TOPIC 1- LIFESTYLE, HEALTH & RISK

WATER H-Bonds creates adhesive affect- high mp/bp relative to similar sized molecules Excellent solvent- dipole allows ionic substances to be dissolved- polar substances also dissolve Carries non-polar substances as COLLOIDS (solute particles bigger than solvent) Insoluble particles form EMULSIONS (droplets of one liquid held in another) or SUSPENSIONS (solid + liquid particles separate out if constantly moved) High surface tension- like covered by skin- no interact between air and water itselfh bonds pull down and together. Amphoteric- acts as Ph buffer as is proton donor H+ or acceptor OHHigh latent heat of evaporation- evaporation takes a lot of energy so cools as evaporates Thermally stable due to high specific heat capacity Creates cohesion (important in plants section T4) CIRCULATORY SYSTEM - higher metabolic rate of many mammals etc means that diffusion is too slow to meet needs, as SA/V ratio is small- thus mass transport systems are used to maximise efficiency. In some animals their needs are met by simple diffusion such as amoeba with a large SA/V ratio diffusion is efficient and effective. BLOOD Plasma- main component largely water and dissolved substances Erythrocytes- red blood cells- biconcave discs no nucleus more room for haemoglobin and O2 Leukocytes- white blood cells- can squeeze and change shape, have nucleus + colourless cytoplasm Platelets- fragments of other cells, involved in clot formation. BLOOD VESSELS Arteries- blood away from heart- to lungs = pulmonary artery to be oxygenatedto body via aorta or head/neck via aorta and carotid arteries. Small lumen, large amount collagen and elastic fibres to allow to return to shape when expands. No valves, smooth endothelial lining- prevent friction. Arteries most at risk from damage due to high blood pressure and recoil. Veins- blood back towards heart- pulmonary vein from lungs (oxygenated)inferior vena cava and superior vena cava from body. Have valves to prevent back flow as is at lower pressure than arteries. Large lumen to act as blood reservoir and some but less elastic and collagen fibres. Capillaries- network that links arteries and veins, 1 cell thick and very thin, RBC pass through, nutrients out into network and waste (CO2 etc) returned to red blood cell. Blood pressure low through network- blood flows from arteriesarterioles to capillary network to venules and veins.

THE HEART Superior Vena Cava vein-carries deoxygenated blood from the upper body to right atrium. Pulmonary Veins carries blood from the lungs to the left atrium of the heart Right Atrium blood collection chamber of the heart, it has a thin walled structure Left Atrium this receives oxygenated blood from the left and right pulmonary veins. Right Ventricle this receives blood from the right atrium and pumps it in to the pulmonary artery. Inferior Vena Cava - carries deoxygenated blood from the lower body into the right atrium of the heart. Aorta largest artery in the body -brings oxygenated blood to all parts of the body in the systemic circulation. Cardiac Muscle these muscle cells push blood from the atria to the ventricles to the blood vessels of the circulatory system. Pulmonary Arteries this carries blood from the heart the lungs. When the muscles of the atria walls contract it forces the remaining blood in to the ventricles. The walls of the ventricles contract as they fill with blood, the increased blood pressure closes the atrioventricular valves preventing backflow of blood in to the atria. As the atrioventricular valves are closed the pressure increases opening the semi lunar valves and pushing the blood in to the pulmonary artery and aorta. Atrioventricular Valves these are located between the atrium and the ventricle on both sides. They prevent backflow of blood in to the atria as the closure of these valves ensures that the blood will flow in to the pulmonary artery or aorta. Semi-Lunar Valves these are in the aorta and pulmonary artery , they prevent backflow of blood in to the ventricles. The sinoatrial top of the right atrium-create regular waves of electrical activity to atria allowing contraction- prevent spreading by insulating fibrous tissue CARDIAC CYCLE Diastole + systole. Diastole- atria / ventricles relax- blood into atrium- atrioventricular valves openblood into ventricles- semi lunar is closed. Systole- ventricles contract- atrioventricular closes, semi lunar opens blood to aorta or pulmonary artery INTRINSIC RHYTHM early embryo cells begin to rhythmically contract long before muscle forms- via electrical excitation at 60bpm.

CARDIOVASCULAR CENTER IN BRAIN Controls heart- as nerves speed the heart or slow down- dependant on CO2 levels in blood- nerve control provides quick reactions- hormones also affect heart rate but generally slower. CORONARY ARTERIES Feed myocardial (heart muscle) above aortic valve from aorta so received straight away and quickly. BLOOD PRESSURE Measured by SPHYGMOMANOMETER (automatic one or cuff + mercury manometer and stethoscope) BP = systolic bp / diastolic bp e.g. 120/80 Hypertension- high blood pressure (140/90) (can be caused by narrowed arteries) Hypotension- low blood pressure (90/60) (can be caused by weak heart) DRUGS FOR LOWERING BLOOD PRESSURE- ANTIHYPERTENSIVES Diuretics- increased volume of urine- lower blood volume- lower blood pressure (SE nausea) Beta blockers- block hearts response to hormones such as adrenaline that speed heart up (SE diabetes link) Sympathetic Nerve Inhibitors- block sympathetic nerves- these get arteries to constrict, by blocking keeps arteries dilated so blood pressure is kept low (SE cough) ACE Inhibitors- hormone angiotensin causes blood vessels to constrict so inhibitors prevent these being made thus vessels are not constricted. (SE impaired kidney function) Treatment of CVD involved antihypertensives (lower bp), reducing of cholesterol (statins), anticoagulants- (less likely atheroma to form), and platelet inhibitors Statins-block enzyme in liver that makes cholesterol (SE nausea, constipation or rare inflammation reactions- can encourage a not healthy diet, create attitude that no need to eat well as statins prevent cholesterol build up) Anticoagulants- e.g. Warfarin, prevent risk of clot formation by thinning blood(SE uncontrolled bleeding) Platelet inhibitors e.g. Aspirin- makes platelets less sticky (SE irritation to stomach lining cause stomach bleeding) CVDCARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE Results from coronary arteries narrowed with fatty deposits- narrowing reduces flow and can starve heart muscle of oxygen- also one blood clot (thrombosis) increases likelihood of another Blood clotting as a process is important- prevents bleeding to death and entrance of pathogens.

But clot in vessels is the problemDamage to vessel- exposes collagen fibres- platelets from blood stick- the platelets release thromboplastin- in presence of calcium ions and vitamin K thromboplastin converts prothrombin to thrombin- this converts soluble fibrinogen to insoluble fibrin that creates a mesh-like network of fibres trapping cells + debris to = a clot.

Cascade = Damage to lining- increased likelihood of clot- if clot occurs, inflammatory response- cholesterol builds up = atheroma- build up of calcium, salts and platelets = plaque formation- narrows artery- raises blood pressure- increased likelihood of damage. Clot can lead to aneurysm, plaque causes blood build up behind- artery bulges, can rupture artery Artherosclerosis- process as above but calcium plaque causes loss of elasticity in artery walls- less able to cope with recoil damage more likely. What increases likelihood of artery damage and whySmoking- nicotine intake results in adrenaline production- heart rate faster, BP increases toxins in smoke irritate endothelial lining, greater risk of damage Obesity- greater strain on heart, also association between obesity and raised blood pressure/ had diet Inactivity- exercise makes heart stronger so can pump more blood with each beat. High cholesterol/ fatty died- large amounts cholesterol in blood stream increases risk of clot Family history- suggested genetic links High Blood Pressure. Age- with ageing elasticity and width of arteries deteriorates Gender- oestrogen in women offers some protection from CVD Treatments- anticoagulants, antihypertensives, statins (see above) Risk can be reduced by changing lifestyle choices such as smoking or bad diet Risk- can be actual, as suggested by studies, or perceived-that is altered by an individuals personal experiences and perceptions. Risk is the probability of the occurrence of a unwanted event or outcome- but correlation does not imply causation. Epidemiologists conduct research to access risk factors; Types of study = Cohort- many people, long time period, categorised according to who has/ doesnt have condition- risk factors accessed e.g. Munster Heart Study (see below) in cholesterol. Case-control studies- group with condition and control group- past history

researched- important to match case/control groups in terms of age/ genderindependent variables are controlled Good study- valid/ reliable data, representative of whole population- lack biasvariables controlled as much as possible- standardised measurement/ other techniques- sample size- while large sample size is generally best- if only tiny % have disease small group individuals suffering best representative than large sample with one or two sufferers. CARBOHYDRATES All composed of Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen. Three main groups- monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides

Monosaccharides- single sugar molecules containing 1 Oxygen atom and 2 Hydrogen atoms for each Carbon. (C H2 O)n (n= number of sugars) e.g. Triose (n=3) C3H6O3 Disaccharides are two joined monosacs. Joined in a condensation reaction-H2O released Link between two monosacs is covalent bond called glycosidic bond (C6 H10 O5)n Glucose+ Fructose = Sucrose (stored in plants e.g. sugar beet/cane) Glucose+ Galactose= Lactose (main carbohydrate of milk) Glucose+ Glucose= Maltose (found in germinating seeds e.g. barley) Made of many monosacs joined with glycosidic bonds- many condensation reactions- lots H2O released. 3-10 monosacs = oligosaccharides 11+ monosacs= polysaccharides No sweet taste Can form compact molecules, ideal for storage in cells. Glycosidic bonds broken in hydrolysis reaction. Not very water soluble- dont interfere cellular functions/ disrupt osmotic balance. Starch important energy store in plants- sugar from photosyn. are converted to starch- insoluble & compact- but can be rapidly broken down Starch= long chains glucose- but is mixture of AMYLOSE and AMYLOPECTIN AMYLOSE- unbranched polymer- spirals- more compact with length. Comprised 200-5000 glucose molecules. Only released by enzymes working from each end of amylase molecule.

AMYLOPECTIN- Polymer of glucose molecules- but branched. Lots of terminal endsbreak quickly when energy is required. The combination of both in starch explains why starchy foods e.g. pasta are good for exercise. AMYLOPEC releases glucose for cellular respiration rapidly. AMYLOSE provides longer term energy to keep going. TYPICAL STARCH GRAIN IN PLANT CELL IS 75% AMYLOPEC- rest AMYLOSE. Glycogen- like starch but + branches- quick breakdown. AMYLOSE, AMYLOPECTIN AND GLYCOGEN ALL MADE GLUCOSE MOLECULES IN CHAINS Carbon in glycosidic bond determines which is involved. Amylose- only glycosidic bonds carbon 1 and 4 *1,4-glycosidic bonds* = straight Amylopectin- Some 1,4 but few 1,6-glycosidic bonds = branching Starch = combination of straight chain amylose and branched Amylopectin. Glycogen= More 1,6 bonds than 1,4 bonds. To be good store, bonds in carbohydrates need to be broken to release single sugars for cells to use. Glycosidic bond between monosaccharides split by hydrolysis- opposite condensation- water required/ added to bond. Hydrolysis takes place in digestion/ in muscle and liver cells.

LIPIDS

Fatty acids + glycerol (3 fatty acids : glycerol= triglyceride) Act as energy source but also have functions such as protective around organs, also waterproofing fur/ feathers, insulating properties- the fatty sheath around nerves. Lipids dissolve in organic solvents- insoluble in water so dont affect cellular osmotic balance. Fats are solid at room t, oils are liquid (if unsaturated double bonds= kinks in

chain- weaker IM bonds) Fatty acid(s) + glycerol join by condensation reaction between carboxyl group on fatty acids and hydroxyl group on glycerol= ester bond so reaction = esterification. Lipid + protein = lipoprotein lipid + phosphate group= phospholipids (phosphate attaches to glycerol= hydrophilic head, lipid tails of fatty acids= hydrophobic) CHOLESTEROL Using to form cell membranes- cant dissolve in blood- found in all body cells and among lipids- they have be transported via lipoprotein carriers; LDL (low-density lipoprotein) major cholesterol carrier, excess LDL increases risk plaque/ atheroma- reduces the cholesterol absorption from blood. HDL- (high-density lipoprotein) transports lipids/ unsaturated fats to liver to be broken down / removed. HDL acts to reduce cholesterol- thus is considered good cholesterol High cholesterol- increase risk of CHD as clots ability to form increases due to large amount cholesterol in blood- treatment for high cholesterol = Statins (block enzyme in liver responsible for making the cholesterol) Munster Heart Study- around 11,000 tested for between 4-14 years, aged between 36-65. BMI Body mass index= mass (kg) / height(m) 2 Under 21= UW 21-25=Good 26-30= OW 31+ Obese Basic energy requirement = weight (kg) X 4 (4 is human basic energy requirement per kg) BMR- basal metabolic rate = basic energy requirement x24 Total energy need = BMR + daily activity uses CORE PRACTICALS FOR UNIT Daphnia- affect of caffeine on heartbeat Immobilise daphnia via cotton wool strands on cavity slideSet up microscope- include beaker of water as heat sink from light for microscope Put daphnia slide under- control- dash on piece of paper for each heart beat for 30 seconds- x2 for bpm. Add caffeine sample- repeat Vitamin C- content of fruit juices Filter fruit juice sample- add to burette, add to 1cm3 of DCPIP until DCPIP is colourless- greater volume of liquid less vitamin C-repeat with other juices ensure thorough cleaning Problems can occur with judging when DCPIP has decolourised and potential to read burette wrong- vitamin C containing juice added 1 drop at time- so only to 1 drop accuracy.

TOPIC 2- GENES AND HEALTH

PROTEINS Protein monomer is an amino acid.

Amino acids have carboxylic group, hydrogen atom, amino group (NH2) and variable R group. Central carbon= alpha carbon Primary protein structure is formation of polypeptide chain= many amino acids joined via condensation reactions to form peptide bonds Secondary Structure interactions between charged amino/ carboxylic groups form alpha helix or beta pleated sheet Tertiary structure further folding to = 3D shape due to ionic bonds of ionised R groups and further hydrophobic interactions = h bonds, covalent bonds, disulphide bridges and polar interactions Quaternary structure two or more polypeptide chains held by h bonds Globular proteins- complex tertiary + sometimes quaternary structure to form enzymes etc Fibrous proteins little or no tertiary structure- parallel polypeptide chains cross link to form fibres e.g. keratin in nails. Conjugated proteins- protein joined to a prosthetic group e.g. glycoproteins are proteins conjugated with a carbohydrate prosthetic group (holds water wellsynovial fluids/ mucus function) Lipoproteins- proteins + lipid prosthetic group CATALYSTS Speed up reactions- enzymes are biological catalysts that work intracellular or extracellular. Enzymes are globular proteins- specific shape including a specific active site- only certain shaped molecules can fit into the active site- (substrate)= lock and key hypothesis or if active site is induced to change shape by substrate= induced fit theory. Both end up with enzyme-substrate complex- charged groups attract distorting the substrate by aiding bond breakage and formation- products released from active site- enzyme/ active site are unchanged and can accept another substrate molecule. Anabolic reactions- build up new chemicals Catabolic reactions- break down Combination= metabolism Enzymes work by lowering the activation energy needed When enzymes are denatured (due to heat/ pH etc) tertiary structure is lost due breaking of H bonds etc- when this happens rate of reaction declines as enzyme stops functioning CELL MEMBRANES phospholipids bilayer- phosphate prosthetic group attached to glycerol of lipid. Glycerol and phosphate= hydrophilic head, lipid tails are hydrophobic fatty acids. Chemical pass through layer by carrier/channel proteins- fat-soluble organic molecules and small molecules e.g. water can pass through. Cholesterol regulates fluidity.

Glycoproteins- function in cell signalling, recognition and binding Carrier proteins- specific to molecules, transport via active transport. Channel proteins- facilitated diffusion. Receptors bind to hormones. Facilitated diffusion carrier proteins carry large water-soluble substances Diffusion- small, lipid-soluble substances pass through down concentration gradient Facilitated diffusion- via channel proteins- polar water soluble substances down conc. gradient Active Transport- water-soluble substances again concentration gradient needs carrier protein and ATP. Osmosis- water moves down water potential gradient. Rate of diffusion is affected by surface area, concentration gradient, temperature and distance Temperature increase- permeability increases The cell membrane is described to be fluid because of its hydrophobic integral components such as lipids and membrane proteins that move laterally or sideways throughout the membrane. The membrane is depicted as mosaic because like a mosaic that is made up of many different parts the cell membrane, components such as glycoproteins are scattered throughout the membrane. DNA STRUCTURE Nucleic acids- information molecules of cells. DNA- deoxyribonucleic acid. RNA- ribonucleic acid DNA/RNA- polymers monomers are nucleotides/ mononucleotides. Each mononucleotide- 3 parts- pentose (5 CARBON) sugar, phosphate group and a nitrogen containing base. Pentose Sug. In RNA- ribose, DNA- deoxyribose- (one less oxygen) Nitrogen-containing bases found in nucleic acidsPURINES- 2 Nitrogen ringsADENINE, GUANINE PYRIMIDINES- 1 Nitrogen ring- CYTOSINE, THYMINE DNA- 4 base combo- 1 PURINE TO ONE PYRIMIDINES A-T G-C RNA purine base same but thymine is replaced by Uracil.

DEOXYRIBOSE has OH, off carbon on bottom left pentagon corner, and H on bottom right, RIBOSE has both OH.

Phosphate group- makes nucleic acids acidic Sugar, Base and phosphate joined by CONDENSATION REACTIONS- loss 2 H20 molecules. Mononucleotides linked by condensation reaction- polynucleotide strands. Sugar from one bonds to phosphate in another= hydroxyl group at one end and phosphate at other. RNA- forms singular polynuc. Strands- folded to shapes or remain thread. DNA- two strands twisted around each other, one upside down. Sugar/phosphate= backbone Inwards= bases = spiralled DNA. Two strands DNA held Hydrogen bonds between complementary base pairs. 5 strand and 3 strand- deps on which carbon of pentagon bonds are. DNA code- triplet code. 3 base pairs= a codon. Same amino acid can be made of different codons e.g. Ser = AGA or AGG. DNA REPLICATION- provide DNA for daughter cells DNA unwinds and DNA Helicase causes strands to split ( H bonds break) Exposed bases attract free nucleotidesH bonds form between complementary pairs DNA polymerase and DNA ligase join nucleotides Two identical daughter strands formed- 4 strands from 2. SEMI CONSERVATIVE REPLICATIONTheory of Meselson and Stahl DNA cultured on heavy N15 (when centrifuged is low in test tube as is dense) When DNA cultured on light N14- (centrifuged is high as not very dense) By moving one cultured DNA sample to lighter/ heavier base- when centrifuged is in middle= 1 heavy strand and one light strand must be semi conservative PROTEIN SYNTHESIS- give instructions for making a certain protein TRANSCRIPTION- makes mRNA strand. B bonds between base pairs split- DNA unwinds to = a sense and antisense strandantisense used as template- complementary bases of ribonucleotides pair with antisense template strand but uracil replaced thymine- RNA polymerase joins ribonucleotides to form a singular mRNA. TRANSLATION - mRNA strand leaves nucleus via nuclear pores (DNA too large) here lines up along ribosome- tRNA brings free nucleotides from cytoplasm and lines up along mRNA- these amino acids join via peptide bonds to = the polypeptide chain DNA MUTATIONS Replication, translation and transcription all involved reading, copying and pairing of bases- plenty of opportunities for error. Single codon changed or misread amino acid polypeptide chain is altered- this is a mutation- can have no noticeable functional significance but can affect whole organism- many mutations occur during meiosis so genetic material of gametes contains mutations. When somatic (body) cells have mutations- specific enzymes remove faulty area- acts as scissors.

Point mutation- change in gene itself- miscopying nucleotides Chromosomal mutation- change in position of gene on chromosome Gene deletion- loss of gene Duplication- gene or gene sequence repeated Inversion- genes wrong way round Translocation- different genes in different chromosomes swapped/ muddled Whole- chromosome mutation- entire chromosome lost- or duplicated (Downs syndrome 3 copies chromosome 21 instead of 2) Some mutations beneficial, some insignificant, some damaging. Mutagens increase rate or mutation or trigger it such as parts of Electromagnetic spectrum. CFTR MUTATION- cystic fibrosis Normal functioning CFTR protein- enables sodium channel- Na+ and CL- ions enter cell- CL- via chlorine pump on Basal side via active transport. BUT when CFTR not functioning- blocks sodium channel so ions cant leave- thus water moves via osmosis into the cell- so it is not with mucus that as a result is salty and thickbuilds up in airways- blocks air flow to alveoli- cilia cant move out of system. Pathogens get trapped in mucus- ideal conditions for infection to develop. Dehydrated cells loose anti-bacterial properties. Mucus blocks pancreatic duct- enzymes to digest food cant reach intestinetrapped in pancreas, can begin to digest pancreas thus damaging it. Mucus blocks cervix in women. Sweat is salty and more concentrated- reabsorption of salts does not occur- salts lost. TreatmentsPhysiotherapy- means to remove mucus from airways manually by massage twice a day Take enzymes with food so they can be digested Antibiotic medication (usually inhalers) - prevent pathogens caught in mucus causing infection Fertility treatments like IVF Transplants Gene therapy GENE THERAPY- inserting normal allele of a gene into cells to replace a faulty allele caused by a inherited disorder. Can be done on early embryo (illegal in UK currently) or in the affected body partsomatic therapy SOMATIC THERAPY -identify gene involved e.g. for CF chromosome 7 - make copies of normal alleleinto vector (usually viruses and liposomes) - use the vector to insert the allele target cells. After insertion the normal allele on insert into the into the

genome the target cell can make it- make CFTR function thus allow normal chloride movement- but faulty gene still in gametes- so can be passed on. Only around 25% normal chloride function resumes Effect is temporary as cells die- and new cells have DNA with faulty gene Use of virus vectors have side effects Hard to deliver, especially with liposomes 1 in 1000 genes reached an epithelial cell. Genetic disorders cant be cured- thus avoidance and early treatment are important for potential parentsnot have child if will have condition, treatment straight after birth- reduce impacts later genetically screen new born to know- but sometimes false negatives occur due to sheer variety of mutations that cause harm etc. PIGD- pre-implantation genetic diagnosis- embryos from IVF tested before implanted Prenatal DNA testing can allow choice if baby has condition; AMNIOCENTESIS- syringe through stomach- amniotic fluid taken and cultured and tested- foetus must be around 15 weeks--- termination more traumatic, risk miscarriage CHORIONIC VILLUS SAMPLING- syringe through vagina takes sample of embryonic tissue from placenta- can be done at 8-10 week foetus and results can be gained next day- no need to culture. Factors to be considered -risk of miscarriage- risk to foetus -abortion if positive for mutation -cost of bringing up disabled child -mental and emotional trauma of disabled child or abortion -being prepared ETHICS -basic right to life- duty to provide that right -utilitarianism (maximising good) best choice for yoursel

TOPIC 3-VOICE OF THE GENOME

What? Nucleus-

Functions? This is the most visible structure in a non-dividing cell, and contains most of the cells genetic material

Endoplasmic rectium-

- Tubular network fused to nuclear membrane - Goes through cytoplasm onto cell membrane - Stores, separates, and serves as cell's transport system - Smooth type: lacks ribosomes - Rough type (pictured): ribosomes embedded in surface

Golgi Body-

Ribosomes-

Lysosomes-

Nucleolus-

- Anything made the ER is transported here in vesicles, where it is modified and then sent on to another destination. - Protein 'packaging plant' - A membrane structure found near nucleus - Composed of numerous layers forming a sac - Each cell contains thousands - Miniature 'protein factories' - Composes 25% of cell's mass - Stationary type: embedded in rough endoplasmic reticulum - Mobile type: injects proteins directly into cytoplasm - Digestive 'plant' for proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates - Transports undigested material to cell membrane for removal - Vary in shape depending on process being carried out - Cell breaks down if lysosome explodes - Spherical shape - Visible when cell is not dividing - Contains RNA for protein manufacture - Surrounds nucleus - Composed of two layers - Numerous openings for nuclear traffic - Membrane-bound sacs for storage, digestion, and waste removal - Contains water solution - Contractile vacuoles for water removal (in unicellular organisms)

Nucleus membrane and pores.-

Vacuoles-

Micochondria-

Centrioles-

Chromosomes-

- Second largest organelle with unique genetic structure - Double-layered outer membrane with inner folds called cristae - Energy-producing chemical reactions take place on cristae - Controls level of water and other materials in cell - Recycles and decomposes proteins, fats, and carbohydrates, and forms urea - Paired cylindrical organelles near nucleus - Composed of nine tubes, each with three tubules - Involved in cellular division - Lie at right angles to each other - Usually in the form of chromatin - Contains genetic information - Composed of DNA - Thicken for cellular division - Set number per species (i.e. 23 pairs for human) Prokaryotes

Prokaryotes are unicellular organisms, found in all environments. Prokaryotes are the largest group of organisms, mostly due to the vast array of bacteria which comprise the bulk of the prokaryote classification. Characteristics:

 No nuclear membrane (genetic material dispersed throughout cytoplasm) No membrane-bound organelles Simple internal structure Most primitive type of cell (appeared about four billion years ago) Examples: Staphylococcus E. coli Streptococcus MITOSIS INTERPHASE-

-Time between divisions -Protein synthesis carried out -Chromatin present -Nucleolus present -DNA replicated towards division time PROPHASE-

- Chromatin thickens into chromosomes - Nuclear membrane disintegrates - Centriole pairs move to opposite ends of the cell - Spindle fibers begin to form METAPHASE-

- Guided by the spindle fibers, the chromosome pairs line up along the center of the spindle structure

ANAPHASE-

- The chromosome pairs (sisters) begin to pull apart - Once separated, they are called daughter chromosomes - Due to pull, many chromosomes bend - Groove in plasma membrane present TELOPHASE-

- Chromosomes return to chromatin - Spindle disintegrates - Nuclear membrane takes shape again - Centrioles replicate - Membrane continues to pinch inward (in plant cells a new cell wall is laid)

MEIOSIS PHASE 1.

INTERPHAS PROPHASE METAPHAS EI I EI

ANAPHASE I

TELOPHAS EI

In Phase I, all material makes a copy of itself. Spindle fibers develop as the membrane disintegrates. Some crossing over may occur as the chromosomes thicken. They line up and pull apart. Once the chromosomes pairs are at opposite poles the cytoplasm material divides. The two cells formed do not have the same genetic material, yet they have the normal number of chromosomes. PHASE 2.

INTERPHAS PROPHASE METAPHAS E II II E II

ANAPHASE II

TELOPHAS E II

In Phase II, no duplication of genetic material occurs. As the chromatin thicken to form chromosomes and group into pairs, the spindle forms and the nuclear membrane disintegrates. As in mitosis, the pairs of chromosomes line up at the centre and pull apart to opposite poles. They then then divide. In male organisms the four new cells are all the same size. In females one of the four cells receives the bulk of the material. This becomes the functioning egg while the other three smaller cells disintegrate.

INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT & CROSSING OVER. Independent assortment.

Independent assortment occurs during the first stage of meiosis as the pairs line up and is a source of genetic variation. This is a random process and either chromosome from each pair could be in any gamete. An organism with six chromosomes (three homologous pairs- XX YY ZZ) could form eight combinations. This ensures that in humans with our 23 chromosomes there are so many combinations that it would be rare to

get two alike (unless its identical twins). Crossing over.

In prophase I of meiosis, homologous chromosomes pair. At points where they make contact, called chiasmata, the chromatids break and region. The non-sister chromatids exchange corresponding sections of DNA. This is known as crossing over. It produces chromosomes that contain new combinations of alleles from both parents.

Pollen Tube Growth

Nuclei also have to combine in plants

This takes place in the embryo sac within the ovule

 Pollen grains germinate on the style and pollen tubes grow down the style towards ovary. Tube grows through a microscopic pore into the embryo sac with 2 male nuclei. 5. The male nuclei enter the embryo sac one fuses with the egg cell to form a diploid zygote - this will give rise to the embryo the other fuses with the two polar nuclei to form a triploid endosperm nucleus - this will give rise to the endosperm that will nourish the developing embryo. The Process is known as a double fertilization because two fusions occur. Pollination... Pollination is the transfer of the male pollen grains to the female stigma Depending on the species this can be: self-pollination, where pollen is transferred to a stigma on the same plant (this obviously reduces genetic variability) cross-pollination where pollen is transferred to a stigma on a different plant Pollination can be brought about by: wind-pollination - where the pollen are blown around and a small fraction land on a stigma insect-pollination - where the pollen are attached to an insect which then releases them on to the stigma of another flower Typical characteristics of wind- and insect-pollinated plants include: Feature position of flowers petals nectaries scent stamens anthers pollen Wind-pollinated above leaves Insect-pollinated above leaves

small, inconspicuous or large, conspicuous, absent brightly coloured absent not scented pendulous (hang outside flower) move freely large quantities, light, smooth grains present scented inside flower fixed - positioned to come into contact with insect fewer produced, not smooth to aid

attachment to insect stigma large, often feathery, hang outside flower small, within flower, positioned to come into contact with insect

Mechanisms for ensuring cross-pollination; protandry, protogyny and dioecious plants Self-fertilization (as a result of self-pollination) is of value to uncommon or widely dispersed species where the chances of successful crossfertilization (through self-pollination) are low. However self-fertilization results in a species with limited genetic variation which is therefore at greater risk should the environment change. Cross-fertilization (or outbreeding) keeps the degree of genetic variation in a species high and there are a number of mechanisms by which crossfertilization is favoured. Most plants are hermaphrodite with male and female structures in the same flower But some plants have separate male and female flowers Some of these type of plant are dioecious - with male flowers and females flowers on different individuals. Clearly inbreeding is impossible here. Some are monoecious - male and female flowers are on the same plant but there are other methods of preventing self-fertilization such as the two flowers being produced at different times. Among hermaphrodite flowers self-fertilization can be prevented by having the smale and female structures develop at different times. This is known as dichogamy. Dichogamous plants can be named according to which sexual structure develops first: in protoandry the stamens ripen before the carpels are mature in protogyny the carpels mature before the stamen.

HUMAN FERTILIZATION

For fertilization to occur, a sperm must first make its way through two outer layers of the egg; the cumulus and the zona pellucida. To do this, the sperm head undergoes an acrosomal reaction in which enzymes located in the sperms acrosome digest the cumulus and the zona pellucida layers. The sperm then reaches the egg vitelline envelope where bindin protein on the sperm reacts with bindin receptors on the envelope. When these proteins recognize each other, the egg membrane swallows the sperm head. This allows the sperm nucleus to enter the eggs cytoplasm and fuse with the egg nucleus.

EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT Ovulation releases ovum/secondary oocyte Fertilisation in the oviduct produces zygote As zygote moves along oviduct > produces morula - As zygote divides, cells become smaller - Movement by cilia and peristalsis present in oviduct walls Morula develops into a blastocyst - Trophoblast (outer layer of blastocyst) nourishes future embryo - Inner cell mass will become foetus - Fluid filled cavity for protection (absorbs shocks, resists compression, ...) Blastocyst (?100cells) implants itself in uterus lining - Nourished by secretion from uterus - Microvilli provide large surface area (? gas + nutrients exchange) Trophoblast secretes enzymes ? digest tissues and blood vessel of endometrium Embryo uses released nutrients/products from digestion Blastocyst becomes buried within endometrium Microvilli are replaced by placenta Trophoblast secretes human chorionic gonadotrophin (hCG) hormone

Stem Cells and Cell Specialisation Stem cells: undifferentiated cell that can keep dividing and give rise to other types of cell Totipotent stem cells - Have the potential to give rise into a individual (can give rise to all cell types) Pluripotent stem cells - Give rise to most cell types though cant give rise to all Multipotent stem cells - some cells retain a certain capacity to give rise to a variety of different cell types after the cells have become differentiated.

Differentiated: embryo develops into a multiceullular body and the cells become differentiated ( specialised to perform a certain function ) Plant cells reamin totipotent throughout the life of a plant. Many differentiated plans cells can undifferentiate and then develop into a completly new plant (animals cant do this) How cells become Specialised A stimulus is given to the unspecialised cells Some genes are swtiched on - become active and others are switched off Messenger RNA is made from the active genes only mRNA moves to the ribosomes where the correct protein is made. this protein can alter the structure and function of cells Demonstrating Totipotency (core practical) A few plant cells of the same type need to be taken Placed onto an agar which has growth hormonoes added Cells divide by mitosis forming a cluster of cells The clusters are divided and placed in containers with agar Different growth hormonoes are added to the above stimulating the plant cells to differentiate into roots, stem and leaves Stem cells and medical therapies Sources of stem cells Early embryo - totipotent cells Older embryo - pluripotent cells Differentiated cells - some multipotent but most can only make one or few types of cell. Embryonic stem cells - From used embryos in IVF (advantages Easy to extract and Grow/ Disadvantage - Ethical issues, rejection by body, risk of infection) Adults stem cells - Source found in body (advantages - Fewer ethical issues, rejection risk avoided/ disadvantages - Difficult to extract, more difficult to produce different types of cell, risk of infection) Fused Stem cells (Nucleus taken from body cell, human egg cell with nucleus removed. fuses then divides to form embryo containing patients DNA) (advantages - rejection risk avoided, potential for treating genetic disorders/disadvantages - ethical issues, risk of infection)

Using Stem cells They can be used to treat medical conditions where there is a less of functioning of a type of cell Parkinsons disease - Loss of nerve cells in brain used for muscle control Multiple scerosis (MS) - Electrical insulating layer around nerve cells break down. Type 1 diabetes - cells in pancrea produce low levels of insulin. Burns - skin cells damaged Issues of using Embryonic Stem cells When does an embryo become a human with rights Is it acceptable to use human embryo for research Is it acceptable to fuse an adult human cell with a human egg cell to creat new stem cells. Who makes the decision People who work with stem cells - as they have an understanding or issues and what is possible Everyone else as they can give a range of points of view Final decisions made by the HFEA Cell cloning - Dolly the sheep Transplanted the nucleus from the egg cell from the ovary into the mammary cells. These cells fused and grown in culture to create an early embryo Implanted in the uterus of 3rd sheep - where embryo develops and dolly the sheep is created. This sheep is chromosomally identical to the mammary cell donnar. Variation in Phenotype Phenotype : The outward expression of a cell of organisim due to an interaction of genotype (genetic make up of a cell) and environment. E.g Siamese hair colour: Genotype - gene codes for enzyme tyosine which helps to make fur dark. Environment - Enzyme only active when temp is lower than 31 degrees. Phenotype - Ears drop below 31 so they will be dark (distinct areas) Lung cancer and smoking

 Genotype: Presence of proto:oncogenes involved in regulating cell cycle. Environment: Chemical components of cigarette smoke can alter these genes to oncogenses in lungs. Phenotype: Cell cycle not regulated by oncogenes therefore lung cells keep dividing without a check - leading to cancerous tumers. Polygenic inheritance and Continuous Variation Polygenic inheritance - more than one gene is involved in influencing the phenotype. These genes will be at different locations on chromosomes ( human heigh in age group) It gives rise to continuous variation where there are few extremes and many in middle.

TOPIC 4- BIODIVERSITY AND NATURAL RESOURCES.

SPECIES a group of organisms with similar morphology (looks the similar), physiology (internally similar) and behaviour which can interbreed to produce fertile offspring and which are reproductively isolated from other species HABITAT a place with a distinct set of conditions where an organism lives POPULATION a group of individuals of the same species found in an area COMMUNITY the various populations of different species that share an ecosystem/ habitat NICHE the precise role of an organism in its environment; the sum total of all the organisms' interactions GENE POOL the sum total of all alleles of all genes within a population ADAPTATIONS and different TYPES of ADAPTATIONS. features which enable an organism to survive and reproduce

 being specialised to suit an environment in which the organism lives BEHAVIOURAL ADAPTATIONS: any actions by organisms, which help them to survive and reproduce. PHYSIOLOGICAL ADAPTATIONS: features of the internal workings of an organism, which help them to survive and reproduce. ANATOMICAL ADAPTATIONS: physical structural features of an organism's body, which help them to survive and reproduce CO-ADAPTATION? two organisms become dependent of each other and more and more closely adapted NATURAL SELECTION organisms change over time as they adapt to their changing environment EVOLUTION a change in the frequency of alleles over time

KEY OBSERVATIONS and CONCLUSIONS for NATURAL SELECTION? 1. OBSERVATION: more offspring produced than can survive STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE: competition for survival between members of the same species for resources such as food limited resources between too many organisms population size is limited by environment 2. OBSERVATION: huge amount of inherited variation between species SURVIVAL OF THE FITTEST organisms best adapted to the environment are more likely to obtain resources (e.g. food) and so more likely to survive and reproduce How EVOLUTION occurs. Variation exists within a species through RANDOM GENETIC MUTATIONS, which form new alleles Meiosis mixes up existing allele combinations Change in environment causes a change in the selection pressure Which causes a change in allele success Some alleles are favourable and some are harmful

 Organisms with favourable alleles survive and reproduce, forming fertile offspring Those who have the harmful allele do not Inhertitance of the favourable allele occurs, increasing the frequency of that allele in the next generation HIERARCHY in TAXONOMY (in order from largest to smallest). Kingdom Phylum (plu. Phyla) Class Order Family Genus (plu Genera) Species

3 domains of the DOMAIN SYSTEM. ARCHAEA organisms from PROKARYOTE kingdom no nucleus e.g. methanogens BACTERIA organisms from PROKARYOTE kingdom no nucleus e.g. all other bacteria (apart from methanogens) EUCARYA/ EUKARYOTA organisms from the other four kingdoms (not prokaryote) eukaryotic

 plants/ animals/ fungi BIODIVERSITY : SPECIES DIVERSITY: the number of different species and abundance of each species in an area GENETIC DIVERSITY: the variety of alleles within a species ECOLOGICAL DIVERSITY: the variety between different habitats 'ENDEMISM' when a species is unique to a single place and isn't naturally found anywhere-else in the world GENETIC DIVERSITY within a species? FIND THE NUMBER OF DIFFERENT ALLELES IN A GENE POOL. by:
DNA SEQUENCING:

to determine the bases in a DNA segment determining the alleles present

GEL ELECTROPHORESIS:

DNA --> fragments identify different alleles

SPECIES DIVERSITY?
1. SPECIES RICHNESS: count the number of different types of species in a given habitat more types of species: HIGH SPECIES RICHNESS 2. SPECIES EVENESS: count the number ofa different types of species in a given habitat AND the number of individuals of each species similar abundances: HIGH SPECIES EVENESS HIGH SPECIES RICHNESS AND HIGH SPECIES EVENESS = highly diverse 14 of 24

PLANT CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS. AMYLOPLAST: has a double membrane storage of starch grains PITS: regions of thin cell wall allows transport of substances between cells PLASMODESMATA: channels in cell wall that link adjacent cells together allows transport and communication between cells MIDDLE LAMELLA: is an adhesive sticking adjacent plant cells together gives plant stability contains pectins VACUOLE: contains cell sap keeps cell turgid (stops plant wilting) involved in the breakdown and isolation of unwanted chemicals in cell has a tonoplast- controls what enters and leaves the vacuole STARCH and CELLULOSE. S: alpha-glucose monomer
C: beta-glucose monomer S: branched amylopectin (1, 4 and 1,6 glycosidic bonds) and

unbranched amylose (1, 4 glycosidic bonds)

G: unbrached S: chains with side branches; amylose is a helical coiled structure

 G: long straight chains S: compact energy storage molecule in plants C: strong structural support for cells

CELLULOSE and STRONG STRUCTURAL SUPPORT? large number of hydrogen bonds forming bundles called MICROFIBRILS microfibrils: arranged at many different angles in layers
within matrix of hemicelluloses and pectins

Hemicelluloses and pectins = glue that holds microfibrils together HOW IS WATER TRANSPORTED UP XYLEM VESSELS? (DESCRIBE TRANSPIRATION AND FORCES PRESENT)

TRANSPIRATION: water evaporated from the surface of spongy mesophyll cells and diffuses down the diffusion gradient through stomata of leaves Water in the spongy mesophyll leaves is replaced from the xylem, lowering hydrostatic pressure at the top of the vessel, resulting in water being drawn up from below:TRANSPIRATION STREAM. Hydrogen bonding between water molecules allows cohesion between water molecules; this keeps water as a continuous column in the xylem vessel: COHESION-TENSION THEORY. Forces of ADHESION occur between water molecules and the xylem cell walls.

XYLEM VESSELS and SCLERENCHYMA FIBRES

. X: transport water and minerals up the plant AND provide support S: provide support X: cell walls are thickened with lignin, making them strong and waterproof S: cell walls are thickened with lignin, making them strong and waterproof BUT contain more cellulose (microfibrils) X and S: made of bundles of dead cells X and S: hollow lumen X and S: arranged in columns X: long cylinders with no end walls S: short structures with taperend ends (ends closed) X: has pits in walls-allows transport of water & mineral ions in and out of xylem S: no pits in walls HOW DO YOU EXTRACT FIBRES FROM PLANTS? 1. Mechanically pull out fibres 2. Digest the surrounding tissues 3. RETTING: pile stems in heaps allows bacteria and fungi to rot plant WHY PLANT FIBRES ARE STRONG. 1. The arrangement of cellulose microfibrils in the (primary) cell wall microfibrils are arranged in a net-like criss-cross arrangement at many different angles giving it strength 2. The secondary thickening of cell walls

 plant cells can produce a secondary cell wall between the normal cell wall and the cell membrane giving more lignin its microfibrils are arranged in sheets, running in one direction only giving it strength TENSILE STRENGTH OF PLANT FIBRES. 1. Attach the plant fibre to a clamp stand 2. Attach a mass to the other end of the planf fibre, adding more mass in small constant increments until the fibre snaps 3. Record the mass needed to break the fibre 4. Repeat, increase reliability of results. 5. Safety: make sure tha area where the mass stops ins clear/ has a large container containing polysterene 6. Control: Make sure that the plant fibres are the SAME WIDTH and LENGTH. ANTIBACTERIAL PROPERTIES OF PLANTS. 1. Take extracts from 1 plant by drying and grinding each plant and soak in ethanol; control: plants must be same size so same amount of extracts is used. 3. Evenly spread a sample of bacteria onto an agar plate. 4. Dip discs of absorbant paper into one of the plant extracts; control: discs must be same size so the same amount of liquid is absorbed by each. 5. Have a control disc which is ONLY soaked in ethanol. 6. Place paper dics onto the agar plate (spread out evenly). 7. Replace the lid and seal, but so gases cans still enter and leave. 8. Incubate the the plate at about 25 degrees centigrade-allow bacteria to grow. 9. Measure the clear patch around each disc: INHIBITION ZONE. Larger the inhibition zone, the more effective the plant extract (better antibacterial propertie