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1.Phonetics as a science. Ph. Is not a separate, independent science. Ph. Is an independent brahch of linguistic like lexecology, grammar and stylistics. It studies the sound matter, its aspects and functions. Ph. formulates the rules of pronounciation for separate sounds and sound combinations. Through the system of rules of reading Ph is connected with grammar and helps to pronaunce correctly singular and plural forms of nouns, the past tense forms and past participles of English regular verbs (d is pronaunced after voiced cons., t is pronaunced after voiceless cons. Wish-wished, id is pronaunced after t want-wanted, s is pronaunced after voiceless cons., z is after voiced cons. and iz after sibilants ()). Sound interchange is another manifestation of the connection of Ph with grammar, e.g. this connection can be observed in the category of number. Thus the interchange of f/v, s/z, th/the helps to differenciate singular and plural forms of such words as basis- bases, and also man-men, footfeet. Vowel interchange is connected with the tense forms of irregular verbs (sing-sang-sung). Vowel interchange can also help to distinguish between: 1) nouns and verbs (bath-bathe), 2) adj and nouns (hot-heat), 3) verbs and adj (moderate-moderate), 4) nouns and nouns (shade-shadow), 5) nouns and adj (type-typical). Vowel interchange can also be observed in onomatopoetic compaunds ( ): hip-hop, flap-flop, chip-chop. Consonants can interchange in different parts of speech, e.g. in nouns and verbs (extent-extend, mouth-mouth). Ph is also connected with grammar through its intonation component. Sometimes intonation alone can serve to single out the logical predicate. ( he came home, he came home, he came home). Pausation may also perform a differentiatory function. If we compare 2 similar sentences pronaunced with different places of pause, the meaning will be different. Ph is also connected with lexicology. It is only due to the presence of stress in the right place, that we can distinguish certain nouns from verbs (formed by convercion): object-object. Homographs can be differentiated only due to pronaunciation, because they are identical in spelling: bow(ou )-bow(au ), row(ou )-row(au ). Due to the position of word accent we can distinguish between homonymous words and word groups, e.g. blackbird-black bird. Ph is also connected with stylistics; first of all through intonation and its components: speech melody, utterance () stress, rythm, pausation and voicetember which serves to express emotions. Ph is also connected with stylistics through repetition of words, phrases and sounds. Repetition of this kind serves the basis of rythm, rhyme and alliteration. The repetition of identical or similar sounds, which is called alliteration, helps to impart ( ) a melodic effect to the utterance and to express certain emotions. Theoretical significance of Ph is connected with the further development of the problem of the study and description of the Ph system of a national language and different languages, the study of the correspondences between them, the description of changes in the Ph system of languages. Practical significance of Ph is connected with teaching foreign languages, speech correction, teaching deaf-mutes, film doubling. 1. 2.Principal pecularities of General American vowels. no opposition between historically long and historically short. [i] may be obscured as in rabbit [rbt] [] lower than the RP [e] [] long, mostly nasaliezed, may turn into [e] as in marry, [] may be used instead of [a:], ask, past [3] - retroflex in medial and terminal position, bird, better [i:] barred [i] in sister, horses [a] instead of[o], doll, rob [o]instead of [o:] as in law
r r

2.
3.

4. 5. 6.
7. 8.

9. [] turns into [3 ], e.g. [h3 i] hurry. 10. in GA the distinction between monopthongs and diphthongs is not very consistent .
3. the branches of Ph. Onomotopoeia. Onomatopoeia a combination of sounds which imitate sounds produced in nature, is one more example of the connection between ph and stylistics:jinckle, chatter, babble, crash, bang. The study of Ph phenomena from the stylistic point of view is phonostylistics. Ph has the following branches: 1) articulatory (physiologocal) and perceptive (auditory); 2) acoustic; 3) functional (linguistic). Articulatory and perceptive investigation of speech sounds is done on the basis of a good knowledge of the voice and sound producing mechanisms, their structure and work physiology and psychology. Acoustic properties of sounds, that is, quantity, or length, tamber,intensity (), pitch, temporal factor are investigated by the acoustic and auditory branch of phonetics. The functional properties of phonemes, syllables, accent and intonation are investigated by means of special linguistic methods. 4. Principal pecularities of General American cons s. 1. voiceless, fricative, labiovelar[] 2. the GA [r] is more sonorous than the RP [r]. It is retroflex. 3. [l] predominantly dark 4. [t] short, voiced, intermediate between [d] and [t] 5. glottal stop ? 6. [h] voiced in intervocalic position, lost initially in unsterssed or weak forms within a phrase. 7. [ju] may change into [t, d ] in due, tune 8. [] vocalized in asia 9. nasal twang as in man. 5.The first component of the Ph system of English The Ph sys of Eng is a systemic combination of all the 4 components of the sound matter, which constitute the material forms of all the morphems, words, phrases and sentences and serve a speaker of the lang to express his thoughts, feelings, emotions. The first component of the Ph structure of English is the sys of its segmental phonemes existing in the material form of their alophones constituted by the spectral, fundamental frequency, force and temporal components of the sound matter of lang in various combinations. The systemic character of the phonemic component is reflected in various classifications of its phonemes in which the letters are devided first into 2 fundamental sound types vowels and consonants with futher subdivisione of each sound type according to the principles of vowel and cons classifications. The phonemic component of the Ph structure of the E lang manifests itself not only in the sys of its phonemes as discrit () isolated units, but also in combinations of their allophones occuring in words and at the junction of words. The combinations of allophones are also systemic in character, the allophones of the phoneme occure only in definite possitions, e.g. the E sounds [u, ] never occure at the beginning of a word, whereas the sounds [, h] never occure at the end of E word. There is not a single Russian word, which begins with the vowel [].

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A typical combination of cons sounds that may occure at the beginning, in the middle or at the end of a word is called a cons cluster, the combination of vowels is sometimes refered to as a vowel chane. Clusters and chanes also occure in definit positions. Thus, the E clusters [tl,dl] never occure at the beginning of words, whereas the similar Rus clusters [,] never occure at the end of words, e.g. sadle, . The occurence of the allophones of a phoneme in different positions in a word is called the distribution. Since morphemes, words, phrases and sentences consist of combinations of speech sounds which articulations merge with and interpenitrate () each other. It is also systemic in character because lang-s have regular rules of effecting articulatery vowel cons transitions, CV transitions, CC transitions, VV tran. E.g. the character of the E short stressed vowels in an instance of effecting a VC trans, which is characteristic of E and isnt used in Russian because Rus vowels are free [pen-i], [-]. The aspiration of E plosives [p,t,k] imidiatelly before a stressed vow and the unaspirated pronounsiation of the Rus coutyparts in thesame position as well as the politalisation of cons before front high vowels in Rus and the nonpalatalisied articulation of E cons in the same position are instances of 2 different ways of effecting CV transition, e.g. [phic], []. CC tran may serve the loss of plosion by an E plosive immideately before another plosive and the retension () of plosion by its Rus countypart, e.g. [cht], []. 2 different ways of effecting a VV tran maybe illustrated by the presence and absence of the glotal stop( ) between vowels, e.g. the apple. Thus, the phonemic component of the Ph sys of E has 3 aspects: 1) The sys of its phonemes as discrit isolated units which may occure in speech as isolated sounds constituting monophonemic words and sometimes even sentences; 2) the distribution of the allophones of the phonemes 3) the methods of joining speech sounds together or the methods of effecting VC, CV, CC, VV transitions. 6.The articulatory and acoustic aspects of the E speech sounds. the power mechanism. the vibrator mech The articulation of every speech sound and the transition from the articulation of 1 sound to the articulation of another are effected and controlled by the action of the muscles situated in the organs of speech involved. These muscles are activated by impulses sent from the brain. Some linguists such as and his follower associate the articulatory aspect of speech sounds with their biological aspect. On the one hand, the human brain is the original source of speech, and on the other, it perceives speech sounds coming from the external world. Speech is impossible without these 4 mechanisms: 1the power mechanism 2the vibrator mech 3the resonator mech 4the obstructer mech 1) The function of the power mech consists in the supply of energy in the form of air preasure and in regulating the force of the air stream. The pow mech includes the following organs of respiration: 1 the diaphragm 2 the lungs 3 the brunchi 4 the windpipe 5 the glottis the opening between the vocal chords 6 the larynx 7 the mouth cavity 8 the nasal cavity Inhalation takes place because the chest expends due to the action of the diaphragm and chest muscles. As the result of this expansions the air pressure in the lungs becomes lower than the pressure of the surrounding atmospheric air and the later rushes into the lungs and fills them, so that the pressure is equalized. Then the diaphragm and the chest muscles relaxed. The lungs are contracted (), the air pressure in them becomes greater than the pressure of the surrounding atmosphere and the air which is in the lungs rushes out forming a stream which passes through the bronchi, the wind pipe, the glottis and the mouth or hazel cavities. This is exhalation. Thus the process of breathing consists of 2 alternating phases: inhalation, exhalation. 2) The air stream provided by the lungs undergoes import modifications in the upper stages of the respiratory tract. First of all it passes through sets into action vibrator mech. Which is posed () in the larynx. As the air is exhaled from the lungs it is fed under pressure into the larynx through the wind pipe. In addition to constituting the bases of the spectral and pitch components, the vocal cords as part of the vibr mech participate in forming its intensity component as well. 7. The second component of the Ph system of English The second component is the syllabic structure of words. The syllabic structure of words has 2 aspects: syllable formation syllable division () Both aspects are sometimes designed by the cover term syllabication. Lang-s may differ from one another both in syllable formation and syl division. Differences in syl formation involve differences in the compacity () of speech sounds to form syl in different positions. E.g. the cons [m] is syll in the E word rythm, whereas the similar Rus sound [] is nonsyllabic in the same position in the Rus equivalent of the same word . Differences in syllabic division involve differences in the position of the point of syllable division or the syllasbic boundary and in the types of the resulting syllables mainly open and closed, e.g. [mani] in which the 1 syllable is closed and [] in which the 1 syll is pen. In E differences in syl division may perform a distinctive function. 8.The articulatory and acoustic aspects of the E speech sounds. the resonator mech. the obstructer mech. 3) The air stream heading past through the larynx is now subject to further modification according to the shape assumed by the superglottal cavities of the pharynx and mouth and according to weather the nasal cavity is brought into action or not. So the resonator mech consists of the pharynx, the larynx, and the nasal cavity. 4) The obstructer mech consists of the tongue, the lips, the teeth, the soft palate with the uvula, the hard palate, the alveolar ridge. The 4 mechanisms: the power, vibrator, resonator and the obstr work simultaneously and each speech sound is the result of the simultaneous work of all of them. 9. The third and the forth components of the Ph system of English The third component is the acsentual structure of its words as items of vocabulary. The exentual structure of words has 3 aspects: 1.the physical nature of word acsent

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2.the position of the acsent in dissyllabic and polysyllabic words. 3.the degrees of word acsent. The physical nature of word acsent involves the use components of the sound matter or a combination of them to make a syllable in a word more promonent than the other syllables in it and pronounce a monosyllabic word with the same acustic characteristics which would make it most prominent if it were the acsented syllable of a dissyllabic or polysyllabic word, e.g. [po:t], [impo:t]. The position of the acsent of different degrees in dissylabic and polysyllabic words is an extremely important aspect. Especially in one with the socalled free word acsent, a lang in which the acsent may fall on any syllable in different words. as is the case in E and Russian, e.g. dictionary, hotel, , . In such lang-s word acsent performes not only the constitutive and recognitive functions, but also the word distinctive and form distinctive function, e.g. import, import, , . The 4th component is the international structure of sentences in it. International being understood in the broad sence. 10. the main principles of all current articulatory classifications of vow. 2 main principles of all currant articulatory classifications of vowels are based on the movements and positions of the tongue. In describing and classifying vowels the following parts of the tongue are referred to because of their great importance, as resonance modifiers: 1 the front of the tongue, which lays opposite the hard palate 2 the back of the tongue, which lays opposite the soft palate 3 the center of the tongue, which is the region where the front and the back meet. The tip and blade of the tongue dont play separate roles in vowel production. The complex movement of the tongue provides an articulatory bases for classifying vowels: 1) according to the horizontal movement of the tongue 2) according to the simultaneously vertical movements of the tongue. 11. different opinions on the nature of the phoneme and its definition.

1 2 3 4 5

-- defined the phoneme as a physical image of a sound. The abstractional conception on the phoneme was originated by , the danish linguist Hjemslev. The abst view regards the phoneme independant of the phonemic properties. , , Jacobson viewed the phoneme as the minimal sound units by which meanings may be differentiated. They stated that the features of the phoneme involved in the differentiation of words are called distinctive. The physical view on the phoneme was originated by Jhones. He defined the phneme as a family of sounds, showing similarities. No member of the family can occur in the same phonetic context asany other member. This view was shared by Bloch and Treiger. was the first to define the phoneme as a real, independent distinctive unit, which manifests itself in the form of allophones. Vasiliev developed his theory and wrote that a phoneme is a dialectical unity of 3 aspects: 1. material, real and objective, 2. abstractional, generalized, 3. functional. It serves to perform the following functions: constitutive, distinctive, recognitive. Vasiliev states that phoneme is material, real and objective, because it really exists in the material form of speech sounds, allophones. It is an objective reality , existing independently from our will or intention. It is an abstraction, because we make it from concrete realizations for classificatory purposes.

12. Articulatory differences betw vow, cons, sonorants. Articulatory differences between vowels, cons, and sonorants depend on the 3 articulatory criteria: 1the presence or absence of an articulation abstraction to the air stream in the larynx or the super glottal cavities. 2The concentrated or defused character or muscular tension 3The force of exhalation. On the basis of this criteria cons-s may be defined as sounds in the production of which: 1 there is an articulatory abstraction to the air stream 2 muscular tension is concentrated in the place of abstraction 3 exhaling force is rather strong. Vowels may be defind as sounds in the production of which there is: a) no artic abstraction to the air stream b) muscular tension is defused c) the exhalation force is rather weak. Sonorants are sounds intermediate between noise cons-s and vowels, because they have features common to both. There is an obstruction but not narrow enough to produce noise. Muscular tension is concentrated in the place of obstruction but the exhaling force is rather weak. E sonorants are: [m, n, l, r, w, j, ]. 13. Phonemic variants or allophones Shcherba stated that in actual speech we utter a much greater variety of sounds than we are aware of, which are capable of distinguishing the meaning and the form of words. These sound types should be included into the classification of phonemes and studied as differentiatory units of the lang. The actually pronounced speech sounds are variants or allophones of phonemes. Allophones are realized in concrete words. They have phonetic similarity, at the same time they differ in some degree and are incapable of differentiating words, e.g. in speech we pronounce not the sound type [t] which is asperated, alveolar, forelingual, apical, occlusive, plosive, voiceless-fortis according to the classificatory definition, but one of its variants, e.g. labialized in the word twice, dental in the word nineth, post-alveolar in try and so on. Phonemic variants or allophones are very important for lang teaching, because they are pronaunced in actual speech and though they their mispronounciation doesnt influence the meaning, their misuse makes a persons speech sound as foreign. The variants used in actual speech are called subsidiary. Susidiary allophones can be positional and combinatory. Posit alloph are used in certain positions traditionally, e.g. the Eng [l] is realized in actual speech as a positional alloph: it is clear in the initial position and dark () in terminal position, e.g. let and mill. Combinatory allophones appear in the process of speech and result from the influence of the phoneme upon another.

14. Sentence stress, or accent Sentence stress is a greater prominance of words which are made more prominant in the intonational group. The prominance of accented words is achieved through the greater force of utterance and changes in the direction of voice pitch. The difference between stress and accent is based on the fact that in the case of str, the dominant perceptual component is loudness. In the case of accent it is pitch. Nuclear sress is the strongest- it carries the most important information. Non-nuclear stresses are subdivided into full and partial. Full stress occurs only in the head of intonational group, partial stress occurs also in the prehead and tail.

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Nouns, adj, numerals, interjections, demonstative pronouns, emphatic pronouns, possesive pronouns (absolut forms), interrogative pronouns, indefinite pronouns: somobody, someone, something (used as subject), indef negat pronouns: no, none, no one nobody, indef pronouns some, any (expressing quality), deferminatives: all, each, every, other, either, both, proclitics: much, many, a little, a few, notional verbs, auxiliary verbs (negat contracted forms), two-word prepositions, two-word conjunctions, particles:only, also, too, even, just are usually stressed. The words that are usually unstressed: personal pronouns, reflexive pronouns, relative pronouns, possesive pronouns(conjoint form), indef pronouns: somebody, someone, something, anyone ( used as object), indef pronouns some, any ( when expressing quantity), auxiliary verbs (affirmative form), one-word prep and conjunctions, articles, particles: there, to., modal verbs (contracted forms and general questions are exceptions). The meaning of the verbs may, should must changes depending on whether they are stressed or unstressed: you may go. Stress in utterance providethe basis for understanding the content, they help to perform constitutive, distinctive, indentificatory function of intonation. 15. Articulatery and physiological classification of E vowels. I The main effects of lip rounding on the shape of the mouth: a) to enlarge the oral cavity b) to diminish the size of the oral cavity. According to the position of the lips vowels are classified into: a) rounded b) unrounded. The E. rounded vowels are: <u>, <u:>, < o; o:>. The Russian vowels are protruded vowels o, -y. The general pattern is that the front and open vowels are articulated with spread to neutral lip-position while back vowels have rounded lips. II According to the position of the tongue. It can move forward and backward, it may be raised and low in the mouth cavity. Rus. scientists divide V. according to the a)horizontal movements of the tongue. b)vertical movements of the tongue. a) When the bulk of the tongue moves backwards and the back part of the tongue is raised highest towards the hard palate, front V. are produced. They are subdivided into: - fully front [i:,e,] -front retracted [i] In the production of centr. V. the tongue is almost flat. Central V. are [3:, , ]. b)According to the vertical movements of the tongue v. are subd-ed into:

high [I:, I, u:, u], Rus. [, , ]; mid-open or half-open: [e, :, e(u), (a), ], Rus. [, ]

low-open: [, , a(i), a(u), a:, :, o(i)], Rus [a]. Each of the subclasses is subdiv. into V. of narrow variation, and v. of broad var-on: - high narrow variation [i:],[u:]; Rus. [, , ] -high broad variation [i], [u] - mid narrow variation [e, :, e(u)], Rus. [] - mid broad variation [e, o: ], Rus [o] - law narrow var [, o(i)] -law broad variation [a:, o, , a(i), a(u)] Rus. [a] The rus. [] is on the boarderline between narrow and broad midvowels., [o] is on the boaderline between mid-open and open. 16.Received Pronunciation. Changes of vow quality. Standart pronunciation is the pronunciation governed by the orthoepic norm. It is the pronunciation of educated circles. It is used by radio, television, religionally neutral. The social standart within Britain is the so-called recieved pronunciation. It is the teaching norm at schools and higher learning establishments of the Rus Federation. In Eng we distinguish conservative, general, advanced. The phoneme [i] is little more open in GA and retracted than in RP. In GA it is often obscured. The sound []is lower than the RP [e] and resembles [] The GA [] differs from the RP []: it is used in words in which the letter a is followed by a cons other than r(answer), in GA {e} is used instead of []([keri]) The GA [a] is more front than the RP. In contrast to the RP [a] the GA [a] has a different distribution 9hop, rob, doll, before [ ,g] both [a], [o] (frog). 17. Articulatery and physiological classification of E vowels. According to the degree of tenseness, length. Accord to the degree of tenseness traditionally long vowels are defined as tense () and short as lex (). The tense and lex were introduced by Sweet. When the muscles of the lips, tongue, chicks and the back walls of the pharynx are tense, the vowels produced can be characterized as tense. When tense organs are relatively relaxed, lex vowels are produced. The Rus v s are not differentiated according to the tenseness. Eng v- s can be checked and unchecked. Checked v s are those which occur in stressed closed syllables, ending in a fortis voiceless cons, e.g. [e] in bed, letter. The checked v s are pronounced without any lessening in the force of utterance towards their end. Unchecked v s are those, which occur terminally or are followed by a lenis voiced cons, e.g. [i:]. There are no checked v s in Rus. All of them are unchecked. According to the length Eng vowels are subdivided into long and short. Vowel length may depend on: 1position of the vowel in a word 2word stress 3the number of syllables in a word 4the character of the syllable structure 5sonority 1. positions of dependants of length can be illustrated by the following example [bi: - bid bit]. In the terminal position a vowel is the longest it shortness before a voiced consonant, it is the shortest before a voiceless consonant. 2. a vowel is longer in a stressed syllable than in unstressed one: fOrecast - fourcAst.( ). In the verb [o] is shorter than in the noun, though it maybe pronounced with [o] equally long. 3. if we compare a one syllable word and a word consisting of more than one syllable, we may observe that similar vowels are shorter in a polysyllabic word. Thus in the word verse () [3:] is longer than in university. 4. In words with V,CV,CCV type of syllable the vowel length is greater than in words with VC,CVC, CCVC type of syllable. Ex. [3:] is longer in err () (V type) than in Earn (VC type). 5. vowels of low sonority are longer than vowels of greater sonority. It is so because the speaker makes more affort to produce greater auditory effect, while pronouncing vowels of lower sonority thus making them longer. Ex. [i] is longer than [o], [i:] is longer than [a:]

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Besides vowel length depends on the tempo of speech. 18.received Pronouciation. Changes in cons quality. The total number of the RP and GA cons differ in one phoneme []. The rest of the RP and GA inventory of cons phonemes coicides. The [r] is less sonorous in RP than in GA. The GA [h] is similar to the RP.The GA [h] is frequently voiced in intervicalic position. In words like concave, conclude, enclose, encourage Americans use {n}, the RP speakers [n], [ ]. 19. Articulatery and physiological classification of E vowels. According to the stability of articulation. The stability of articulation is the principle of vow classification which is not singled out by British and American phoneticians. It is the principle of the stability of the shape, volume and the size of the mouth resonator. According to this principle v are subdivided into: 1.monophtongs-simple v 2.diftongs-complex v 1)English mon-gs are pronounced with or less stable lip, tongue, mouth walls position. They are [ I: i e a: o 3: u u: o: ]. 2)Definition of a diphthong as a single-sound is based on the instability of the second element. The first element of a diphthongs is the nuclear, the second is the glide. A diphthong can be falling, when the nucleous is stronger than the glide, and rising, when the glide is stronger than the nucleous. When both elements are equal such diphthongs are called level. Eng. Diph-s are falling with the glide towards:[i]-[ei ai oi] Dif-s [ei eu oi ai au]-are called closing dif-s, dif-s[3e ie ue]-are called centring, acoording to the articulation of the 2 element. There are 2 v in English[I: u:] that may have a diphthongal glide where they have full-length (in open syllables) and before lenis or nasal cons (bi:-bi:d-bi:n.). Russian v [ ] are diphtongoids. 20. Assimilation. In the process of speech, that is in the process of transition from the articulatory work of one sound to the articulatory work of the neighbouring one, sounds are modified. These modifications can be conditioned: a) by the complementary distribution of phonemes, e. g. the fully back /u:/ becomes back-advanced under the influence of the preceding mediolingual sonorant /j/ in the words tune, nude. In the word keen /k/ is not so back as its principal variant, it is advanced under (be influence of the fully front /i;/ which follows it: b) by the contextual variations in which phonemes may occur at the junction of words, e. g. the alveolar phoneme /n/ in the combination in the is assimilated to the dental variant under the influence of // which follows it; c) by the style of speech: official or rapid colloquial. E. g. hot muffins may turn into Assimilation is a modification of a consonant under the influence of a neighbouring consonant. When a consonant is modified under the influence of an adjacent vowel or vice versa this phenomenon is called adaptation or accommodation, e. g. tune, keen, lea, cool. When one of the neighbouring sounds is not realized in rapid or careless speech this process is called elision, e. g. a box of matches may be pronounced without [v]. Assimilation which occurs in everyday speech in the present-day pronunciation is called living. Assimilation which took place at an earlier stage in the history of the language is called historical. Assimilation can be: 1progressive, when the first of the two sounds affected by assimilation makes the second sound similar to itself, e. g. in desks the sounds /k/ make the plural inflection s similar to the voiceless /k/. 2regressive, when the second of the two sounds affected by assimilation makes the first sound similar to itself, e. g. in the combination at the the alveolar /t/ becomes dental, assimilated to the interdental / / which follows it; 3double, when the two adjacent sounds influence each other, e.g. twice /t/ is rounded under the influence of /w/ and /w/ is partly devoiced under (he influence of the voiceless /t/. When the two neighbouring sounds arc affected by assimilation, it may influence: 1) the work of the vocal cords; 2) the active organ of speech; 3) the manner of noise production; 4) both: the place of articulation and the manner of noise production. l)Assimilation affecting the work of the vocal cords is observed when one of the two adjacent consonants; becomes voiced under the influence of the neighbouring voiced consonant, or voiceless under the influence of the neighbouring voiceless consonant. In the process of speech the sonorants /m, n, 1, r; j, w/ are partly devoiced before a vowel, preceded by the voiceless consonant phonemes /s, p, t, k/, e. g. plate, slowly, twice, ay. This assimilation is not observed in the most careful styles of speech. 2) The manner of noise production is affected by assimilation in cases of a) lateral plosion and b) loss of plosion or incomplete plosion. The lateral plosion takes place, when a plosive is followed by /1/. In this case the closure for the plosive is not released till the off-glide for the second [l]. Incomplete plosion takes place in the clusters a) of two similar plosives like /pp,pb, tt, td, kk, kg/, or b) of two plosives with different points of articulation like:/kt/,/dg/, /db/, /tb/. So there is only one explosion for the two plosives. 3) Assimilation affects the place of articulation and the manner of noise production when the plosive, alveolar /tl is followed by the post-alveolar /r/. For example, in the word trip alveolar 1t1 becomes post-alveolar and has a fricative release. 21. general American pronunciation In the USA the most widespread type of lang is GA. Like RP in GB GA in America is the social standard: it is religionally neutral, it is used by radio, by TV, in science, it is spoken by educated Americans. 1no opposition between historically long and historically short. 2[i] may be obscured as in rabbit [rbt] 3[] lower than the RP [e] 4[] long, mostly nasaliezed, may turn into [e] as in marry, [] may be used instead of [a:], ask, past 5[3] - retroflex in medial and terminal position, bird, better 6[i:] barred [i] in sister, horses 7[a] instead of[o], doll, rob 8[o]instead of [o:] as in law 9[] turns into [3r], e.g. [h3ri] hurry. 10in GA the distinction between monopthongs and diphthongs is not very consistent . Principal pecularities of General American cons s. 1. voiceless, fricative, labiovelar[] 2. the GA [r] is more sonorous than the RP [r]. It is retroflex. 3. [l] predominantly dark 4. [t] short, voiced, intermediate between [d] and [t] 5. glottal stop ? 6. [h] voiced in intervocalic position, lost initially in unsterssed or weak forms within a phrase. 7. [ju] may change into [t, d ] in due, tune 8. [] vocalized in asia

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9. nasal twang as in man.

22.DIFFERENCES IN THE ARTICULATION BASES OF ENGLISH AND RUSSIAN VOWELS 1) The lips. In the production of Russian vowels the lips are considerably protruded and rounded: /, /. In the articulation of the similar English VOW protrusion does not take place. (2) The bulk of the tongue. In the articulation of the English vowels the bulk of the tongue occupies more positions than in the production of the Russian vowels. When the the tongue moves in the horizontal direction it may occupy a fully front and a front-retracted, a fully back and a backadvanced position. Each of the three vertical positions of the tongue (high, mid, low) in English is subdivided into a narrow and broad variety. Rus vow are classified according to the vertical movement of the tongue they may be divided into: high /, , /, mid /, / and low /a/. According to the horizontal movement of the tongue Russian vowels may be subdivided into: front /, /, central /, a/ and back /o, y/. (3) The principle of the degree of tenseness in vowel classification is connected with the unchecked and checked character of the vowels. (4) The length of the vowels. Long vowels in English are considered to be tense. There are no long vowels which can be opposed to short vowels in the Russian language. (5) The stability of articulation. There are monophthongs and diphthongoids in the Russian vowel system, but there are no diphthongs. (6) There are 6 vowel phonemes in Russian and 20 in English. Given below are English vowels which have no counterparts in Russian: (1) long and short vowels /i: i/, /o: o/, /u: u/, /:- /, /a: /\/; (2) slightly rounded, but not protruded vowels /u:, o:/; (3) vowels articulated with the "flat" position of the lips /i:, i, e, ei/; (4) very low vowels, such as /, o, a:/; (5) front-retracted /i/ and back-advanced /u, a:/; (6) central or mixed /- :/; (7) checked and free vowels /siti/ /'m/\ni/ Russian , ; (8) diphthongs /ei, ai, oi, i, u, ou, , u/. An articulating English vowels Russian students can make the following mistakes: (1) they do not observe the quantitative character of the long vowels; (2) do not observe the qualitative difference in the articulation of such vowels as /i: i/, /u: u/, /o:- o/, (3) replace the English vowels /i:, , u, , / by the Russian vowels / , , , , /; (4) pronounce /i:, i, e, ei/ without the "flat position" of the lips; (5) soften consonants which precede front vowels (6) articulate /o, :, u, u:, u/ with the lips too much rounded and protruded; (7) make the sounds /, o/ more narrow similarly to the Russian /, /; (8) make both elements of the diphthongs equally distinct; (9) pronounce initial vowels with a glottal stop. 23. Received pron. Standart pronunciation is the pronunciation governed by the orthoepic norm. It is the pronunciation of educated circles. It is used by radio, television, religionally neutral. The social standart within Britain is the so-called recieved pronunciation. It is the teaching norm at schools and higher learning establishments of the Rus Federation. In Eng we distinguish conservative, general, advanced. The phoneme [i] is little more open in GA and retracted than in RP. In GA it is often obscured. The sound []is lower than the RP [e] and resembles [] The GA [] differs from the RP []: it is used in words in which the letter a is followed by a cons other than r(answer), in GA {e} is used instead of []([keri]) The GA [a] is more front than the RP. In contrast to the RP [a] the GA [a] has a different distribution hop, rob, doll, before [ ,g] both [a], [o] (frog). The total number of the RP and GA cons differ in one phoneme []. The rest of the RP and GA inventory of cons phonemes coicides. The [r] is less sonorous in RP than in GA. The GA [h] is similar to the RP.The GA [h] is frequently voiced in intervicalic position. In words like concave, conclude, enclose, encourage Americans use {n}, the RP speakers [n], [ ]. 24.DIFFERENCES IN THE ARTICULATION BASES OF THE ENGLISH AND RUSSIAN CONSONANTS Differences in the system of consonants in English and in Russian are the following: (1) The English forelingual consonants are articulated with the apico-alveolar position of the tip of the tongue. The Russian forelingual consonants are mainly dorsal: in their articulation the tip of the tongue is passive and lowered, the blade is placed against the upper teeth. The Russian forelingual apical consonants are only: [, ', , ', , `]. (2) Russian students often use the hard /, / phonemes instead of the soft English /, /. Palatalization is a phonemic feature in Russian. There is no opposition between palatalyzed non-palatalyzed consonants in English. The soft colouring of the English /,t, d, l, / is nonphonemic. (3) In the articulation of /w/ the primary focus is formed by the lips, which are rounded but not protruded, as it happens when the Russian /y/ is pronounced. The bilabial /w/ which is pronounced with a round narrowing is very often mispronounced by Russians. They use the labiodental // which is pronounced with a flat narrowing instead of the English /w/. The primary focus in the articulation of "dark" [l] is formed by the tip of the tongue pressed against the teethridge in the initial position. English voiceless plosives /p, t, k/ are aspirated, when followed by a stressed vowel and not preceded by /s/. (4) The English voiceless fortis /p, t, k, f, s, , t/ are pronounced more energetically than similar Russian consonants.The English voiced consonants /b, d, g, v, d, z, , d/ are not replaced by the corresponding voiceless sounds in final positions and before voiceless consonants. (5) Consonant phonemes in English which have no counterparts in Russian are the following: 1. the bilabial sonorant /w/, 2. the dental consonants /, /, 3. the voiced affricate /d/, 4. the post-alvcolar sonorant /r/, 5. the backlingual nasal sonorant //, 6. the glottal /h/. Consonant phonemes in Russian which have no counterparts in English are the following; 1. the palatalized consonants /`, ', ', `/. 2. the voiceless affricate //, 3. the rolled sonorant /p/,

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4. the backlingual voiceless /x/. The most common mistakes are the following: dorsal articulation of the English /t, d/, the use of the Russian rolled /p/ instead of the English /r/, the use of the Russian /x/ instead of the English glottal /h/, mispronunciation of the English interdental [, ] the use of the forelingual /n/ instead of the backlingual velar / /. - the use of the Russian dark / , / instead of the soft English /, /, - the use of the labio-dental /v, / instead of the bilabial /w/, - weak pronunciation of voiceless fortis /p, t, k, f, s, , t/, - devoicing of /b, d, g, v, , z, , d / in the terminal position 25.Articulatory and physiological classification of English consonants. Accord to the work of the vocal cords and the force of exhalation, active organs of speech and the place of abstraction. Rus phenetitians classify con-s according to the following principles: 1work of the vocal cords and the force of exhalation 2active organs of speech and the place of obstruction 1. Accoring to the work of the vocal cords and the force of exhalation cons-s are subdevided into voiced and voiceless. Voiced: [b, d, g]; voiceless: [p, t, k,]. The force of exhalation and the degree of muscular tension are greater in the production of voiceless cons-s. Therefore they are called by the Latin word fortis, which means strong, energetic. Voiced cons-s are called lenis, which means soft, weak. Because the force of exhalation and the degree of muscular tension in their articulation are weaker, e.g.fortis: [p] pipe, [t] tight, Lenis: [b] Bible, [d] died. The Eng cons-s [h, m, n, , l, w, j, r] dont enter into fortis-lenis oppositions. 2) According to the position of the of the active organs of speech consonants are classified into: labial, lingual, glottal. Lab cons s are subdivided into: a) Bylabial; b) Labio-dental. a) are produced with both lips, they are the Eng [p, b, m, w], the Rus [, `, , `, , `]. b) are articulated with the lower lip against the edge of the upper teeth. They are The E [f, v], the R [, `, , `]. Lingual cons s are subdivided into: a) forelingual; b)mediolingual; c)backlingual a) are articulated with the tip or the blade of the tongue, acc to the position of the tip of the tongue they maybe: dorsal, apical, cacuminal. Acc to the place of obstruction forelingual cons s may be: interdental, dental, alveolar, post alveolar, palato alveolar. Interdent cons s are articulated with the tip of the tongue projected between the teeth [, ]. Dental cons s are articulated with the blade of the tongue against the upper teeth, the R [, `, , `, , `, , `, , `, ]. Alveolar cons s are articulated with the tip of the tongue against the upper teeth ridge, e.g. the E [t, d, s, n, l]. Post alveolar cons s with the tip or the blade of the tongue against the back part of the teeth ridge, e.g. [r]. Polato alveolar cons s are articul with the tip or the blade of the tongue against the teeth ridge, the front part of the tongue raised towards the hard palate two places of articulation, or forci, e.g. the E [t, d , ,] and the R [, `, , ]. b) Mediolingual are produced with the front part of the tonque. They are always palatal. palatal consonants are articulated with the front part of the tonque raised high to the hard palate, [j]. c) Backlingual consonants are called velar, they are produced with the back part of the tonque raised towards the soft palate [k,g, ,], [,, ,]. The glottal consonant [h] is articulated in the glottis. 26. the influence of assimilatiom on the work of the vocal cords When the two neighbouring sounds are affected by assimilation, it may influence: 1) the work of the vocal cords; 2) the active organ of speech; 3) the manner of noise production; 4) both: the place of articulation and the manner of noise production. l)Assimilation affecting the work of the vocal cords is observed when one of the two adjacent consonants; becomes voiced under the influence of the neighbouring voiced consonant, or voiceless under the influence of the neighbouring voiceless consonant, for example, in the word gooseberry /s/ became voiced under the influence of the next voiced /b/ regressive assimilation. In the combination what's this the voiced /z/ became voiceless under the influence of the preceding voiceless /t/ progressive assimilation. In the process of speech the sonorants /m, n, 1, r; j, w/ are partly devoiced before a vowel, preceded by the voiceless consonant phonemes /s, p, t, k/, e. g. plate, slowly, twice, ay. In this case partial progressive assimilation affects the work of the vocal cords both in English and in Russian) compare the above examples with the Russian: , a.This assimilation is not observed in the most careful styles of speech.

27.Articulatory and physiological classification of English consonants. Accord to the manner of noise production and the type of obstruction, position of the soft palate. 3. , , and other phoneticians consider the principal of consonant classification according to the manner of noise production and the type of obstruction to be one of the most important. First of all they suggest a classification according to the manner of noise production from the viewpoint of the closure (). Complete () closure then occlusive () [p,b,t,d,k,g] and nasal consonants [m,n, ]are produced, incomplete () closure, then constrictive () consonants are produced:[f,v,,], [,,,], the combination of the 2 closures, then affricates are produced [t, d] [, ], intermittent () closure then rolled () consonants are produced. Rus [,] a) according to the principal of voice or noise prevalence, rus. phoneticians suggest a subdivision of the group of occlusives () and the group of constrictives () into noise sounds and sonorants. Noise occlusive sonorants are called nasals. The group of the occlusive-constrictive consonants consists of noise sounds [t, d] rus [,]. b) Rus phoneticians subdivide the rolled, oclussive, constrictive or clussive-constrictive consonants into unicentral and bicentral, according to the number of noise producing or foci. c) According to the shape of the narrowing constrictive cons and affricates are subdivided into sounds with flat narrowing and round narrowing. The cons / f,v,,,/ are pronounced with the flat narrowing; the cons / s,z, w, / are pronounced with the round narrowing. 4. According to the position of the soft palate all cons are subdivided into oral and nasal. When the soft palate is raised and the air into the mouth cavity oral cons are produced /p,t.k,f,v/. When the soft palate is lowered and the air on its way out passes through the nasal cavity, nasal cons are produced /m,n /. 28. intonation. Rhythm and tempo. Pausation and tember. Intonation is a complex unity of non-segmental features of speech: 1. melody, pitch of the voice; 2. sentence stress; 3. temporal characteristics (duration, tempo, pausation); 4. rhythm; 5. tamber. Intonation organizes a sentence, determines communicative types of sentences and clauses, divides sentences into intonation groups, gives prominence to words and phrases, expresses contrasts and attitudes.

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The two main functions of intonation are: communicative and expressive. There are two main approaches to the problem of intonation in Great Britain. One is known as a contour analysis and the other may be called grammatical. The first is represented by a large group of phoneticians: H. Sweet, D. Jones, L. Armstrong, and others. According to this approach the smallest unit to which linguistic meaning can be attached is a sense-group. Their theory is based that intonation consists of basic functional "blocks". Th grammatical approach to the study of intonation was worked out by M. Halliday. The main unit of intonation is a clause. Intonation is a complex of three systemic variables: tonality, tonicity and tone, which are connected with grammatical categories. Tonality marks the beginning and the end of a tone-group. Tonicity marks the focal point of each tone-group. |Tones can be primary and secondary. They convey the attitude of the speaker. Halliday's theory is based on the syntactical function of intonation. The founder of the American school of intonation is K. Pike. In his book "The Intonation of American English" he considers "pitch phonemes" and "contours" to be the main units of intonation. RHYTHM AND TEMPO. Rhythm is the regular alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables. It is so typical of an English phrase that the incorrect rhythm betrays the non-English origin of the speaker. The units of the rhythmical structure of an utterance are stress groups or rhythmic groups. The perception of boundaries between rhythmic groups is associated with the stressed syllables or peaks of prominence. Unstressed syllables have a tendency to cling to the preceding stressed syllables enclitics, or to the following stressed syllables proclitics. In English, as a rule, only initial unstressed syllables cling to the following stressed syllable, non-initial unstressed syllables are usually enclitics. Each sense-group of the sentence is pronounced at approximately the same period of time, unstressed syllables are pronounced more rapidly. Proclitics are pronounced faster than enclitics. Rhythm is connected with sentence stress. Under the influence of rhythm words which are normally pronounced with two equally strong stresses may lose one of them, or may have their word stress realized differently, e. g. ,Picca'dilly ,Piccadilly 'Circus 'close to ,Picca'dilly PAUSATION AND TAMBER. The number and the length of pauses affect the general tempo of speech. A slower tempo makes the utterance more prominent and more important. Pauses made between two sentences are longer than pauses between sense-groups and are marked by two parallel bars /||/. Pauses made between sense-groups are shorter /|/. Pauses are usually divided into filled and unfilled, corresponding to voiced and silent pauses. Pauses are distinguished on the basis of relative length: unit, double and treble. Their length is relative to the tempo and rhythmicality norms of an individual. Another subdivision of pauses is into breathing and hesitation. Pauses show relations between utterances and intonation groups, performing a constitutive function. Attitudinal function of pausation can be affected through voiced pauses, which are used to signal hesitation, doubt, suspence. Such pauses have the quality of the central vowels /, :/ or /m, :m /. 29. functional aspect of speech sounds. The phoneme theory. Ph studies sounds as articulatory and acoustic units, phonology investigates sounds as units which serve communicative purposes. The unit of phonetics is a speech sound, the unit of phonology is a phoneme. Phonemes can be discovered by the method of minimal pairs. This method consists in finding pairs of words which differ in 1 phoneme, e.g. if we replace [b] by [t] in the word ban we produce a new word tan, ban-tan is a pair of words distinguished in meaning by a single sound change. 2 words of this kind are termed minimal pairs. The phonemes of a lang form a system of oppositions, in which any one phoneme is usually opposed to any other phoneme in at least 1 position. The founder of the phoneme theory was Baudouin de Courteney. His theory of phoneme was developed and perfected by Shcherba, who stated that in actual speech we utter a much greater variety of sounds than we are aware of, and that in every lang these sounds are united in a comparatively small number of sound types, which are capable of distinguishing the meaning and the form of words. It is these sound types that should be included into the classification of phonemes and studied as differentiatory units of the lang. The actually pronounced speech sounds are variants or allophones of phonemes. Allophones are realized in concrete words. They have phonetic similarity, at the same time they differ in some degree and are incapable of differentiating words, e.g. in speech we pronounce not the sound type [t] which is asperated, alveolar, forelingual, apical, occlusive, plosive, voicelessfortis according to the classificatory definition, but one of its variants, e.g. labialized in the word twice, dental in the word nineth, post-alveolar in try and so on. The number of sound types, or phonemes, in each lang is much smaller than the number of sounds actually pronounced. Phonemic variants or allophones are very important for lang teaching, their mispronunciation doesnt influence the meaning of the words, their misuse makes a persons speech sound as foreign. The variants used in actual speech are called subsidiary. Susidiary allophones can be positional and combinatory. Posit alloph are used in certain positions traditionally, e.g. the Eng [l] is realized in actual speech as a positional alloph: it is clear in the initial position and dark () in terminal position, e.g. let and mill. Rus positional alloph can be obserdved in such words as . Combinatory allophones appear in the process of speech and result from the influence of the phoneme upon another. Each phoneme manifests itself in a certain pattern of distribution. The simplest of them is free variation, that is the variation of one and the same phoneme pronounced differently, e.g. the pronunciation of the initial [k] with different degree of aspiration. Complementary distribution is another pattern of phoneme environment, when one and the same phoneme occurs in a definite set of context in which no other phoneme ever occurs. Contrastive distribution is one more pattern of phoneme environment, e.g. bad bed, pit peat these are minimal pairs. Minimal distinctive features are discovered through oppositions. This method helps to prove whether the phonemic difference is relevant or not, whether the opposition is single, double or multiple, [d], [t] have only one distinctively relevant feature single opposition. If there are two distinctively relevant features, the opposition is double , e.g. [p] and [d] differ after following lines: [p] voiceless, fortis, labial, bilabial; [d] voiced, lenis, lingual, forelingual, apical, alveolar. The opposition [b], [h] is multiple, because these phonemes differ along the following lines: [b] - voiced, lenis, labial, bilabial, occlusive; [h] - voiceless, fortis, pharingal, constrictive. -- defined the phoneme as a physical image of a sound, he originated the so called mentalist view of the phoneme. 30. the rules of word stress in English 1. in words of 2-3 syll, the primary str mostly falls on the 1 syl. 2. in prefixal words the primary str falls on the syl following the prefix, recall. 3. in prefixal words with prefixes having their own meaning the place of str is on the prefix, exminister 4. in prefixal verbs which are distinguished from similarly spelled nouns and adjs have their str on the initial syl (increase-to increase) 5. in compound words the 1st element is stressed when: 1 they are written as 1 word,2 nouns are compounded of a verb and an adv(make up),3 nouns in the possessive case are followed by another noun (a dolls house). In compound words the 2nd element is stressed when: 1food items have the 1 st elem which is of a material used in manufacturing the whole (appletree), 2names of roads, parks,squares, 3 parts of the house kitchenwindow, 4 adj-s with past participles, characterizing person, 5 comp nouns ending in er or ing are followed by an adv (passerby) 2 equal str-s are observed in compositive verbs: give up,in numerals 13-19 31. theories of syl formation and syl division.
There are different points of view on syllable formation which are the following. 1. The most ancient theory states that there are as many syllables in a word as there are vowels. This theory is primitive and insufficient since it does not take into consideration consonants which also can form syllables in some languages, neither does it explain the boundary of syllables.

 080708, 2. The expiratory theory states that there are as many syllables in a word as there are expiration pulses. The borderline between the syllables is, according to this
theory, the moment of the weakest expiration. This theory is inconsistent because it is quite possible to pronounce several syllables in one articulatory effort or expiration, e.g. seeing. 3. The sonority theory states that there are as many syllables in a word as there are peaks of prominence or sonority. Speech sounds pronounced with uniform force, length and pitch, differ in inherent prominence or sonority. For example, when the Russian vowels /, , , , / are pronounced on one and the same level, their acoustic intensity, or sonority is different: the strongest is /a/, then go /, , , /. . Jespersen established the scale of sonority of sounds, that is, the scale of their inherent prominence. According to this scale the most sonorous are back vowels (low, mid, high), then go semi-vowels and sonorants, then voiced and voiceless consonants. Sounds are grouped around the most sonorous ones, which form the peaks of sonority in a syllable. Two points of lower sonority constitute the beginning and the end of one syllable. Compare melt and metal, in the first word [e]is the most sonorous sound, the only peak of sonority, it is a one-syllable word. In the word metal there are two peaks of sonority /e/ and /1/, it is a two-syllable word. The sonority theory helps to establish the number of syllables in a word, but fails to explain the mechanism of syllable division because it does not state to which syllable the weak sound at the boundary of two syllables belongs. The "arc of loudness" is based on L.V. Shcherba's statement that the centre of a syllable is the syllable forming phoneme. Sounds which precede or follow it constitute a chain, or an arc, which is weak in the beginning and in the end and strong in the middle. If a syllable consists of a vowel, its strength increases in the beginning, reaches the maximum of loudness and then, gradually decreases. Consonants within a sillable are characterized by different distribution of muscular tension. Shcherba distinguishes the following types of consonants; finally strong (initially weak), they occur at the beginning of the syllable; finally weak (initially strong), they occur at the end of a closed syllable; double peaked (combination of two similar sounds): in their articulation the beginning and the end are energetic and the middle is weak. Acoustically they produce an impression of two consonants: In terms of the "arc of loudness" theory there are as many syllables in a word as there are "arcs of loudness" and the point of syllable division corresponds to the moment, when the arc of loudness begins or ends, that is: initially weak consonants begin a syllable, finally weak end it. For example, the word mistake consists of two arcs of loudness in which /m/ and /t/ are finally strong consonants and /s/ and /k/ are finally weak, /s/ constitutes the end of "the arc of loudness", /t/ constitutes the beginning. None of the theories mentioned above are reliable in the definition of the syllabic boundary. 1. In affixal words the syllabic boundary coincides with the morphological boundary: dis-place, be-come, un-able, count-less. 2. In words with CVCV structure the syllabic boundary is after the accented vowel: farmer, city, table. 3. In words of CVC structure the syllabic boundary is after the intervocal consonant, which terminates accented syllable: 4. In words of CVS, VS structure the syllabic boundary is after the ntervocal sonorant: inner cinema enemy Compared with the Russian acoustic connection, English CVC cluster is close, Russian CP syllabic cluster is loose, compare: city lily money and -, -, -. English diphthongs are unisyllabic, they consist of one vowel phoneme, English triphthongs are disyllabic, because they consist of two vowel phonemes: science flower

5. 6.

32. Articulatory transitions of vowel and cons phonemes. In the process of speech, that is in the process of transition from the articulatory work of one sound to the articulatory work of the neighbouring one, sounds are modified. These modifications can be conditioned: a) by the complementary distribution of phonemes, e. g. the fully back /u:/ becomes back-advanced under the influence of the preceding mediolingual sonorant /j/ in the words tune, nude. In the word keen /k/ is not so back as its principal variant, it is advanced under (be influence of the fully front /i;/ which follows it: b) by the contextual variations in which phonemes may occur at the junction of words, e. g. the alveolar phoneme /n/ in the combination in the is assimilated to the dental variant under the influence of // which follows it; c) by the style of speech: official or rapid colloquial. E. g. hot muffins may turn into Assimilation is a modification of a consonant under the influence of a neighbouring consonant. When a consonant is modified under the influence of an adjacent vowel or vice versa this phenomenon is called adaptation or accommodation, e. g. tune, keen, lea, cool. When one of the neighbouring sounds is not realized in rapid or careless speech this process is called elision, e. g. a box of matches may be pronounced without [v]. Assimilation which occurs in everyday speech in the present-day pronunciation is called living. Assimilation which took place at an earlier stage in the history of the language is called historical. Assimilation can be: 1progressive, when the first of the two sounds affected by assimilation makes the second sound similar to itself, e. g. in desks the sounds /k/ make the plural inflection s similar to the voiceless /k/. 2regressive, when the second of the two sounds affected by assimilation makes the first sound similar to itself, e. g. in the combination at the the alveolar /t/ becomes dental, assimilated to the interdental / / which follows it; 3double, when the two adjacent sounds influence each other, e.g. twice /t/ is rounded under the influence of /w/ and /w/ is partly devoiced under (he influence of the voiceless /t/. When the two neighbouring sounds arc affected by assimilation, it may influence: 1) the work of the vocal cords; 2) the active organ of speech; 3) the manner of noise production; 4) both: the place of articulation and the manner of noise production. l)Assimilation affecting the work of the vocal cords is observed when one of the two adjacent consonants; becomes voiced under the influence of the neighbouring voiced consonant, or voiceless under the influence of the neighbouring voiceless consonant. In the process of speech the sonorants /m, n, 1, r; j, w/ are partly devoiced before a vowel, preceded by the voiceless consonant phonemes /s, p, t, k/, e. g. plate, slowly, twice, ay. This assimilation is not observed in the most careful styles of speech. 2) The manner of noise production is affected by assimilation in cases of a) lateral plosion and b) loss of plosion or incomplete plosion. The lateral plosion takes place, when a plosive is followed by /1/. In this case the closure for the plosive is not released till the off-glide for the second [l]. Incomplete plosion takes place in the clusters a) of two similar plosives like /pp,pb, tt, td, kk, kg/, or b) of two plosives with different points of articulation like:/kt/,/dg/, /db/, /tb/. So there is only one explosion for the two plosives. 3) Assimilation affects the place of articulation and the manner of noise production when the plosive, alveolar /tl is followed by the post-alveolar /r/. For example, in the word trip alveolar 1t1 becomes post-alveolar and has a fricative release. 33. Syllable. The syllabile as a unit is difficult to define, though native speakers of a language are usually able to state how many syllables there are in a particular word. According to J. Kenyon the syllable is one or more speech sound, forming a single uninterrupted unit of utterance. The syllable can be a single word:hair, a part of a word: table, a part of the grammatical form of a word:disable. The syllable can be analysed from the acoustic and auditory, articulatory and functional points of view. Acoustically and auditorily the syllable is characterized by the force of utterance, or accent, pitch of the voice, sonority and length, that is by prosodic features. Auditorily the syllabic is the smallest unit of perception. A syllable can be formed by a vowel: (V); by a vowel and a consonant: (VC); by a consonant and a sonorant (CS). V types of syllable called uncovered open, err

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VC types of syllable called uncovered closed, eat CVC types of syllable called covered closed,pit CV types of syllable called covered open, G. P. Torsuyev suggests a differentiation of the following Russian types of syllabic structures:V type- fully open, CVC type-fully closed, CV typeinitially covered, VC type- finally covered. The structure of English and Russian syl-s is similar. The peak of the syl is formed by a vow or a sonorant. The cons which precede the peak and follow it are called slopes. The cons[ ] never begins, [w] never terminates the syl. Syllable-forming sonorants in the combinations of the CS type are terminal /m, n, l/. The combinability of syl forming sonorance is the following: [l] combines with all con-s exept [,]. The sound [n] combines with all cons exept [m, , n]. [m] combines only with [s,z,p, ,] The distribution of consonants in the syllables of the CSC type is characterized by the following features: initial consonants may be represented by the peak sonorants may be represented by /n, m, l/; final consonants are represented by The distribution of consonants in the syllables of the CSCC type is characterized by the following features: the initial consonant may be represented by The peak of syllable is represented by the sonorants [n,l], they are immediately followed by /t, d, s/; final consonants are represented by
The syllables of the CSVSCC type: entrants /'entrnts/, emigrants /'emigrnts/, minstrels /'minstrls/, hydrants /'haidrnts/ can be pronounced without (V)| CSSCC type. Russian terminal sonorants do not form syllables with consonants, which precede them. Final clusters in English are much more complex than initial ones. They express different grammatical meanings: plurality, tense, number, e.g. texts, mixed, glimpsed. The structure of the Russian syllable is characterized by more complex and numerous initial clusters, they represent grammatical prefixes, e.g. , , , .

34. the influence of assimilation on the manner of noise production and the place of articulation. Assimilation affects the place of articulation and the manner of noise production when the plosive, alveolar /tl is followed by the post-alveolar /r/. For example, in the word trip alveolar 1t1 becomes post-alveolar and has a fricative release. 35.functional characteristics of the syl
The syllabic as a phonological unit performs three functions: constitutive, distinctive, identificatory. They are closely connected.

1. constitutive function. Syl-s constitute words, phrases, sentences through the combination of their prosodic features: loudness stress, pitch-tone, duration length and tmpo. Syl-s can be stressed, unstressed, high, mid, low, rising, falling, long, short. All these features constitute the stress pattern of words, tonal and rhythmic structure of an utterance, help to perform distinctive variations on the syllabic level. 2. distinctive and differentiatory function. There are rather many combinations in English distinguished from each other by means of the difference in the place of the syllabic boundary: a name an aim, ice cream I scream. The distinctive, differentiatory function of the syllabic boundary makes it possible to introduce the term "juncture". Close juncture or conjuncture occurs between sounds within one syllable. Open juncture, disjunctive or internal open juncture occurs between two syllables. 3.Identificatory Function. This function is conditioned by the pronunciation of the speaker. The listener can understand the exact meaning of the utterance only if he perceives the correct syllabic boundary "syllabodisjuncture", e.g. pea stalks peace talks ; my train might rain . The existence of such pairs demands special attention to teaching not only the correct pronunciation of sounds but also the observation of the correct place for syllabodisjuncture 36. the influence of the rythmic tendency on word-stress sys in modern Eng. The rhythmic tendency is very strong in modern English. Under the influence of rhythm a shifting of word-stress can be observed in words with secondary stress, e. g.: qualification 'just 'qualification (emphatic variant). The rhythmic stress affects the stress pattern of a great number of words in the English language. This results in the secondary accent, e.g. refu'gee, temploy'ee, ,engi'neer, pictu'resque, occu'pation, ,recom-men'dation, etc. Under the influence of rhythm compounds of three elements may have a strong stress on the second element; e. g. hot 'water bottle (). In everyday speech the following variants of stress patterns can also be observed: 1. stylistically conditioned accentual variants, e. g. territory 2. individual, free accentual variants, e. g. hospitable 37. Stress Any word spoken in isolation has at least one prominent syllable. We perceive it as stressed. Stress in the isolated word is termed word stress, stress in connected speech is termed sentence stress. Stress is indicated by placing a stress mark before the stressed syllable: /'/. Stress is defined differently by different authors. B. A. Bogoroditsky, for instance, defined stress as an increase of energy, accompanied by an increase of expiratory and articulatory activity. D. Jones defined stress as the degree of force, which is accompanied by a strong force of exhala tion and gives an impression of loudness. H. Sweet also stated that stress is connected with the force of breath. Word stress can be defined as the singling out of one or more syllables in a word, which is accompanied by the change of the force of utterance, pitch of the voice, qualitative and quantitative characteristics of the sound, which is usually a vowel. In different languages one of the factors constituting word stress is usually more significant than the others. According to the most important feature different types of word stress are distinguished in different languages. 1)If special prominence in a stressed syllable or syllables is achieved mainly through the intensity of articulation, such type of stress is called dynamic, or force stress. 2)If special prominence in a stressed syllable is achieved mainly through the change of pitch, or musical tone, such accent is called musical, or tonic. It is characteristic of the Japanese, Korean and other oriental languages. 3)If special prominence in a stressed syllable is achieved through the changes in the quantity of the vowels, which are longer in the stressed syllables than in the unstressed ones, such type of stress is called quantitative. 4)Qualitative type of stress is achieved through the changes in the quality of the vowel under stress. English word stress is traditionally defined as dynamic, but in fact, the special prominence of the stressed syllables is manifested in the English language not only through the increase of intensity, but also through the changes in the vowel quantity, consonant and vowel quality and pitch of the voice. Stress difficulties peculiar to the accentual structure of the English language are connected with the vowel special and inherent prominence. In identical positions the intensity of English vowels is different. The highest in intensity is /a:/, then go The quantity of long vowels and diphthongs can be preserved in pretonic and post-tonic position in English. All English vowels may occur in accented syllables, the only exception is which is never stressed. English vowels tend to occur in unstressed syllables. Syllables with the syllabic /1, m, n/ are never stressed.

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Stress can be characterized as fixed and free. In languages with fixed type of stress the place of stress is always the same. For example in Czech and Slovak the stress regularly falls on the first syllable. In Italian, Welsh, Polish it is on the penultimate syllable. In English and Russian word-stress is free, that is it may fall on any syllable in a word. Stress in English and in Russian is not only free but also shifting. In both languages the place of stress may shift, which helps to differentiate different parts of speech, e.g. 'insult to in'sult, `import to im'port. When the shifting of word-stress serves to perform distinctive function. V. Vassilyev terms this suprasegmental phonological unit form distinctive accenteme, when it serves to distinguish the meaning of different words, the term is word-distinctive accenteme. Stress performs not only distinctive function, it helps to constitute and recognize words and their forms. A polysyllabic word has as many degrees of stress as there are syllables in it. American and English phoneticians give the following pattern of stress distribution in the words examination, opportunity. They mark the strongest syllable with primary accent with the numeral 1, then goes 2, 3, etc. American descriptivists (B. Bloch, G. Trager) distinguish the following degrees of word-stress: loud /'/, reduced loud /^/, medial /`/, weak, which is not indicated. H. A. Gleason defines the degrees of stress as primary /'/, secondary /^/, tertiary /`/, weak /~/. H. Sweet distinguishes weak /~/, medium, or half-strong /:/, strong and extrastrong, or emphatic stress /;/. V.A. Vassilyev, D. Jones, R. Kingdon consider that there are three degrees of word-stress in English: primary strong, secondary partial, weak in unstressed syllables. For example: certification Most English scientists place the stress marks before the stressed syllables and don't mark monosyllabic words, Some American scientists suggest placing the stress marks above the vowels of the stressed syllable, e.g. blackbird They place the stress marks even on monosyllabic words, e.g. cat, pen, map. 38. Acoustic aspect of speech sounds. Speech sounds have a number of physical properties. The first of them is frequency (the number of vibrations per sec). The vocal cords vibrate along the whole of their length, producing fundamental frequency, and all the tones. When the vibrations produced by the vocal cords are regular they produce musical tone. When they are irregular noise is produced. When tone prevails over noise, sonorants are produced. When noise prevails over tone, voiced cons-s are produced. Perception of the pitch of a speech sound depends upon the frequency of vibration of the vocal cords. The higher the pitch of vibrations, the higher the pitch level. A male voice may have an average pitch level of about 100 and 150 cycles per sec, and a female 240 cycles per sec. The frequency of sound depend on certain physical properties of the vibrator, such as length, tension. The second physical property of sound is intensity. The greater the amplitude of vibration, the greater the intensity of a sound; the greater the pressure on the ear drums, the lauder the sound.Any sound has duration, it is its length of time during which the same vibratory motion are maintained. 39. intonation Intonation is a complex unity of non-segmental features of speech: 1. melody, pitch of the voice; 2. sentence stress; 3. temporal characteristics (duration, tempo, pausation); 4. rhythm; 5. tamber. Intonation organizes a sentence, determines communicative types of sentences and clauses, divides sentences into intonation groups, gives prominence to words and phrases, expresses contrasts and attitudes. The two main functions of intonation are: communicative and expressive. There are two main approaches to the problem of intonation in Great Britain. One is known as a contour analysis and the other may be called grammatical. The first is represented by a large group of phoneticians: H. Sweet, D. Jones, L. Armstrong, and others. According to this approach the smallest unit to which linguistic meaning can be attached is a sense-group. Their theory is based that intonation consists of basic functional "blocks". Th grammatical approach to the study of intonation was worked out by M. Halliday. The main unit of intonation is a clause. Intonation is a complex of three systemic variables: tonality, tonicity and tone, which are connected with grammatical categories. Tonality marks the beginning and the end of a tone-group. Tonicity marks the focal point of each tone-group. Tones can be primary and secondary. They convey the attitude of the speaker. Halliday's theory is based on the syntactical function of intonation. The tone unit is one of the most important of intonation theory. The interval between the highest and the lowest pitch syllable is called the range of a sence group. The higher the pitch, the wider the range. The change of pitch within the last stressed syllable of the tone group is called a nuclear tone. It may occur not only in the nucleus, but extend to the tail terminal tone. Sweet distinguishes 8 tones: level, high rising, low rising, high falling, low falling, compound rising, compound falling, rising falling- rising. Palmer has 4 basic tones, 2 additional and describes coordinatory tonal sequences and subordinating tonal sequences. Vasiliev gives 10 tone units. He distinguishes moving and level tones. Moving tones can simple, complex, compound. Level tones can be pitched at high, mid and low level. The tonetic units, that constitute the total tone pattern are the following: unstressed and half stressed syllables preceding the 1st stressed syllable constitute the prehead of the intonation group; stressed and unstressed syllables up to the last stressed syllable constitute the head, body or scale of the intonation group; the last stressed syllable, within which fall or rise in the intonation group is accomplished, is called the nucleus; the syll marked with the nuclear tone may take a level stress; the syll s (or one syll), that follow the nucleus, constitute the tail. The most important part of the intonation group is the nucleus, which carries nuclear stress. Acc to the changes in the voice pitch preheads can be following: rising, mid and low. Scales can be: descending, ascending and level. If one of the words in the descending scale is made specially prominent, a vertical row is placed before word made specially prominent in the text accidental rise. This type of scale is called upbroken descending scale. The falling tones convey completion and finality, they are categoric in character. The rising tones are incomplete and non categoric. Of all level tones mid level is used most frequently. The level tones may express hesitation and uncertainty. 40. Received pronunciation. Spread of English. The Eng lang is spoken in GB, the USA, Australia, New Zealand and the greater part of canada. It ia native to many, who live in India, israel, Malta. All the national varieties of the Eng lang differ from standart pronunciation. Standard pron is the pronunciation govered by the orthoepic norm. It is the pronunciation of educated circles. It is used by radio, television, religionally neutral. The social standart within Britain is the so-called recieved pronunciation. It is the teaching norm at schools and higher learning establishments of the Rus Federation, because of: the digree of understadability in english-speaking countries, the extend of RP investigation, the number of text books and audiovisual aids. In Eng we distinguish conservative, general, advanced. In GB the rigional types of Eng are: the Southern Eng, the Northen Eng, the Standart Scottish. 41. Received and GA pronunciation. General considerations.

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The Eng lang is spoken in GB, the USA, Australia, New Zealand and the greater part of canada. It ia native to many, who live in India, israel, Malta. All the national varieties of the Eng lang differ from standart pronunciation. Standard pron is the pronunciation govered by the orthoepic norm. It is the pronunciation of educated circles. It is used by radio, television, religionally neutral. The social standart within Britain is the so-called recieved pronunciation. It is the teaching norm at schools and higher learning establishments of the Rus Federation, because of: the digree of understadability in english-speaking countries, the extend of RP investigation, the number of text books and audiovisual aids. In GB the rigional types of Eng are: the Southern Eng, the Northen Eng, the Standart Scottish. In the USA the regional types of Amer variant of Eng are: the Eastern type, the Southern type, the General Am type (northern, Midwestern, Western). In the USA the most widespread type is GA. Like RP in GB, GA in the USA is the social standart. It is religionally neutral, it is used by radio, by TV, in science, it is spoken by educated Americans. It has been estimated that the standart pron is not homogeneous ( ). It changes in relation to other lang-s and also to geograpical, psychological, social and political influences. E.g. in Eng we distinguish conservative, general, advanced RP. 42. the influence of assimilation on the active organ of speech. When the two neighbouring sounds arc affected by assimilation, it may influence: 1) the work of the vocal cords; 2) the active organ of speech; 3) the manner of noise production; 4) both: the place of articulation and the manner of noise production. l)Assimilation affecting the work of the vocal cords is observed when one of the two adjacent consonants; becomes voiced under the influence of the neighbouring voiced consonant, or voiceless under the influence of the neighbouring voiceless consonant. In the process of speech the sonorants /m, n, 1, r; j, w/ are partly devoiced before a vowel, preceded by the voiceless consonant phonemes /s, p, t, k/, e. g. plate, slowly, twice, ay. This assimilation is not observed in the most careful styles of speech. 2) The manner of noise production is affected by assimilation in cases of a) lateral plosion and b) loss of plosion or incomplete plosion. The lateral plosion takes place, when a plosive is followed by /1/. In this case the closure for the plosive is not released till the off-glide for the second [l]. Incomplete plosion takes place in the clusters a) of two similar plosives like /pp,pb, tt, td, kk, kg/, or b) of two plosives with different points of articulation like:/kt/,/dg/, /db/, /tb/. So there is only one explosion for the two plosives. 3) Assimilation affects the place of articulation and the manner of noise production when the plosive, alveolar /tl is followed by the post-alveolar /r/. For example, in the word trip alveolar 1t1 becomes post-alveolar and has a fricative release.

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