling Plan for on operation in India? – 1978-79
backward country suggested? – Gunnar 70. The major emphasis in the First Five
Myrdal Year Plan was on which field? – Agriculture
63. In which Five Year Plan, the main 71. In which Five Year Plan, Economic
objective was the eradication of poverty? – Development Rate was maximum? – Tenth
Fifth Five Year Plan Five Year Plan
64. Durgapur, Bhibei and Rourkela iron 72. Only one can be the ex-officio Chairman
steel-plants were setup during which plan? – of the Planning Commission. Who is that? –
First Prime Minister
65. The iron and Steel plants of Rourkela 73. Mahalanobis Model has been associated
and Durgapur were conceived under which with which Five Year Plan? – Second Five
plan? – Second Five Year Plan Year Plan
66. The real introduction of Decentralized 74. The Planning Commission of India was
Planning in India was made for the first time constituted in which year? – 1950
during the which plan? – 9th Plan 75. Which Plan gave emphasis on removal of
67. Planning Commission was established in poverty for the first time? – Fifth
1950 through which order? – An executive 76. Which is not an objective of India’s
order economic planning? – Population Growth
68. The slogen ‘Garibi Hatao’ (Poverty
abolition)
73
INDIAN ECONOMY
77. The rolling plan concept in national 84. In terms of Human Development Index
planning was introduced by which which is the most developed State of India?
government? – Janta Government – Kerala
76. The Government has renamed NREGA 85. Which programme announced by the
scheme and the name associated with which Prime Minister for the minorities in India? –
person? – Mahatma Gandhi 15 Point Programme
77. District Primary Education Programme 86. ‘Food for Work Programme’ was
was initiated in which year? – 1994 introduced during which Five Year Plans?
78. To whose help STEP is the abbreviated Fifth Five year plan 87. In which Five Year
name of the welfare programme? – Woman Plan, the main objective
79. On which basis has the planning, was the eradication of poverty? – Fifth Five
commission defined ‘Poverty line’ in rural Year Plan
areas in India? – 2400 k cal 88. While calculating HDI, what are the
80. The National Rural Employment Scheme maximum value for Life Expectancy at birth
was launched throught out the country from (years) taken? – 85 and 25
which date? – 1-4-2008 89. In terms of Human Development Index,
81. Which is the developed the concept of India falls under which category? – Very Low
Human Development Index? – Mehboob-ul- 90. Which is the standard of living in a
Haq country represented? – Per Capita Income
82. National Rural Health Mission (NRHM) 91. Which is a project to develop watersheds
was launched in which year? – 2005 in India? – NWDPRA
83. Swamjayanti Gram Swarojgar Yojana 92. Which plan gave emphasis on removal of
came into being in which year? – April, 1999 poverty of the first time? – Fifth

INDIAN ECONOMY
93. In India, the Community Development
Programme was started on which date? – MISCELLANEOUS FACTS
October 2, 1952 According to Marshall "Economics is the
94. Which represents ‘I’ in the abbreviation science of wealth"
IRDP? – Integrated  Father of Economics is Adam Smith.
95. National Rural Employment Guarantee  Scarcity definition of Economics is due to
Act (NREGA) does not promote? – Promote Robbins.
inclusive growth  Deductive method is also known as
96. Poverty level in India is established on Abstract method or Analytical method or
the basis of which expenditure? – House- Hypothetical method.
hold consumer expenditure  Deductive method goes from general to
97. Mid-Day Meal is a scheme to provide particular.
nutrious food to which childran? – school  Inductive method goes from particular to
going children general.
98. What is NOT the source of revenue of  For a linear demand curve point elasticity
Central Government? – Agriculture Income is defined as the ratio between the lower
Tax segment of demand curve to the upper
99. Which is the largest single source of the segment of the demand curve.
Government’s earning from tax revenue? –  At upper terminal point of demand curve
Central excise the e=0 and at lower terminal point e is
100. Which taexs/duties is NOT under the infinity ie not defined.
jurisdiction of the Central Government?–
Land Revenue.
75
INDIAN ECONOMY
 Consumer surplus is infinite when demand  The rent arises due to any other factor
curve is inelastic and zero in case of other than land is called Quasi rent.
perfectly elastic.  The most appropriate measure of
 According to Ricardo Rent is related to country's economic growth is Per Capita Real
only land. Income.
 According to Ricardo Rent is measured  Sudden decrease in death rate would
from marginal land or no rent land. cause increase in per capita.
 According to Modern theory of rent, Rent  Garibi Hatao and Growth & Justice were
can arise due to any factor of production. thevmain objectives of Fifth Five Year Plan.
 According to Modern theory of rent, Rent  Economic survey is published by the
is measured from transfer earnings. Ministry of Finance.
 According to Ricardo marginal land is the  National Income ommittee was formed in
land which gives no rent. 1949.
 According to Ricardo the operation of Law  The Chairman of National Income
of decreasing Returns gives rise to rent. Committed was VKRV Rao.
 According to modern theory of rent,rent  National Income was first calculared by
arises when the supply of avfactor is Dadabhai Naoroji.
perfectly inelastic.  India's National Income is collected by
 According to Ricardo, rent does not Central Statistical Organisation CSO.
determine prise.  Per capita income = National
 The concept of Quasi rent is developed by Income/Population.
Marshall.

INDIAN ECONOMY
 The true index of economic growth is an  Poverty gap is difference between poverty
increase in the per capita income at constant line and actual income levels of all those
prises. living below that line.
 An increase in the National Income at  Absolute poverty is poverty interms of the
constant prices is called Real increase in basic minimum calorie requirment.
National Income.  Mixed economy is that economy wherein
 In India we have national income statistics public and private sectors co-exist.
at constant prices only.  The nature of Indian economy is mixed
 Value added method is used for economy.
estimating National Income excluding  Law of demand means Fall in demand due
intermediate goods. to rise in price.
 Personal disposable income is the  Slope of demand curve is Negative.
difference between Personal income and  Elasticity of demand is a Quantities
personal direct tax. statement.
 Net national product at factor cost is the  Elasticity of demand means Ratio of
same thing as National Income. change between Price and Demand.
 Fiscal policy of India is formulated by the  Demand for match box is perfectly
Ministiry of Finance. inelastic.
 Economic gtowth is usually coupled with  Demand for necessaries inelastic..
Infilation.  Demamd for luxuries is Elastic.
 Stagflation is infilation with depression.  When production is under Law of
Diminishing Returns, then AC and Mc curves
ars rising upwards.
77
INDIAN ECONOMY
 When marginal revenue is zero, The total  Price discrimination is a feature of
revenue will be maximum. perfectly competetion market.
 When total revenue is maximum The  Marshall said "Equilibrium price is
marginal revenue is zero. determined by both demand and supply.
 When MR is negative, the AR is positive.  Under perfect competetion, price of a
 Marginal revenue can be positive, factor is determined by Industry.
negative and zero.  Demand curve is vertical when demand
 AR can be positive. has less than unity elasticity.
 Under perfect competetion MR & AR are  Demand curve is horizontal when demand
equal. has infinite elasticity.
 Under monopoly, the MR & AR curves are  Consumer's surplus is largs when demand
sloping downward. is inelastic.
 The number of laws of returns is three.  According to Malthus, Population increases
 Law of returns to scale under long period. Geometrically and food supply in
 On the basis of competetion the market is Arithmetically.
classified into three parts.  In estimating National Income, Dada Bhai
 Selling cooking gas in India is Duopoly Naorji attempted to show Poverty of Indians.
kind of market.  New series gives the National Income
 If there are few sellers of a commodity, estimates with revised base of 1964-65.
the market situation is called oligopoly.  The law of demand does not apply to the
 The product differentiation is found in following.cases.
perfectly compegetion market. 1. Future prices.
2. Status goods.

INDIAN ECONOMY
3. Giffen goods.  RBI was established in 1935 by the GoI
 Consumer surplus = Total utility-P*Q. Act, 1935.
 Properties of Indifference curves.  RBI was nationalised in the year 1949.
1. Slopes downwards from left top to  First Governor of RBI was Obsorne Smith.
right bottom.  First Indian Governor of RBI was C.D.
2. Convex to the origin. Deshmukh.
3. ICs never intersect.  Present Governor of RBI is Dr. Raguram
4. ICs need not be parallel. Rajan.
5. ICs ars asymptote to both X-axis and  Security Exchange Board of India -SEBI is
Y-axis. a statutory body ; was established in 1988.
 Under monoly the MR curve lies below the ☆ SEBI was made statutory body in 1992.
AR curve. ☆ SEBI has its headquarters in Mumbai.
 Fiscal policy of India is formulated by ☆ Chairman of SEBI is O. Kumar Sinha*.
Finance ministry.  SIDBI was established in 1990 by the act

 "Apna Khet,Apna Kam" a new scheme of parliament.
under MGNREGA has been initiated in ☆ The Headquarters of SIDBI is in Lucknow.
Rajasthan.
 NABARD was established on 12- July,
 Balance of Payments BoP says record of
1982.
all its ecomomic transction with the rest of
☆ NABARD was established on the
the world.
recommendations of Sivaraman Committee.
 The central bank of the country is the
☆ NABARD was established in Sixth Five
Reserve Bank of India RBI.
Year Plan.
79
INDIAN ECONOMY
 Central Statistical Organisation CSO has
shifted the base year for estimating National sponsored by

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Income from 1993-94 to 1999-2000.
 The number of approved share markets in
India is 23.
 India's unemployment rate is 4.9%.
 Gujarat has the lowest unemployment
rate in the country.
 J&K has the highest unemployment rate in
north India.
 Highest unemployment rate is in Sikkim
followed by Arunachal Pradesh..
 The largest source of National Income in
India is the Service sector.
 For controlling inflation, the central bank
should take the step to sale of government
securities in open market.
 Stagflation refers to a sitution which is
characterized. by Sustained Price-rise and
rising unemployment.
 New poverty line in India is Rs.32 per day
in rural areas and Rs. 47 in urban areas
 The year of great divide is 1921.

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General Knowledge
Made Easy
Geography
Exclusively prepared for SSC|BANKING|RAILWAYS students

GEOGRAPHY
Solar System Some Facts The earth is divided in to 24 longitudinal zones,

Biggest Planet Jupiter each being 15° or 1 hour apart in time
Smallest Planet Mercury (4minutes/degree).
Nearest Planet toSun Mercury Origin of the Earth
Farthest Planet fromSun Neptune The Earth- Shape and Size
Nearest Planet toEarth Venus Shape of the earth
Brightest Planet Venus Pythagoras (572-500 B.C), a Greek philosopher
Brightest starafterSun Sirius
and mathematician, was among the first to
Planet with maximum satellites Jupiter
suggest that the Earth was shaped like a globe.
Coldest Planet Neptune
Hottest Planet Venus Copernicus gave the Helio centric theory.
Heaviest Planet Jupiter The Earth is not flat
Red Planet Mars If the Earth were a flat disc, then the rising Sun
Biggest Satellite Gannymede would have been seen at all places at the same
Smallest Satellite Deimos time. But this does not happen. Places in the east
BluePlanet Earth see the rising Sun earlier.
Morning/Evening Star Venus When a ship approaches land, its funnel or mast
Earth'sTwin Venus
is seen first and then the hull. If the earth had
Green Planet Neptune
been flat, whole ship would have been seen at
Planet with a big redspot Jupiter
Lord of the Heavens Jupiter the same time
Greatest DiurnalTemperature Mercury The Earth is a sphere
God of Heaven Earth  The Earth is rarely oriented in the same
God of wars Mars position during successive eclipses but it
God of Underworld Pluto always casts a circular shadow, thus proving
Natural Satellites that have atmosphere in that the Earth is a sphere. A sphere is the
our Solar System: only solid body that will always cast a circular
1. Europa – Jupiter 2. Ganymede - Jupiter shadow.
3. Callisto – Jupiter 4. Io - Jupiter  At the North Pole, the Pole star can always
5. Enceladus – Saturn 6. Triton - Neptune be observed at 90 degrees in the sky, since
7. Titan – Saturn the star lies in the line with the axis of the
A trans-Neptunian object is any minor planet in Earth.
the Solar System that orbits the Sun at a greater  As one travels southwards, the angle of Pole
distance on average than Neptune. This region is star decreases.
also known as Kuiper Belt.  At the Equator the angle becomes zero
Earth Latitude and Longitude degree.
There are total 181 latitudes including the The Earth as an Oblate Spheroid
equator. Each parallel of latitude is a circle, but Refined measurements of the Earth have proved
they are not equal. that the true form of the Earth resembles a
1 degree latitude = 111km sphere that has been compressed at the poles
Each meridian of longitude is a semi-circle. 180° and made to bulge at the Equator. This form is
meridian (International Date Line) lies exactly known as an oblate spheroid.
opposite to 0° meridian. Such points are called The various factors which make the earth
Antipodal Points. suitable for life to revolve and survive are

GEOGRAPHY
 The Earth has all the essential elements like Earth Revolution
carbon (in the form of CO2), hydrogen (H2), • It is earth‘s motion in elliptical orbit around the
nitrogen (N2) and oxygen (O2) which act as sun.
building blocks for the origin of life.  Earth‘s average orbital velocity is
 The earth is neither too hot nor too cold. It 29.79 Kilometers/s.
has the right temperature range for carrying out  Takes 365 days, 5 hrs, 48 min and
the life sustaining chemical reactions. 45.51 sec. It results in one extra
 The earth has enough oxygen gas in its day every fourth year.
atmosphere for the survival of living beings Direct Sources
through breathing.  Easily available solid earth material is surface
 The earth has a protective blanket of ozone rock or the rocks we get from mining areas.
layer high up in its atmosphere to save life from  During volcanic eruption, Magma is the
harmful ultraviolet radiations coming from the molten material thrown onto the surface of the
Sun. earth and it is difficult to analysis the depth of
Interior of the Earth the source of such magma.
 Earth Circumference:  Besides mining, scientists have taken up a
40,232 KM number of projects to penetrate deeper depths to
 The earth’s radius is 6,370 km. explore the conditions in the crustal portions.
 Earth Area: 510 million  Scientists world over are working on two
SquareKilometers major projects - “Deep Ocean Drilling Project”
 Average distance from sun: 149 and “Integrated Ocean Drilling Project”.
million Kilometers.  Gold mines in South Africa are as deep as 3
Earth Rotation – 4 km.
• Spins on its imaginary axis from west to east  The deepest drill is done at Kola, in Arctic
in 23hrs, 56min and 40.91sec. Ocean has so far reached a depth of 12 Km.
• Rotational velocity at equator is 1667 Indirect sources
Kilometers/h and it decreases towards the poles,  In mining activity, the temperature,
where it is zero. pressure, density of the material increase with
It takes 27.322 days to rotate earth and light the increasing distance towards the interior of the
from moon to Earth takes 1.3 seconds earth. Knowing the total thickness of the earth,
Earth’s rotation scientists have estimated the rate of change of
results in these characteristics at different depths.
i. Causation of days  The material and the structure observed in
and nights; Meteors (from outer space) are similar to the
ii. A difference of one hour between meridians solid bodies available in our planet.
which are 15° apart;  The other indirect sources are Gravitation,
iii. Change in the direction of wind and ocean Magnetic field and Seismic activity.
currents; Rise and fall of tides every day.  The Gravitation force (g) is greater near the
iv. The longest day in North Hemisphere is poles and less at the equator. It differs
June21, while shortest day 22 Dec (Vice-versa in according to the latitudes and also with the mass
S.Hemisphere). of the material. Gravity anomalies give us
• Days and nights are almost equal at information about the distribution of mass of the
the equator. material in the crust of the earth.
3
GEOGRAPHY
 Magnetic surveys also provide information  The point where the energy is released is
about the distribution of magnetic materials in called the focus of an earthquake and the point
the crustal portion. on the surface nearest to the focus is called
 Seismic activity is one of the most important epicentre.
sources of information about the interior of the Types of Waves
earth. Example: earthquake.  Seismograph records the waves reaching the
EARTHQUAKE surface.
 Earthquake (also known as a quake, tremor  Earthquake waves are of two types – Body
or temblor) refers to the vibration of the earth’s waves and Surface waves.
surface caused by endogenetic forces of Earth.  Body waves are generated due to the
 The seismicity, seismism or seismic release of energy at the focus and move in all
activity of an area refers to the frequency, type directions travelling through the body of the
and size of earthquakes experienced over a earth.
period of time.  There are two types of body waves – P
 `The magnitude or intensity of energy waves and S waves.
released by an earthquake is measured by the  Primary wave (P waves) is the waves of short
Richter Scale, whereas the damage caused is wavelength and high frequency. They
measured by modified Mercalli Intensity Scale.  are longitudinal waves and can travel
The magnitude is expressed in numbers from 0 – through solid, liquid and gases.
10. The range of intensity scale is from 1 – 12.  Secondary wave(S waves) are the waves of
Causes short wave length and high frequency. They are
 Most of the earthquakes are caused by the traverse waves, which travel through all solid
movements of plates. particles.
 It is the result of a sudden release of energy  Surface waves or long waves are
in the Earth’s crust that creates seismic waves generated when the body waves interact
which travel in all directions.  with the surface rocks and generate a new
set of waves and they move along the surface.
Out of these waves, surface waves are  There are some areas where the waves are
considered to be the most damaging waves. not get recorded in seismographs is called
Shadow zone shadow zone.

GEOGRAPHY
 The zone between 1050 and 1450 from The portion of the interior beyond the crust is
epicenter was identified as shadow zone for both called the Mantle.
P and S waves.  Mantle extends from Moho’s discontinuity to
 The zone within 1050 both P and S waves are a depth of 2,900 km.
recorded and the zone beyond 1450 record the  The upper portion of Mantle is called
arrival of P waves alone. asthenosphere (word astheno means weak) and
it is extending upto 400 km.
 It is the main source of magma. It has a
density ranges from 3.0 to 4.7.
 The crust and the uppermost part of the
mantle are called lithosphere. Its thickness
ranges from 10- 200 km.
Earthquake zones in India – Arunachal

Pradesh, Nagaland, Tripura, Manipur, Mizoram,
Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Jammu and
Kashmir etc.
STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH
The Crust
 It is the outermost solid part of the Earth. It
is brittle in nature. The Core
 The thickness of the crust varies under the  The core – mantle boundary is located at the
oceanic and continental areas. depth of 2900 km.
 The mean thickness of oceanic crust is 5 km  The outer core is in liquid state while the
whereas that of the continental is around 30 km inner core is in solid state.
but it is as much as 70 km thick in the Himalayan  The density of material at the mantle core
region. boundary is around 5 g/cm3 and at the centre of
 It is made up of heavier rocks having density the earth at 6300 km, the density value is around
of 3 g/cm3. 13 g/cm3.
 Basalt is the rock found in oceanic crust.  The core is made up of very heavy material
 The upper part of the crust is called ‘sial’ mostly constituted by nickel and iron and it is
because it consists of silica and aluminium in sometimes referred to as the nife layer.
greater proportions whereas the lower part of the Tectonic Activities:
crust is called ‘sima’ because it consists of silica Plate tectonics (tectonicus - "pertaining to
and magnesium in higher proportions. building") is a scientific theory that describes the
The Mantle large-scale motion of Earth's lithosphere. Plate
5
GEOGRAPHY
tectonics is the theory that Earth's outer shell is of chronological measurement that relates
divided into several plates that glide over the stratigraphy to time, and is used
mantle, the rocky inner layer above the core. by geologists, paleontologists, and other Earth
Super continents: As the continents jostle scientists to describe the timing and relationships
around the Earth, they occasionally come between events that have occurred
together to form giant supercontinents, a single throughout Earth’s history. Stratigraphy is a
landmass. A more recent supercontinent called branch of geology which studies rock layers
Pangaea formed about 300 million years ago. (strata) and layering (stratification).
Orogeny: Orogeny refers to forces and events Denudation: In geology, denudation is the long-
leading to a large structural deformation of the term sum of processes that cause the wearing
Earth's lithosphere (crust and uppermost mantle) away of the Earth's surface by moving water, ice,
due to the interaction between tectonic plates. wind and waves, leading to a reduction in
(Note: Geological time scale:- The geological elevation and relief of landforms and
time scale (GTS) is a system landscapes.)
Ring of Fire where plates move apart; and transform, where

An area around the Pacific Ocean where large plates move sideways in relation to each other.
numbers of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions In some places, the plates are pulling apart. New
occurs. It is home to over 75% of the world's crust is pushed up from below. These are called
active and dormant volcanoes. divergent boundaries and they create rifts or
The movement of the plates creates three valleys. Large lakes sometimes form in rifts. The
types of tectonic boundaries: convergent, Red Sea formed where the African and Arabian
where plates move into one another; divergent, plates pulled apart.

GEOGRAPHY
In other places the plates are pushing against It induces recycling of elements within the
each other, creating mountains. These areas are biosphere and between the geosphere and
known as convergent boundaries. Sometimes one biosphere
crust is dragged beneath – or sub ducted – below It causes mountain-building
another one. Ocean plates are heavier than Earthquake: During an earthquake, the
continental plates so these plates are always lithosphere breaks suddenly along a fault. Slip of
dragged beneath. a few millimeters to tens of meters typically
A transform boundary happens when plates slide occurs along the fault during an earthquake.
past each other but neither collides nor rips Volcano Formation: When a tectonic plate
apart. The San Andreas Fault in California is a sinks, it sinks down into the mantle and becomes
transform boundary. very hot. So hot, in fact, that the rock melts. This
Effects of Tectonic Movement: molten rock will gradually make its way up to the
It causes earthquakes surface of the earth through a series of cracks.
It causes volcanism
7
GEOGRAPHY
Types of Volcanoes Eruptions are explosive due to the thick,

Volcanoes are classified on the basis highly viscous lava that is produced by
of nature of eruption and the form developed composite cone volcanoes. The thick lava
at the surface cannot travel far down the slope of the
There are three main types of volcano - volcano before it cools.
composite or strato, shield and dome. Composite volcanoes are usually found at
Composite Volcanoes destructive plate margins. Examples of
Composite volcanoes are steep sided composite volcanoes include Mount Fuji
cones formed from layers of ash (Japan), Mount St Helens (USA) and Mount
and pyroclastic flows. Pinatubo (Philippines).
Composite volcanoes can rise over 8000
feet. Shield Volcanoes
Shield volcanoes are low with gently sloping
sides and are formed from layers of lava.
Eruptions are typically non-explosive. Shield
volcanoes produce fast flowing fluid that can
flow for many miles.

GEOGRAPHY
 At the time of eruption, the magma,

steam, fragments of rock, dust and gaseous
substances are ejected with great force from
under the ground surface through a pipe like
passage.
 The opening of this pipe on the earth’s
surface is known as the vent which forms a
crater.
 The lava which is thrown into the sky
Shield volcanoes are usually found at
during an eruption, falls to the ground in the
constructive boundaries and sometimes at
form of solid fragments. Dark clouds gather
volcanic hotspots. Examples of shield
in the sky and it begins to rain heavily.
volcanoes include Mount Kilauea and
 The volcanic ash and dust mixes with the
Maunaloa on Hawaii.
rainwater giving rise to hot mud flows.
Dome (Acid Lava Cones)

Types of volcanic eruptions
Acid is much thicker than which flows from
 Volcanic eruptions are classified into two
shield volcanoes.
types depending on the manner of ejection
Dome volcanoes have much steeper sides
of the magma:
than shield volcanoes. This is because the
(i) Central eruption
lava is thick and sticky. It cannot flow very
(ii) Fissure eruption
far because it cools and hardens.
An example is Puy de Dome in the Auvergne
Central eruption
region of France which last erupted over 1
 This type of eruption is sometimes very
million years ago.
explosive, because lava, steam, gas, dust,
smoke, stone fragments are ejected form a
Volcanic eruptions
narrow pipe from under the ground with
 The pouring out of the magma or molten
greater intensity. This type of eruption gives
rock through ground surface is called a
rise to conical or dome shaped hills.
volcanic eruption.
9
GEOGRAPHY
 Some examples of volcanic mountains  These rocks contain silica from 40% to
formed due to central eruption are Mt. 80%. Feldspar and quartz are the most
Kilimanjaro in Africa, the Fujiyama in Japan common minerals found in rocks.
and the Vesuvius and Mt. Etna in Italy.  Rocks are classified in three main types
 It is basically poured acidic lava. depending on the process of their formation.
1. Igneous
Fissure eruption 2. Sedimentary
 A very long fissure develops in the ground 3. Metamorphic
surface and so, the molten rock, rock
fragments, steam and gases within, pour out Igneous rocks
slowly.  Lava pours out at the time of volcanic
 These eruptions take place at a very slow eruptions and cools down later on, forming
speed. Since this lava is more fluid, it rocks.
spreads over longer distances.  The molten materials known as magma
 The lava cools down on the ground over a sometimes cool down beneath the earth’s
period of time, increasing the thickness of crust, again forming rocks.
the surface in that area. Basalat plateaus are  They are called as the primary rocks as all
formed due to these eruptions. the other rocks are formed directly or
 Basalt plateaus are also found in Brazil in indirectly from the igneous rocks.
south America and Saudi Arabia in west Asia  It is believed that the igneous rocks are
and Deccan Plateau in India. formed during each period of geological
 In Maharashtra, the fertile black regur soil history of earth.
has been formed from basalt rocks. It is also  They are hard, granular and crystalline
called black cotton soil. rocks, less affected by chemical weathering.
 Moreover, it does not have any fossil or
Introduction - Rocks does not form any strata or layers of lava.
 The solid parts of the Earth’s crust are Classification of Igneous rocks
called rocks. On the basis of Mode of Occurrence
 The rocks are made up of two or more  Intrusive rocks They are formed due to
minerals. the solidification of rising magma below the
10
GEOGRAPHY
surface of the Earth. E.g., Granite, Lapolith, Metamorphic rocks

Batholiths, Sills etc.  These are the changed form of Igneous
 Extrusive rocks They are formed due to and Sedimentary rocks.
cooling and solidification of hot and molten  These are the rocks, which change either
magma at the Earth surface. Eg. Basalt in form or composition without
Gabbro etc. disintegration.
 Already formed metamorphic rocks are
On the basis of Silica Content metamorphosed and this process is called
 Acidic It has more silica content. Eg. metamorphosis.
Granite  The agents of metamorphism are Heat,
 Basic It has less amount of silica Compression and Solution.
content. Eg. Gabbro.  Examples are Gneissoid, granite, syenite,
slate, schist, marble, quartzite etc.
Sedimentary rocks
 It is formed due to the aggregation and Rock transformation
compaction of sediments derived from the Sedimentary Rocks Metamorphic
older rocks, plants, animals and contains Rocks
fossils of plants. Limestone Marble
 The sedimentary rocks can be classified Sandstone Quartzile
on the basis of the nature of sediments – Shale / Clay Slate, Phyllite,
mechanically, chemically and organically Schist
formed rocks. Coal Diamond
 Mechanically formed – sandstone,
conglomerate, limestone, shale etc.
 Organically formed – geyserites, chalk, Original Rocks Metamorphic
limestone etc. Rocks
 Chemically formed – chert, limestone, Sandstone Quartzite
potash etc. Limestone Marbal
Shale and mudstone Slate
Granite Gneisse
11
GEOGRAPHY
Coal Graphite coal intercepts and reflect incoming

Clay Slate insolation.The polluted particles present in
Basalt Homblend the air not only absorb larger amount of
insolation but also greatly absorb the
ATMOSPHERE terrestrial radiation.Dust in the atmosphere
An atmosphere is a layer of gases contributes to the red and orange colour of
surrounding a planet or other material body sunrise and sunset.
of sufficient mass that is held in place by the

gravity of the body.The envelope of air that Layers of the Atmosphere
completely surrounds the earth is known as There are five distinct layers of the
atmosphere.The atmosphere extends to atmosphere –
about 1000 km from the surface of the (a) Troposphere (b) Stratosphere
earth. But 99% of the total mass of the (c) Mesosphere (d) Thermosphere
atmosphere is found within 32 km.This is (e) Exosphere
because the atmosphere is held by the
gravitational pull of the earth. (a) Troposphere
This is the first layer of the atmosphere. It
Composition of the Atmosphere extends to a height of 18 km at the equator
(i) Nitrogen – 78% and 8 km at the poles.In this layer
(ii) Oxygen – 21% temperature decreases with height. This is
(iii) Argon -0.93% due to the fact that the density of air
(iv) Carbon dioxide – 0.03% decreases with height and so the heat
(v) Neon – 0.0018% absorbed is less. It contains more than 90%
(vi) Helium – 0.0005% of gases in the atmosphere. Since most of
(vii) Ozone – 0.0006% the water vapour form clouds in this layer,
(viii) Hydrogen – 0.00005% Carbon dioxide all weather changes occur in the troposphere
is present in small quantity in the (“tropo” means “change”).The height at
atmosphere.It is an important constituent of which the temperature stops decreasing is
air because it has the ability to absorb heat called tropopause. Here the temperature
and thus keep the atmosphere warm, may be as low as -58 degree Celsius.
thereby, balancing the heat of the earth.Dust
12
GEOGRAPHY
(b) Stratosphere protects us from meteors and obsolete

This is the second layer of the atmosphere. satellite because its high Temperature burns
It extends from the tropopause to about 50 up nearly all the debris coming towards the
km. Temperature increases due to the Earth.
absorption of the ultraviolet radiations of the
Sun by Ozone present in this layer. The (e) Exosphere
temperature slowly increases to 4 degree The exosphere extends beyond the
celsius. This layer is free from clouds and thermosphere upto 960km.It gradually
associated weather phenomena. Hence, it merges with interplanetary space. The
provides ideal flying conditions for large jet temperatures in this layer range from about
planes. 300 degree Celsius to 1650 degree
Celsius.This layer contains only traces of
(c) Mesosphere gases like oxygen, nitrogen, argon and
Above the stratosphere lies the Mesosphere. helium because the lack of gravity allows the
The mesosphere extends to a height of 80 gas molecules to escape easily into space.
km. Here the temperature decreases again,
falling as low as -90 degree celsius. World Climatology:
The end of this layer is known as the
mesopause. Climate:
Climate is the statistics of weather, usually
(d) Thermoshpere over a 30-year interval. It is measured by
This layer extends to a height of about 640 assessing the patterns of variation in
km.This increase in temperature is due to temperature, humidity, atmospheric
the fact that the gas molecules in this layer pressure, wind, precipitation, atmospheric
absorb the X-rays and Ultraviolet radiation of particle count and other meteorological
the Sun.The electrically charged gas variables in a given region over long periods
molecules of the thermosphere reflect radio of time.
waves from the Earth back into the space. Climate differs from weather, in that weather
Thus, this layer also helps in long distance only describes the short-term conditions of
communication.The thermosphere also these variables in a given region. A region's
13
GEOGRAPHY
climate is generated by the climate system, environment, and the use of quantitative
which has five components: atmosphere, methods for their analysis.)
hydrosphere, cryosphere, lithosphere,
and biosphere. Paleoclimatology is the Causes of Climatic change:
study of ancient climates. 1) Change in heat output of the sun (note: It
The World Meteorological Organization is estimated that of the total radiation
(WMO) is an intergovernmental organization coming to us, 35 percent is reflected back to
with a membership of 191 Member States space by dust, clouds and air molecules.14%
and Territories. It originated from is absorbed by green house gases. Only 51%
the International Meteorological Organization reaches the earth and warms the surface.)
(IMO), which was founded in 1873. 2) Tilting of the earth. (It is tilted to 23.44
Established in 1950, WMO became the degrees and it is in decreasing phase)
specialised agency of the United 3) Orbit of the earth around the sun (it has
Nations for meteorology (weather and less contribution towards climate)
climate), operational hydrology and 4) Quantity of green house gases in the
related geophysical sciences. It has its atmosphere.
headquarters in Geneva, Switzerland, and is 5) Plate Tectonic movement (e.g.: Britain
a member of the United Nations was near to the equator 300 million years
Development Group. The current Secretary- ago and therefore was hotter than it is
General is Petteri Taalas. The current today.
president is David Grimes. World 6) Mountain ranges can affect the climate by
Meteorological Day is held annually on 23 influencing the circulation of air.
March. 7) Volcanoes affect the climate through the
(Note: Geophysics is a subject of natural gases and dust particles thrown into the
science concerned with the physical atmosphere during eruption.
processes and physical properties of 8) Slight change in ocean current cause
the Earth and its surrounding space large effect on coastal and global climate.
9) Vegetation coverage on the land.
14
GEOGRAPHY
Types of Rainfall:
Precipitation: 1) Relief rainfall (Orographic rain):
In meteorology, precipitation is any product Relief rainfall occurs when air has been
of the condensation of atmospheric water blown over the sea and is then forced up
vapour that falls under gravity. The main over an area of high land. This causes the air
forms of precipitation include drizzle, rain, to cool and the moisture in the air condenses
sleet, snow, graupel and hail. and rain falls. Here Windward side and
Leeward side are important terms to
understand.
15
GEOGRAPHY
3) Convectional rainfall:
Occurs mostly in tropics where it is hot.
Fohn Wind or Chinook Wind: A fohn is a When air is hot is rises and cools and
type of dry, warm, down-slope wind that condenses forming rain. If the air is hot
occurs in the lee (downwind side) of a enough, it rises very quickly and can cause
mountain range. thunderstorms (Torrential downpours).
2) Frontal rainfall (Cyclonic Rain):

Frontal rainfall occurs when warm air is
forced to rise over cold air. The moisture in
the warm air condenses as it cools which
causes clouds and rain.
16
GEOGRAPHY
Types of Clouds: Medium level clouds at heights of 2-7

High level clouds at heights of 5-13 km: km:
Cirrus: Fibrous, threadlike, white feather Altocumulus: Grey cloud bundles, sheds or
clouds of ice crystals, whose form resembles rollers, compound like rough fleecy cloud,
hair curls. which are often arranged in banks.
Cirrostratus: Milky, translucent cloud veil of Altostratus: Dense, gray layer cloud, often
ice crystals, which sometimes causes halo evenly and opaquely, which lets the sun
appearances around moon and sun. shine through only a little.
Cirrocumulus: Fleecy cloud; Cloud banks of Low level clouds at heights of 0-2 km:
small, white flakes. Stratocumulus: Cloud plaices, rollers or
banks compound dark gray layer cloud.
17
GEOGRAPHY
Stratus: Evenly grey, low layer cloud, which Nimbostratus: Rain cloud. Grey, dark layer
causes fog or fine precipitation and is cloud, indistinct outlines
sometimes frazzled. Pressure and Planetary Winds:
Clouds with large vertical extending at The variations in pressure are shown on
heights of 0-13 km: maps by means of Isobars. These are lines
Cumulus: Heap cloud with flat basis in the joining the places having the same
middle or lower level, whose vertical barometric pressure.
development reminds of the form of towers, Pressure Gradient: The rate of change of
cauliflower or cotton. atmospheric pressure between two points on
Cumulonimbus: In the middle or lower the earth’s surface is called pressure
level developing thundercloud, which mostly gradient.
up-rises into the upper level.
Cyclones and Anti-cyclones: the northern hemisphere curves to the right

The Earth's spin causes the wind to curve. and the wind in the southern hemisphere
This is called the Coriolis Effect. The wind in curves to the left.
18
GEOGRAPHY
When the wind swirls counter-clockwise in Processes of Glacial Erosion:

the northern hemisphere or clockwise in the 1. Plucking: This is a process of glacial
southern hemisphere, it is called cyclonic erosion where the glacier freezes in the
flow. When the wind swirls clockwise in the joints and beds of the underlying rocks,
northern hemisphere or counter-clockwise in tears out individual blocks and drags them
the southern hemisphere, it is away.
called anticyclonic flow. An example of 2. Abrasion: In this process of glacial
cyclonic flow is the flow around a erosion, the glacier scratches, scrapes,
low pressure area while an example of polishes and scours the floor and sides of the
anticyclonic flow is the flow around a high valley with the debris embedded in it.
pressure area. Landforms of Highland Glaciation:
Different Names of Cyclone in Different 1. Corrie, Cirque or Cwm: This is a
Countries: highland glaciation landform which is a semi-
Hurricanes: West Indies and the Coast of circular or an armchair-shaped hollow,
Florida. usually found at the upper end or sides of a
Typhoons: Philippine island, the coasts of glacial valley.
China and Japan. 2. Arête and Pyramidal Peaks: An arête is
Cyclones: Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea. a jagged, steep-sided mountain ridge
Welly-Wellies: Northeast and northwestern common in the European Alps.
coasts of Australia. Pyramidal peak is a jagged peak formed
Tornadoes: USA and Mexico. when the back walls of some corries on the
Glaciation: sides of a mountain become steep.
Glaciation is the formation, movement and 3. U-shaped Valley: A U-shaped valley is a
recession of glaciers. (A glacier is a steep-sided, flat-bottomed, wide valley
persistent body of dense ice that is which contains features formed by both
constantly moving under its own weight). glacial erosion and deposition.
Lambert Glacier is a major glacier in East 4. Hanging Valley: This is a tributary of a
Antarctica it is the Largest in the world. U-shaped valley which ends abruptly above
the floor of the U-shaped valley and is
separated from it by almost vertical slope.
19
GEOGRAPHY
4. Rock Basins and Rock Steps: A rock deposited where the ice melts, sometimes a
basin is a depression on the floor of a U- great distance away from the source of the
shaped valley. It is usually formed when a boulders. They are also referred to
glacier erodes and excavates the bedrock of as perched blocks.
its valley in an irregular manner. 5. Drumlins: These are swarms of oval,
6. Moraines: These are materials, such as elongated 'whale- black' hummocks
stones, clay and rock debris that have been composed wholly of boulder clay, elongation
transported by a glacier and abandoned in being in the direction of the ice flow that is
specific formations. on the downstream side.
6. Eskers: These are long, narrow, sinuous
Landforms of Lowland Glaciation: ridges composed of sand and gravel,
1. Roche Moutonnee: This is a resistant believed to have been deposited by a former
residual rock hummock. The surface is sub-glacial stream.
striated by ice movement. Its upstream side 7. Outwash Plains: These are type of
is smoothed by abrasion and its downstream landforms of glaciated lowlands made up of
side, which is steeper, is roughened fluvio-glacial deposits washed out from the
by plucking. terminal moraines by the streams and
2. Crag and Tail: The crag is a mass of hard channels of the stagnant ice mass.
rock with a precipitous slope on the 8. Kames: These are small, rounded masses
upstream side, which protects the softer of sand and gravel formed as deltas on the
leeward slope from being completely worn surface of a static glacier, or at its margin.
down by the on-coming ice. Landforms Produced by River Erosion:
3. Boulder Clay or Glacial Till: It is a 1. George or Ravines: These are narrow,
landform of glaciated highlands which steep-sided valleys. They are usually found
involves the mixture of unstratified clay at the upper course of a river where vertical
deposits that includes finely powdered rock, erosion is greater than lateral erosion.
called rock-flour, sand, irregular stones and A gorge is formed when the predominant
rocks left behind by a melting glacier or an process of the river is either vertical
ice sheet. corrosion or down cutting, with little or no
4. Erratic: These are boulders of varying valley widening.
sizes, transported by ice or glacier and
20
GEOGRAPHY
2. Canyons: These are large, steep-sided, rock. Rock pedestals are common in the
narrow bottomed gorges. A river usually Sahara where they are called gour.
runs in the bottom. 3. Zeugens: Zeugens are flat-topped rock
3. Rapid: Rapid is the part of a river where masses that have formed into a ridge and
the current flows fast, because of a sudden furrow landscape in the desert. Each ridge
increase in the slope which is not steep has a tabular mass of resistant rock
enough to produce a waterfall. underlain by a layer of soft rock.
4. Waterfall: The falling water occurs when 4. Yardangs: Yardangs are series of sharp,
a river course is interrupted by an abrupt, irregular rock crests separated from one
steep drop. another deep grooves.
5. Potholes: A pothole is a hollow in the 5. Mesas and Buttes: A mesa is a table-like
rock bed of a stream abraded by boulders as land mass with a very resistant horizontal
they are swirled hound by eddies. top layer and very steep sides.
6. Interlocking Spurs: An interlocking spur 6. Inselbergs: Inselbergs are rock islands
is part of a valley wall projecting from either located on plains. They are steep-sided and
side of a winding valley. can be either round-topped. They vary in
7. River Capture: This is the process by size and shape.
which a river acquires the headstreams of 7. Ventifacts: These are stones or pebbles
another river and thus enlarges its own which have been scoured, smoothened and
drainage area at the expense of the other. faceted by wind-blown sand.
Landforms of Wind Erosion in Deserts: Plains Landforms-Types and Importance:
1. Deflation Hollows: As explained earlier 1. Depositional Plains: They are formed by
in my last discussion, the process of the deposition of transported materials
deflation can continue until a deflation hollow brought by various agents. They can be sub-
such as that of the Faiyum Depression in divided as follows:
Egypt is eventually formed. Alluvial Plains: These are formed by the
2. Rock Pedestal: Rock pedestals are gradual accumulation of silt brought by
sound pillars with conical peaks which look rivers from the upper course to the lower
like mushrooms. The hard rock is left course. Flood plains and deltaic plains are in
standing on the narrow stem of the weak this sub-group.
21
GEOGRAPHY
Glacial Plains: They are formed mostly by Flows:

deposition of sediment brought by ice Flow movement occurs when there is a lot
sheets. of water in the debris. The principal types of
Lacustrine Plains: A lacustrine plain is the flows are:
bed of a former lake, filled in by sediment Earth flow: This is the down slope
deposited by inflowing rivers. movement of masses of water-impregnated
Coastal Plains: These are due to the clay or silt, under the influence of gravity.
deposition of marine and stream sediment Mudflow: Like an earth flow, a mudflow
on sea beaches. involves the flow of wet material. It also
Lava Plains: They are formed through the involves more thoroughly lubricated material
filling up of valleys by flowing lava. and has a higher speed than an earth flow.
Sand Dune Plains: Such plains are in Solifluction (i.e. soil flow): This type of
deserts, semi-deserts or the Sahelian zone flow is associated with the subarctic region
of West Africa where these is sparse where the ground is permanently frozen
vegetation and plenty of sand. (permafrost) a few centimeters below the
Flood Plains: These are areas of lowland surface. In summer, the top soil thaws and is
adjacent to a river, built up by deposits of saturated with water. The water-saturated
alluvium. Each time a river floods its banks, soil then flows in a down slope over the
it spreads a layer of silt on the adjacent smooth permafrost layer below.
plains. The levels of the plains rise with each Debris Avalanche: This type of flow
layer that is deposited. movement is extremely rapid. It has the
2. Erosional Plains Pedi-Plains: attributes of flow and slide as the regolith
These are formed by the prolonged action of disintegrates during movement and starts to
agents of denudation. flow.
Pen-Plains: These are almost level plains Creep:
formed by the wearing down of mountains Soil Creep: This is the slow, down slope
and plateau by agents of denudation. movement of soil and debris under the
3. Marine Plains influence of gravity. It occurs on all soil-
Marine plains are formed from residual covered slopes, particularly those underlain
marine deposits which are produced after a by materials with high clay content. The
fall in the level of the sea. causes of soil creep include shaking by
22
GEOGRAPHY
earthquakes, growth of frost needles, millions of different animals, birds, algae and
heating and cooling of soil, trampling and fish species.
burrowing by animals, alternate drying and Sub-tropical forests:
wetting of the soil, root growth, chemical It is located at the south and north of the
changes accompanying weathering (solution) tropical forests. Trees here are adapted to
and heavy rain falls. resist the summer drought.
Talus Creep: This is the down slope Mediterranean forests:
movement of angular rock fragments of Located at the south of the temperate
different sizes. regions around the coasts of the
Rock Creep: This is the movement of joined Mediterranean, California, Chile and Western
blocks, partly as a result of soil creep and Australia. The growing season is short and
partly as a result of sliding. almost all trees are evergreen, but mixed
Types of Forests: with hardwood and softwood.
Tropical rain forests: Temperate forests:
Hugely dense, lush forest with canopies It is located at Eastern North America, North
preventing sunlight from getting to the floor eastern Asia, and western and eastern
of the forest. Throughout the year it receives Europe. It is a mix of deciduous and
high temperatures and abundant rainfall. It coniferous evergreen trees. Usually, the
is located near the equator. It is a vital broad-leaved hardwood trees shed leaves
storehouse of biodiversity, sustaining annually. There are well-defined seasons
with a distinct winter and sufficient rainfall.
23
GEOGRAPHY
Coniferous forests: zones. Plants and animals in these forests

It is located in the cold, windy regions are adapted to withstanding the cold, wet
around the poles. They have both hardwoods conditions and intense sunlight. The trees
and conifers. The hardwoods are deciduous. present here are mainly conifers.
The conifers are evergreen and structurally
adapted to withstand the long drought-like Plantation forests:
conditions of the long winters. It has around 7% of global forest cover (140
million hectares). It produces more
Montane forests: sustainable timber and fibre than natural
It is known as cloud forests because they forests.Plantations produce around 40% of
receive most of their precipitation from the industrial wood. Plantation forests are on the
mist or fog that comes up from the increase rate.
lowlands. It is usually found in high-elevation
tropical, subtropical and temperate
24
GEOGRAPHY
Largest Lakes in the World in decreasing order:

Name Countries with shoreline Notes
Caspian Sea Kazakhstan The Caspian Sea is often regarded as the world's
Russia largest lake, but it contains an oceanic
Turkmenistan basin (contiguous with the world ocean until 11
Azerbaijan million years ago) rather than being entirely over
Iran continental crust.
Superior Canada Largest of the Great Lakes by volume, having more
United States water than the other four combined. Popularly
considered the largest freshwater lake by surface
area, though Lakes Michigan and Huron are treated
hydrologically as a single entity due to their
connection at the deep watered Straits of Mackinac;
this single entity would be the largest freshwater
lake by surface area if it were treated as a single
lake.
Victoria Uganda The largest lake by area in Africa.
Kenya
Tanzania
Huron Canada Contains Manitoulin Island, the world's largest lake
United States island.
Michigan United States Largest lake by area entirely within one country.
Tanganyika Burundi Longest freshwater lake in the world and largest
Tanzania volume fresh water lake in Africa.
Zambia
Democratic Republic of the
Congo
Baikal Russia Deepest lake in the world and largest volume fresh
water lake in the world.
Great Bear Canada Largest lake entirely within Canada.
25
GEOGRAPHY
Lake
Malawi Malawi
Mozambique
Tanzania
Great Slave Canada Deepest lake in North America.
Lake
Longest Rivers of the world in Pati Argentina

decreasing order: New Cornelia Tailings United States
River Source Outflow Tarbela Pakistan
Nile Tributaries of Mediterranean
Lake Victoria, Sea List of Dams in the order of height
Africa Name Country River
Amazon Glacier-fed Atlantic Jinping-I Dam China Yalong
lakes, Peru Ocean Nurek Dam Tajikistan Vakhsh
Mississippi- Source of Red Gulf of Mexico Xiaowan Dam China Lancang
Missouri- Rock, Montana Xiluodu Dam China Jinsha Jiang
Red Rock Grande Switzerland Dixence
Chang Tibetan China Sea Dixence Dam
Jiang plateau, China
(Yangtze) List of Ocean and Sea in the order of
Ob Altai Mts., Gulf of Ob area
Russia Name Place of greatest known
depth
World's Largest Dams in decreasing
order Pacific Ocean Mariana Trench
Dam Location Atlantic Ocean Puerto Rico Trench
Three Gorges China Indian Ocean Sunda Trench
Syncrude Tailings Canada Southern Ocean South Sandwich Trench
Chapetón Argentina Arctic Ocean 77°45'N; 175°W
26
GEOGRAPHY
Mediterranean Off Cape Matapan, Greece Himalayas Asia Mount

Sea Everest
Caribbean Sea Off Cayman Islands
South China Sea West of Luzon Union Territories
Bering Sea Off Buldir Island State Range/Region Height
Gulf of Mexico Sigsbee Deep (m)
Okhotsk Sea 146°10'E; 46°50'N Andaman & North Andaman 732
East China Sea 25°16'N; 125°E Nicobar Islands
Hudson Bay Near entrance Chandigarh Capital Area 383
Japan Sea Central Basin Dadra and Nagar Amboli 278
Andaman Sea Off Car Nicobar Island Haveli
North Sea Skagerrak Daman and Diu Diu 30
Red Sea Off Port Sudan Delhi Tughlaqabad 319
Baltic Sea Off Gotland Lakshadweep Agatti Island 15

Puducherry Red Hills 30
List of Mountain Ranges in the order of

length List of Desert in the order of Area
Range Continent Highest Name Type Location
point Antarctica Cold Winter Antarctica
Andes South Mount Sahara Subtropical North Africa
America Aconcagua Arabian Subtropical Western Asia
Southern Great Africa Ntlenyana Desert
Escarpment Gobi Cold Winter Central Asia
Rocky North Mount Elbert Desert
Mountains America Kalahari Subtropical Southern Africa
Trans Antarctic Antarctica Mount Desert
Mountains Kirkpatrick Great Subtropical Australia
Great Dividing Australia Mount Victoria
Range Kosciuszko Desert
27
GEOGRAPHY
Patagonia Cold Winter South America Simpson Subtropical Australia

n Desert Desert
Syrian Subtropical Western Asia Atacama Cool Coastal South America
Desert Desert
Great Cold Winter United States Mojave Subtropical United States
Basin Desert
Desert Namib Cool Coastal Southern Africa
Chihuahua Subtropical North America Desert
n Desert Dasht-e Subtropical Iran
Great Subtropical Australia Kavir
Sandy Dasht-e Subtropical Iran
Desert Loot
Karakum Cold Winter Turkmenistan
Desert Highest Peaks in decreasing order:
Colorado Cold Winter United States Peak Height Parent Range
Plateau Mount Everest / 8,848 Mahalangur
Sonoran Subtropical North America Sagarmatha Himalaya
Desert /Chomolungma
Kyzylkum Cold Winter Central Asia K2 / Qogir / 8,611 Baltoro
Desert Godwin Austen Karakoram
Taklamaka Cold Winter China Kangchenjunga 8,586 Kangchenjunga
n Desert Himalaya
Thar Subtropical South Asia Lhotse 8,516 Mahalangur
Desert Himalaya
Gibson Subtropical Australia Makalu 8,485 Mahalangur
Desert Himalaya
Dasht-e Subtropical Afghanistan Cho Oyu 8,188 Mahalangur
Margo Himalaya
Registan Subtropical Afghanistan Dhaulagiri I 8,167 Dhaulagiri
Desert Himalaya
28
GEOGRAPHY
Manaslu 8,163 Manaslu Pradesh (shared Himalaya

Himalaya with Tibet)
Nanga Parbat 8,126 Nanga Parbat Jammu K2 Karakoram
Himalaya and Kashmir
Annapurna I 8,091 Annapurna (claimed)
Himalaya Jammu and Saltoro Karakoram
Kashmir Kangri
Highest Peaks in Indian States: (administered)
State Peak Range/ Jharkhand Parasnath Parasnath
Region Hills
Andhra Arma Konda Eastern Karnataka Mullayanagiri Western
Pradesh Ghats Ghats
Arunachal Kangto Eastern Kerala Anamudi Western
Pradesh (shared Himalaya Ghats
withTibet) Madhya Dhupgarh Satpura
Assam Unnamed Dima Hasao Pradesh
peak near District Maharashtra Kalsubai Western
Laike Ghats
Bihar Fort West Manipur Mount Iso Senapati
Someshwar Champaran (also known District
District as Tenipu)
Chhattisgarh Gourlata Bailadila Meghalaya Shillong Khasi Hills
Range Peak
Goa Sosogad Western Mizoram Phawngpui Saiha
Ghats District
Gujarat Girnar Junagadh Nagaland Mount Naga Hills
District Saramati
Haryana Karoh Peak Morni Hills (Shared with
Himachal Reo Purgyil Western Myanmar)
29
GEOGRAPHY
Odisha Deomali Eastern The equator passes through 13 countries:

Ghats Ecuador, Colombia, Brazil, Sao Tome &
Punjab Unnamed Rupnagar Principe, Gabon, Republic of the Congo,
peak on the District Democratic Republic of the Congo, Uganda,
Naina Devi Kenya, Somalia, Maldives, Indonesia and
range Kiribati.
Rajasthan Guru Shikhar Aravali The Tropic of Cancer passes through the
Sikkim Kangchenjun Eastern Bahamas, Mexico, Mauritania, Mali, Western
ga (shared Himalaya Sahara, Algeria, Niger, Libya, Egypt, Saudi
with Nepal) Arabia, India, China, Abu Dhabi, Oman,
Tamil Nadu Doddabetta Nilgiri Hills Bangladesh, Burma and Taiwan.
Telangana Doli Gutta Deccan OCEAN CURRENTS
Plateau Ocean currents are large masses of surface
Tripura Betalongchhi Jampui Hills water that circulate in regular patterns
p around the oceans. Those that flow from
Uttar Pradesh Amsot Peak Shivalik Hills equatorial regions polewards have a higher
Uttarakhand Nanda Devi Garhwal temperature and are warm currents. Those
Himalaya that flow from poles towards the equator
West Bengal Sandakphu Eastern have a lower temperature and are cold
(shared with Himalaya currents.
Nepal) Important factors affecting ocean currents:
Countries through which tropic of 1. Planetary winds
capricorn passes through are as follows They are one of the dominant influences on
the flow of ocean currents. The strongest
in west to east direction:
evidence is seen in the north Indian ocean.
1- Chile 2- Argentina
Here the direction of the currents changes
3- Paraguay 4- Brazil
completely with the monsoon winds which
5- Namibia 6- Botswana
comes from the north east in winter and
7- South Africa 8- Mozambique
south west in summer.
9- Madagascar 10- Australia
2. Temperatures.
30
GEOGRAPHY
As warm water is lighter and rises, and cold 6. Labrador Current

water is denser and sinks, warm equatorial 7. South Atlantic ocean
waters move slowly along the surface 8. Brazilian current
polewards, while the heavier cold waters of 9. Benguela current
the polar region creep slowly along the Currents of the Atlantic Ocean:
bottom of the sea towards the equator. North Equatorial Current (Warm)
3. Salinity North equatorial current is a significant
Waters of high salinity are denser then water Pacific and Atlantic Ocean current that flows
of low salinity. Hence waters of low salinity east-to-west between about 10° north and
flow on the surface of waters of high salinity 20° north. This current is generated because
while waters of high salinity flow at the of upwelling of cold-water near the west
bottom towards waters of low salinity. coast of Africa. This warm current is also
4. The earth’s rotation pushed westward by the cold Canary
The earth’s rotation deflects freely moving current. On an average, the north equatorial
objects, including ocean currents, to the warm current flows from east to west but
right. In the northern hemisphere this is a this saline current is deflected northward
clockwise direction. In the southern when it crosses the mid-Atlantic Ridge near
hemisphere it is in an anti-clockwise 15°N latitude. It again turns southward after
direction. crossing over the ridge. This current after
5. Land being obstructed by the land barrier of the
A landmass always obstructs and diverts a east coast of Brazil, is bifurcated into two
current. branches viz. Antilles current and Caribbean
IMPORTANT OCEAN CURRENTS OF current. The Antilles current is diverted
NORTH ATLANTIC OCEAN northward and flows to the east of West
1. Cayenne current Indies islands, and helps in the formation of
2. North Equatorial current Sargasso Sea eddy while the second branch
3. Florida current known as the Caribbean current enters the
4. Gulf stream Gulf of Mexico and becomes- Gulf Stream.
5. Canaries current
31
GEOGRAPHY
South Equatorial Current (warm) The northward branch after taking north-
The South Equatorial Current is a significant westerly course merges with the north
Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian Ocean current equatorial current near Trinidad while the
that flows east-to-west between the equator second branch turns southward and
and about 20 degrees south. In the Pacific continues as Brazil warm current parallel to
and Atlantic Oceans, it extends across the the east coast of South America. This current
equator to about 5 degrees north. South is basically originated under the stress of
equatorial current flows, from the western trade winds.
coast of Africa to the eastern coast of South Equatorial Counter Current
America between the equator and 20°S Equatorial Counter Current Equatorial
latitude. This current is more constant Counter Current is a significant ocean
stronger and of greater extent than the current in the Pacific and Indian oceans that
north equatorial current .In fact this current flows west-to-east at approximately five
is the continuation of the cold Benguela degrees north. The Counter Currents result
current.This warm current is bifurcated into from balancing the westward flow of water in
two branches due to obstruction of land each ocean by the North and South
barrier in the form of the east coast of Brazil. Equatorial currents.
32
GEOGRAPHY
In El Nino years, Equatorial Counter Cape Hatteras, Gulf Stream from Cape
current intensifies in the Pacific ocean.The Hatteras to the Grand Bank, and North
Equatorial Counter current flows from west Atlantic Drift (current) from Grand Bank to
to east in between the westward flowing the Western European coast.
strong north and south equatorial current. Canary Current (Cold)
This current is less developed in the west The Canary current, a cold current, flows
due to stress of trade winds. In fact the along the western coast of north Africa
counter current mixes with the equatorial between Maderia and Cape Verde. In fact
current in the west but it is more developed this current is the continuation of North
in the east where it is known as the Guinea Atlantic Drift which turns southward near the
Stream. The Equatorial Counter current Spanish coast and flows to the south along
carries relatively higher temperature and the coast of Canaries Island. The average
lower density than the two equatorial velocity of this current is 8 to 30 nautical
currents. According to some scientist this miles per day. This current brings cold water
current is originated because of the influence of the high latitudes to the warm water of
of the westerlies which blow from west to the low latitudes and finally merges with the
east in the calm zone of the doldrums or in northequatorial current. The Canary cold
the convergence zone of the north east and current ameliorates the otherwise hot
south east trade Winds. weather conditions western coasts of North
Gulf Stream Africa.
 The Gulf Stream is a system of several Labrador Current (Cold)
currents moving in north-easterly direction. The Labrador Current, an example of cold
This current system originates in the Gulf of current, originates in the Baffin Bay and
Mexico around 20°N latitude and moves in Davis Strait and after flowing through the
north easterly direction along the eastern coastal waters of Newfoundland and Grand
coast of North America and reaches the Bank merges with the Gulf stream around
western coasts of Europe near 70 N latitude. 50°W longitude. The flow discharge rate of
This system, named Gulf Stream because of the current is 7.5 million ml of water per
its origin in the Mexican Gulf, consists of second. This current brings with it a large
Florida current from the strait of Florida to number of big icebergs as far south as
33
GEOGRAPHY
Newfoundla] rand Bank. These icebergs numerous icebergs from the Antarctic area
present effective hindrances in the oceanic to the South American coast.
navigation. Dense fogs are also produced South Atlantic Drift (Cold)
due to the convergence of the Labrador cold The eastward continuation of the Brawl
current and the Gulf Stream near current is called South Atlantic Drift This
Newfoundland. current is originated because of the
Brazil Current (Warm) deflection of the Brazil warm current
The Brazil current is characterized by high eastward at forty degree latitude due to the
temperature and high salinity. This current is deflective force of the rotation of the earth.
generated because of the bifurcation of the The South Atlantic Drift thus, flows eastward
south equatorial current because of under the influence of the westerlies. This
obstruction of the Brazilian coast near Sun current is also known as the Westerlies Drift
Rock. The northern branch flows northward or the Antarctic Drift.
and merges with the north equatorial current Benguela Current (Cold)
while the southern branch known as the The Benguela current a cold current, flows
Brazil current flows southward along the from south to north along the westem coast
coast of South America up to 40°S latitude. of South Africa. In fact the South Atlantic
Thereafter it is deflected eastward due to the Drift turns northward due to obstruction
deflective force of the rotation of the earth caused by the southern tip of Africa. Further
and flows in easterly direction under the northward, this current merges with the
influence of west the Falkland cold current South Equatorial Current
coming from south merges with Brazil Currents of the Pacific Ocean: North
current at 40° S. Equatorial Current Mann)
Falkland Current (Cold) The north equatorial current originates off
The cold waters of the Antarctic Sea flows in the western coast of Mexico and flows in
the form of Falkland cold current from south westerly direction and reaches the
to north along the eastern coast of South Philippines coast after covering a distance of
America up to Argentina. This current 7500 nautical miles. This current is
becomes most extensive and developed near originated because of the Californian current
30°S latitude. This current also brings and northeast monsoon. The volume of
water continuously increases westward
34
GEOGRAPHY
because numerous minor branches join this southern branches near New Guinea. The
current from the north. A few branches also northern branch turns eastward and flows as
come out of the main current and turn counter equatorial current, the southern
towards -north and south. One branch branch -moves towards the northern and
emerges from the north equatorial current north-eastern coast of Australia
near Taiwan and flows northward to join Counter Equatorial Current (Warm)
Kuroshio Current while the southern branch The current flowing west to east between the
turns eastward to form counter equatorial north and south equatorial current is termed
current. It is significant to note that north as counter equatorial current .Because of
equatorial current flows as a continuous this trade winds immense volume of water is
current in the North Pacific Ocean but there piled up in the western marginal part of the
are seasonal variations in its northern and ocean with the result there is general slope
southern marginal areas. The velocity of the gradient of water surface from west to east.
current ranges between 12 and 18 nautical This higher water level in the west and
miles per day. With the northward (northern descending slope gradient of water surface
summer) and southward (south northward from west to east make the oceanic water
and southward but it always remains to the flow in easterly direction in the name of
north of equator. counter equatorial current which is the most
South Equatorial Current (Warm) developed counter current in the Pacific
The south equatorial current is originated Ocean. This counter equatorial current is
due to the influence of south-east trade extended up to the Panama Bay.
winds and flows from east to west .This Kuroshio System (Warm)
current is stronger than the north equatorial The Kuroshio System consists of several
current The average velocity is 20 nautical currents and drifts is similar to the Gulf
miles per day while the maximum velocity Stream system of the Atlantic Ocean. This
becomes 100 nautical miles a day. system runs from Taiwan to the Bering Strait
Numerous minor current join this current and consists of the Kuroshio Current, the
from the left t and thus, the volume of water Kuroshio extension, the north Pacific drift,
continuously increases west-ward. The the Tsushima current and the counter
current is bifurcated into northern and Kuroshio current.
35
GEOGRAPHY
Oyashio Current (Cold) the form of the north equatorial current This
The Oyashio cold current is also known as current after reaching the Mexican coast
Kurile cold current .This cold current flows turns west-ward and merges with the north
through the Bering Strait in southerly equatorial current.
direction and thus transports cold water of Peru Current (Cold)
the Arctic Sea into the Pacific Ocean. Near The cold current flowing along the western
Forty degree N latitude this current is coast of South America from south to north
bifurcated into two branches. One branch is called Peru current or Humboldt current.
turns east-ward and merges with the This current is known as Peru coastal current
Aleutian and Kuroshio currents. The second near the coast while it is called Peru oceanic
branch moves upto the Japanese coasts. current off the coast. Mean annual
This current is comparable to the cold temperature ranges between 14°C and 17°C
Labrador Current of the North Atlantic and the average velocity of moving water is
Ocean. The convergence of cold Oyashioand 15 nautical miles (271m) per day. The
warm Kuroshio Current causes dense fogs temperature of sea water increases from the
which become potential hazards for coast towards the ocean.
navigation. East Australia Current (Warm)
South equatorial current is bifurcated near
California Current (Cold) the Australian coast into northern and
The California current an example of cold southern branches. The southern branch
current is similar to the Canary cold current flows as east Australia current from north to
of the Atlantic Ocean in most of its south along the eastern coasts of Australia.
characteristics. In fact this current is the New Zealand is surrounded by this current.
eastward extended portion of the North It is deflected eastward near 40'S latitude
Pacific drift. The cold California current is due to deflective force of the earth and flows
generated because of the movement of in easterly direction under the influence of
oceanic water along the Californian coast the westerlies. This is a warm and consistent
from north to south in order to compensate current.Itraises the temperature of east
the loss of water which is caused due to Australian coast for considerable distance
large-scale transport of water off the coast of southward.
Mexico under the influence of trade winds in
36
GEOGRAPHY
ISLANDS AND CORAL REEFS These comprise of group of islands of

An island is a piece of land surrounded on all varying sizes and shapes.
sides by water. It may occur individually or Example: British Isles
in a group. Largest island is Greenland. (c). Festoons or Island arcs
Types of Islands
1. Continental Islands
They were once connected to a continent.
They still sit on the continental shelf. Some
formed as Earth’s shifting continents broke
apart.
(a). Individual Islands
The islands form an archipelago in the shape
of a loop around the edge or the mainland,
marking the continuation of mountain ranges
which can be traced to the continent.
Example East Indies, Aleutian Islands
2. Oceanic Islands
These lie just outside the continent, very Islands that are not part of continental shelf
much associated with the features of the areas, they are not, and have never been,
mainland of which they were once part. connected to a continental landmass.They
Example Madagascar separated from are normally small and located in the midst
mainland by Mozambique Channel, Srilanka of oceans. They have flora and fauna
by Palk of Strait unrelated to those of the continents.
(b). Archipelagos or island groups (a)Volcanic Islands
Volcanic islands are built by volcanoes,
not geologically part of any continent. Most
of them are extinct. Examples are Mauna
Loa in Hawaii, Mauritius and Reunion
37
GEOGRAPHY
(b) Coral Islands While there may be areas of shallow

The coral islands are very much lower and intertidal or sub-tidal sand bottom lying
emerge just above the water surface.These between the beach and the inshore edge of
islands are built up by coral animals of coral growth, there is no lagoon between the
various species. Examples are Marshall reef and shore.
Islands and Laccadives The fringing reef is by far the most common
CORAL REEFS of the three major types of coral reefs, with
Coral reefs are diverse underwater numerous examples in all major regions of
ecosystems held together by calcium coral reef development.
carbonate structures secreted by corals. Without an intervening lagoon to effectively
Coral reefs are built by colonies of tiny buffer freshwater runoff, pollution, and
animals found in marine waters that contain sedimentation, fringing reefs tend to
few nutrients. Most coral reefs are built from particularly sensitive to these forms of
stony corals, which in turn consist of polyps human impact.
that cluster in groups. Reef-building corals In is no surprise then that increasing human
are only found in shallow tropical and populations in coastal areas - and the
subtropical waters. This is because the algae accompanying increases in coastal
found in their tissues need light for development and intensive agriculture -
photosynthesis and they prefer water have resulted in the decimation of fringing
temperatures between 20°C. reefs throughout the world in recent years.
1. Fringing reefs 2. Barrier reefs
Barrier reefs are extensive linear reef

Fringing reefs are reefs that grow directly
complexes that parallel a shore, and are
from a shore.
separated from it by lagoon. Barrier reefs
38
GEOGRAPHY
are far less common than fringing reefs or often deep) central lagoon. In the South
atolls, although examples can be found in Pacific, most atolls occur in mid-ocean.
the tropical Atlantic as well as the Pacific. Examples of this reef type are common in
The 1200-mile long Great Barrier Reef off French Polynesia, the Caroline and Marshall
the NE coast of Australia is the world's Islands, Micronesia, and the Cook Islands.
largest example of this reef type. The GBR is The Indian Ocean also contains numerous
not actually a single reef as the name atoll formations. Examples are found in the
implies, but rather a very large complex Maldives and Chagos island groups, the
consisting of many reefs. Seychelles, and in the Cocos Island group.
The second largest Indo-Pacific barrier reef IN contrast, atolls are relatively rare in the
lies off New Caledonia's NE coast - it is some Caribbean. Published counts range from 10-
400 miles long with a lagoon 1-8 miles wide. 27, depending upon who is doing the
Another large barrier reef extends for nearly classification. The far greater number of
170 miles to the north of Fiji and Vanua atolls in the IndoPacific region of coral reef
Levu. This reef type is rare in the Caribbean development - as opposed the Greater
region, where only 2 true barrier reefs are Caribbean region - can be mainly attributed
found. The largest of these runs off the coast to the far greater size of the former region
of Belize, and the other off the north coast of along with its unique geomorphology, which
the island of Providencia (east of Nicaragua). is far more conducive to volcanic island
3. Atolls formation and subsequent subsidence.
LITHOSPHERE:
The word lithosphere is derived from the
word sphere, combined with the Greek word
lithos, meaning rock. The lithosphere is the
solid outer section of Earth, which includes
Earth's crust (the "skin" of rock on the outer
layer of planet Earth), as well as the
underlying cool, dense, and rigid upper part
An atoll is a roughly circular (annular) of the upper mantle. The lithosphere extends
oceanic reef system surrounding a large (and from the surface of Earth to a depth of about
39
GEOGRAPHY
(70–100 km). This relatively cool and rigid including both the solid portion of the upper
section of Earth is believed to "float" on top mantle and Earth's crust, is carried
of the warmer, non-rigid, and partially "piggyback" on top of the weaker, less rigid
melted material directly below. asthenosphere, which seems to be in
Earth is made up of several layers. The continual motion. This motion creates stress
outermost layer is called Earth's crust. The in the rigid rock layers above it, forcing the
thickness of the crust varies. Under the slabs or plates of the lithosphere to jostle
oceans, the crust is only about (5–10 km) against each other, much like ice cubes
thick. Under the continents, however, the floating in a bowl of swirling water. This
crust thickens to about 22 mi (35 km) and motion of the lithospheric plates is known as
reaches depths of up to (60 km) under plate tectonics, and is responsible for many
some mountain ranges. Beneath the crust is of the movements seen on Earth's surface
a layer of rock material that is also solid, today including earthquakes, certain types of
rigid, and relatively cool, but is assumed to volcanic activity, and continental drift.
be made up of denser material. This layer is HYDROSPHERE
called the upper part of the upper mantle, A hydrosphere is the total amount of water
and varies in depth from about (50–100 km) on a planet. The hydrosphere includes water
below Earth's surface. The combination of that is on the surface of the planet,
the crust and this upper part of the upper underground, and in the air. A planet's
mantle, which are both comprised of hydrosphere can be liquid, vapor, or ice.On
relatively cool and rigid rock material, is Earth, liquid water exists on the surface in
called the lithosphere. the form of oceans, lakes and rivers. It also
Below the lithosphere, the temperature is exists below ground—as groundwater, in
believed to reach (1,000°C), which is warm wells and aquifers. Water vapor is most
enough to allow rock material to flow if visible as clouds and fog.The frozen part of
pressurized. Seismic evidence suggests that Earth's hydrosphere is made of ice: glaciers,
there is also some molten material at this ice caps and icebergs. The frozen part of the
depth (perhaps about 10%). This zone which hydrosphere has its own name, the
lies directly below the lithosphere is called cryosphere. Water moves through the
the asthenosphere, from the Greek word hydrosphere in a cycle. Water collects in
asthenes, meaning weak. The lithosphere, clouds, then falls to Earth in the form of rain
40
GEOGRAPHY
or snow. This water collects in rivers, lakes original atmosphere and oceans.Volcanoes
and oceans. Then it evaporates into the are found both on land and under the oceans
atmosphere to start the cycle all over again. (where they are called seamounts).
This is called the water cycle. Geologists label volcanoes by their periods of
VOLCANO activity. If a volcano is erupting, it is called
active. If a volcano is not presently erupting
but might at some future date, it is called
dormant. If a volcano has stopped erupting
forever, it is called extinct. Generally,
volcanoes are labeled extinct when no
eruption has been noted in recorded history.
Caldera: Large circular depression formed
when an empty magma chamber causes the
collapse of the volcano above it.
Hot spot: An upwelling of heat from
A volcano is a hole in Earth's surface through beneath Earth's crust.
which magma (called lava when it reaches Lava: Magma at Earth's surface.
Earth's surface), hot gases, ash, and rock Magma: Molten rock deep within Earth that
fragments escape from deep inside the consists of liquids, gases, and particles of
planet. The word volcano also is used to rocks and crystals.
describe the cone of erupted material (lava Pyroclastic flow: A dense wave of
and ash) that builds up around the superheated air and rock that moves as a
opening.Volcanic activity is the main process fluid from an erupting volcano, sometimes
by which material from Earth's interior crossing thousands of square miles of
reaches its surface. Volcanoes played a large landscape.
part in the formation of Earth's atmosphere, Seafloor spreading: Spreading of the
oceans, and continents. When Earth was seafloor outward at ridges where two oceanic
new, the superheated gases within it plates are diverging.
(including carbon dioxide) streamed out Seamount: Large, submarine volcano.
through countless volcanoes to form the
41
GEOGRAPHY
According to the geologic theory called plate laden water into the surrounding ocean.
tectonics, Earth's crust is broken into various Temperature of this fluid is typically around
rigid plates that "float" on the surface of the 660°F (350°C).
planet. The plates move in response to Often, the fluid released is black due to the
intense pressure created underneath by the presence of very fine sulfide mineral
movement of currents carrying heat energy particles (iron, copper, zinc, and other
from the center of the planet to the surface. metals). As a result, these deep-ocean hot
This pressure causes plates to move toward springs are called black smokers.
or away from each other (and also past each Hydrothermal vents usually occur at
other in a horizontal motion). midocean ridges where new seafloor is
Volcanoes form on land near coastal areas created.
when a continental (land) plate and an Hydrothermal vents are surrounded by
oceanic plate converge or move toward each unusual forms of sea life, including giant
other. Since the oceanic plate is denser, it clams, tube worms, and unique types of fish.
subducts or sinks beneath the continental These organisms live off bacteria that thrive
plate. As the rock of this subducted oceanic on the energy-rich chemical compounds
plate is pushed farther and farther beneath transported by hydrothermal fluids. This is
the continent's surface, extremely high the only environment on Earth supported by
temperatures and pressure melt the rock. a food chain that does not depend on the
This creates hot, buoyant magma that then energy of the Sun or photosynthesis. The
rises toward the surface. When the magma energy source is chemical, not solar, and is
reaches the crust, it collects in a magma called chemosynthesis.
reservoir or chamber. When pressure inside Seamounts (underwater volcanoes) form
the reservoir exceeds that of the overlying when oceanic plates both converge (move
rock, magma is forced upward through toward each other) and diverge (move away
cracks in Earth's crust. from each other). When oceanic plates
Hydrothermal vents are cracks in the ocean converge, one sinks beneath the other,
floor or chimney-like structures extending creating a deep-sea trench. Rising magma
from the ocean floor up to 150 feet (45 from the subducted plate then rises to form
meters) high. Due to nearby volcanic volcanoes along the trench. When oceanic
activity, these vents release hot mineral- plates diverge, magma seeps upward at the
42
GEOGRAPHY
ridge between the plates to create new according to four chief forms or phases:
seafloor (a process called seafloor Hawaiian, Strombolian, Vulcanian, and
spreading). Volcanoes form on either side of Peleean.
the ridge. In a Hawaiian phase, runny lava gushes out
Hot spots are special areas where volcanoes in a fountain without any explosive
form apart from plates converging or eruptions. In a Strombolian phase (named
diverging. Hot spots are a common term for after the Stomboli volcano on an island north
thermal plumes of magma welling up of Sicily), thick lava is emitted in continuous
through the crust far from the edges of but mild explosions. Lava arcs and steam-
plates. As a plate drifts over a hot spot, driven clouds of ash shower the dome with
magma from Earth's interior rises and molten drizzle. A Vulcanian phase occurs
volcanic activity takes place. Some famous when a magma plug has blocked the volcanic
hot spots are Hawaii, Yellowstone National vent. The resulting explosive eruption hurls
Park (United States), Iceland, Samoa, and tons of almost solid magma into the sky, and
Bermuda. a vapor cloud forms over the crater. The
Volcanic eruptions most violent eruption is the Peleean, named
Volcanoes erupt different material, and they after Mount Pelee on the Caribbean island of
each have their own style of erupting. These Martinique. Fine ash, thick lava, and glowing,
varied eruptions result from the differences gas-charged clouds are emitted, traveling
in magma that each volcano contains. downhill at a tremendous speed.
Magma that is low in gas and silica (silicon Fierce rains often accompany eruptions
dioxide, a compound found widely in rocks because of the release of steam from the
and minerals) yields a gentle flow of thin, volcano, which then condenses in the
quickly spreading lava. In contrast, magma atmosphere to form clouds. Volatile gases in
that is rich in gas and silica gives rise to the magma also fly into the atmosphere
violent explosions: the thick, tarlike magma upon eruption. These include hydrogen
may plug up the volcanic vent, blocking the sulfide, fluorine, carbon dioxide, and radon.
upward movement of the magma until built- A dense wave of ash, superheated gases,
up pressure blows away the overlying rock. and rock that moves as a fluid from an
Geologists classify volcanic eruptions erupting volcano is known as a pyroclastic
43
GEOGRAPHY
flow. Flows travel downhill at speeds more This power source awaits only the
than 60 miles (100 kilometers) per hour, development of feasible geothermal
filling existing valleys with the fluid mixture. technology.
This material deflates as it cools. The rock Earthquake
formation that results is called an ignimbrite An earthquake is a geological event inside
(pronounced IG-nim-bright), and the fused the earth that generates strong vibrations.
rock is called tuff. Ignimbrites can cover When the vibrations reach the surface, the
hundreds of square miles of landscape, such earth shakes, often causing damage to
as the Mitchell Mesa Tuff of West Texas. natural and manmade objects, and
When a volcano erupts such a large volume sometimes killing and injuring people and
of material, often emptying its magma destroying their property. Earthquakes can
chamber, the central part of the cone is left occur for a variety of reasons; however, the
unsupported. As a result, the crater and most common source of earthquakes is
walls of the vent collapse into the hollow movement along a fault.
chamber, creating a large circular depression Some earthquakes occur when tectonic
known as a caldera across the summit. The plates, large sections of Earth's crust and
famous Crater Lake in southern Oregon upper mantle, move past each other.
formed in this way. Earthquakes along the San Andreas and
Volcanic benefits Hayward faults in California occur because of
The eruption of volcanoes through geologic this. Earthquakes also occur if one plate
time built the continents. The soil of some of overruns another, as on the western coast of
the world's richest farmland draws its fertility South America , the northwest coast of North
from minerals provided by nearby volcanoes. America , and in Japan. If plates collide but
The heat of magma boils water into steam neither is overrun, as they do crossing
that spins the turbines of geothermal power Europe and Asia from Spain to Vietnam,
stations. Geothermal stations now light earthquakes result as the rocks at the
electric power grids in Iceland, Italy, New abutting plates compress into high mountain
Zealand, and a other places. Enough heat ranges. In all three of these settings,
flows from the world's volcanic regions and earthquakes result from movement along
midoceanic ridges to power industrial faults.
civilization for several hundred million years.
44
GEOGRAPHY
A fault block may also move due to gravity, pinpointed. This is how nuclear weapons
sinking between other fault blocks that testing in one country can be monitored by
surround and support it. Sinking fault blocks other countries around the world.
and the mountains that surround them form Earth is covered by a crust of solid rock,
a distinctive topography of basins and which is broken into numerous plates that
mountain ranges. This type of fault block move around on the surface, bumping,
configuration is typified by the North overrunning, and pulling away from each
American Basin and Range topographic other. One kind of boundary between rocks
province. In such places, elevation losses by within a plate, as well as at the edges of the
the valleys as they sinkbetween the plates, is a fault. Faults are large-scale
mountains are accompanied by tremors or breaks in Earth's crust, in which the rock on
earthquakes. Another kind of mountain one side of the fault has been moved relative
range rises because of an active thrust fault. to the rock on the other side of the fault by
Tectonic compression (tectonic, meaning tectonic forces. Fault blocks are giant pieces
having to do with the forces that deform the of crust that are separated from the rocks
rocks of planets) shoves the range up the around them by faults.
active thrust fault, which acts like a natural When the forces pushing on fault blocks
ramp. cannot move one block past the other,
Molten rock called magma moves beneath potential energy is stored up in the fault
but relatively close to the earth's surface in zone. This is the same potential energy that
volcanically active regions. Earthquakes resides in a giant boulder when it is poised,
sometimes accompany volcanic eruptions as motionless, at the top of a steep slope. If
huge masses of magma move underground. something happens to overcome the friction
Nuclear bombs exploding underground cause holding the boulder in place, its potential
small local earthquakes, which can be felt by energy will convert into kinetic energy as it
people standing within a few miles of the thunders down the slope. In the fault zone,
test site. The earthquakes caused by nuclear the potential energy builds up until the
bombs are tiny compared to natural friction that sticks the fault blocks together is
earthquakes; but they have a distinctive overcome. Then, in seconds, all the potential
"sound," and their location can be energy built up over the years turns to
45
GEOGRAPHY
kinetic energy as the rocks surge past each This upper block is called the hanging wall
other. and the lower block, the foot wall.
The vibrations of a fault block on the move In horizontal faults, the blocks slide past one
can be detected by delicate instruments another without either block being lifted. In
(seismometers and seismographs) in rocks this case, the objects on the two sides of the
on the other side of the world. Although this fault simply slide past one another; for
happens on a grand scale, it is remarkably example, a road that straddles the fault
like pushing on a stuck window or sliding might be offset by a number of feet.
door. Friction holds the window or door tight Complex faults display movements with both
in its tracks. After enough force is applied to vertical and horizontal displacements.
over-come the friction, the window or door Different kinds of earthquake-generated
jerks open. waves, moving at their own speeds, arrive at
Some fault blocks are stable and no longer the surface in a particular order. The
experience the forces that moved them in successive waves that arrive at a single site
the first place. The fault blocks that face are called a wave train. Seismologists
each other across an active fault, however, compare information about wave trains that
are still influenced by tectonic forces in the are recorded as they pass through a number
ever-moving crust. They grind past each of data-collecting sites after an earthquake.
other along the fault as they move in By comparing data from three recording
different directions. stations, they can pinpoint the map location
Fault blocks can move in a variety of ways, (epicenter) and depth within the earth's
and these movements define the different surface (focus or hypocenter) of the
types of faults. In a vertical fault, one block earthquake.
moves upward relative to the other. At the These are the most important types of
surface of the earth, a vertical fault forms a seismic waves:
cliff, known as a fault scarp. The sheer P-waves—The fastest waves, these
eastern face of the Sierra Nevada mountain compress or stretch the rock in their path
range is a fault scarp. In most vertical faults, through Earth, moving at about 4 mi (6.4
the fault scarp is not truly vertical, and one km) per second.
of the fault blocks "hangs" over the other. S-waves—As they move through Earth,
these waves shift the rock in their path up
46
GEOGRAPHY
and down and side to side, moving at about heavy loads, such as buildings. This
2 mi (3.2 km) per second. phenomenon, called liquefaction, causes
Rayleigh waves and Love waves—These much of the destruction associated with an
two types of "surface waves" are named earthquake in liquefaction-prone areas.
after seismologists. Moving at less than 2 mi TSUNAMI
(3.2 km) per second, they lag behind P- A tsunami is a series of ocean waves that
waves and S-waves but cause the most sends surges of water, sometimes reaching
damage. Rayleigh waves cause the ground heights of over 100 feet (30.5 meters), onto
surface in their path to ripple with little land. These walls of water can cause
waves. Love waves move in a zigzag along widespread destruction when they crash
the ground and can wrench buildings from ashore.These awe-inspiring waves are
side to side.The relative size of earthquakes typically caused by large, undersea
is measured by the Richter scale, which earthquakes at tectonic plate boundaries.
measures the energy an earthquake When the ocean floor at a plate boundary
releases. Each whole number increase in rises or falls suddenly it displaces the water
value on the Richter scale indicates a 10-fold above it and launches the rolling waves that
increase in the energy released and a thirty- will become a tsunami.Most tsunamis, about
fold increase in ground motion. An 80 percent, happen within the Pacific
earthquake measuring 8 on the Richter scale Ocean’s “Ring of Fire,” a geologically active
is ten times more powerful, therefore, than area where tectonic shifts make volcanoes
an earthquake with a Richter Magnitude of 7, and earthquakes common.Tsunamis may
which is ten times more powerful than an also be caused by underwater landslides or
earthquake with a magnitude of 6. Another volcanic eruptions. They may even be
scale—the Modified Mercalli Scale uses launched, as they frequently were in Earth’s
observations of damage (like fallen ancient past, by the impact of a large
chimneys) or people's assessments of effects meteorite plunging into an ocean. Tsunamis
(like mild or severe ground shaking) to race across the sea at up to 500 miles (805
describe the intensity of a quake. kilometers) an hour—about as fast as a jet
Violent shaking changes water bearing sand airplane. At that pace they can cross the
into a liquid-like mass that will not support entire expanse of the Pacific Ocean in less
47
GEOGRAPHY
than a day. And their long wavelengths

mean they lose very little energy along the
way.In deep ocean, tsunami waves may
appear only a foot or so high. But as they
approach shoreline and enter shallower
water they slow down and begin to grow in
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energy and height. The tops of the waves
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move faster than their bottoms do, which
causes them to rise precipitously.
A tsunami is usually composed of a series of
waves, called a wave train, so its destructive
force may be compounded as successive
waves reach shore. The Pacific Tsunami
Warning System, a coalition of 26 nations
headquartered in Hawaii, maintains a web of
seismic equipment and water levelgauges to
identify tsunamis at sea.
48

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1 General Knowledge Made Easy - by Karthik M

First in India Male

2 General Knowledge Made Easy - by Karthik M

The first Chinese traveller to visit India Fahein

First in India (Female)

The first woman to receive Nobel Prize Mother Teresa

First in the World (Male & Female)

4 General Knowledge Made Easy - by Karthik M

First man to draw the map of earth Anexemander

The most popular city Mumbai (Maharastra)

6 General Knowledge Made Easy - by Karthik M

Tallest office Building Patronas Twin Towers Kuala Lampur

Coldest Place or Region Verkhoyansk (Syberia), Temperature – 85`

8 General Knowledge Made Easy - by Karthik M

200 ft. high

Important Places in India

Akshardham Delhi Bochasanwasi Akshar-Purushottam

10 General Knowledge Made Easy - by Karthik M

Jantar Mantar Jaipur Jaipur, Rajasthan Maharaja Jai Singh II

12 General Knowledge Made Easy - by Karthik M

Trevi Fountain Rome, Italy

Minaret of Jam Afghanistan

IMPORTANT MONUMENTS PLACE

14 General Knowledge Made Easy - by Karthik M

Borobudur Temple Compounds Central Java, Indonesia

Gyanuati Devi Trophy Hockey

16 General Knowledge Made Easy - by Karthik M

Important Geographical Discoveries  Island of Tasmania and New Zealand -

during World War I by India26th Parallel south is a circle of

 Mason-Dixon Line is a line of latitude which crosses through Africa,

demarcation between four states in the Australia and South America.

United State.  30th Parallel north is a line of latitude

18 General Knowledge Made Easy - by Karthik M

 Kazakhs: Kazakhistan  Pygmies: Congo basin, Zaire

20 General Knowledge Made Easy - by Karthik M

Major Festivals State/Region

22 General Knowledge Made Easy - by Karthik M

Vasant Navratri Popularly called navarathiri

Important Countries and their Parliament Names

United Nations Organization (UNO) 24 October 1945 after World War II in

24 General Knowledge Made Easy - by Karthik M

a light blue background. the World Food Programme, UNESCO,

& Working Languages of General officer is the Secretary-General, an office

and Security Council– English, French, 2007.

Chinese, Russian, Arabic, Spanish. UN The Security Council (Policeman of the

Secretariat has English and French World)

only as its working languages. The Security Council is made up of 15

States—and ten non-permanent members— to block adoption of a resolution, though not

International Organization Headquarters Heads

World Intellectual Property Organization Geneva, Switzerland Francis Gurry (Director-

Secretaries-General of the United Nations:

No. Name Country of origin Took office Left office

28 General Knowledge Made Easy - by Karthik M

 International Year of Soils 2005-2015: International Decade for Action,

30 General Knowledge Made Easy - by Karthik M

OTHER SUMMITS:- January 26 : India's Republic Day

1. 16th International OPEC Summit, 2015– January 26 : International Customs day.

Paris, France January 28 : Lala lajpat rai birthday

2. 48th ADB Meeting, 2015– Baku, January 28 : Data protection day

Azerbaijan January 30 : Martyrs' Day

2015– Paris, France February 04 : World Cancer day

4. 9th WTO Ministerial Conference, 2013– February 06 : International day against