1. What are the seven basic characteristics of the life-span perspective?

Development is Life-Long Individuals continue to develop and change from conception to death. No one age dominates development. Development is Multidimensional Development consists of biological, cognitive, and socioemotional components. Development is Multidirectional Some components of a dimension increase in growth, others decrease. Development is Multidisciplinary Psychologists, sociologists, anthropologists, neuroscientists, and medical researchers all study human development. Development is Plastic Plasticity involves the degree to which characteristics change or remain stable. Development is Contextual Individuals respond to and act upon contexts, including ones biological makeup, physical environment, cognitive processes, and social, historical, and cultural contexts. Within the contextual view, the following three sources influence development: Normative age-graded influences are biological and environmental influences that are similar for individuals in a particular age group. Normative history-graded influences are common to people of a particular generation because of the historical circumstances they experience. Nonnormative life events are unusual occurrences that have a major impact on an individuals life. The occurrence, pattern, and sequence of these events are not applicable to many individuals. Development Involves Growth, Maintenance, and Regulation The mastery of life often involves conflicts and competition among three goals of human development: growth, maintenance, and regulation. 2. Explain contextualism by describing the meaning of normative age-graded influences, normative history-graded influences, and normative life events in your own terms. Provide an example of each concept from your own life and times. Baltes and his colleagues argue that developmental-processes may begin at any point in life and are not necessarily linear (that is - a developmental theme, such as dependence, may be more salient in early and late life than it is in middle life). They recognize three influences on development which together account for substantial individual variation. First, there are normative age-graded influences: those correlated highly with age, such as physical maturation, commencement of education, and parents' death. Then, there are normative, history-graded influences, that is, historical events that influence entire age cohorts-economic depressions, epidemics, wars, social movements. Finally, there are a host of non-normative influences: events that have great impact on individual lives but that most people escape, such as contracting a rare disease, having a child with a genetic abnormality, or winning a lottery. Baltes, Reese, and Lipsitt (1980) summarize these three

influences in terms of whether they are primarily age-related (that is, related to a person's own life span) or cohort-specific (that is, related to the point in history when a person was born). Normative Age-Graded: Biological and sociocultural influences that are linked fairly clearly with age, such as physical maturation during childhood or typical events during adulthood involving the family, education, and occupation. Normative age-graded influences are similar for individuals in a particular age group. These influences include biological processes such as puberty and menopause. They also include sociocultural, environmental processes such as beginning formal education (usually at about age 6 in most cultures) and retirement (which takes place in the fifties and sixties in most cultures). Biological and environmental influences that are similar for individuals in a particular age group. Normative History-Graded: Environmental, cataclysmic, and social influences that affect most members of a culture at the same time, like wars, sweeping economic or technological changes, and major epidemics. These effects may differ depending on a person's age at the time of the event, but most people of a given age-a whole cohortwill have similar experiences. Normative history-graded influences are common to people of a particular generation because of historical circumstances. For example, in their youth American baby boomers shared the experience of the Cuban missile crisis, the assassination of John F. Kennedy, and the Beatles invasion Other examples include economic, political, and social upheavals such as the Great Depression in the 1930s, World War II in the 1940s, the civil rights and womens rights movement of the 1960s and 1970s, the terrorist attacks of 9/11/2001. As well as the integration of computers and cell phones into everyday life during the 1990s. Long-term changes in the genetic and cultural Non-normative: Events that are significant for a particular individual, but are not part of an overall pattern tied to the life cycle, like traffic accidents, lottery winnings, and religious conversion. Normative life events are unusual occurrences that have a major impact on the individuals life. These events do not happen to all people, and when they do occur they can influence people in different ways. Examples include the death of a parent when a child is young, pregnancy in early adolescence, a fire that destroys home, winning the lottery, or getting an unexpected career opportunity. Unusual occurrences that have a major impact on a persons life. The occurrence, pattern, and sequence of these events are not applicable to many individuals.

3. Understand the meaning of biological, cognitive, and socioemotional processes. Biological, cognitive, and socioemotional processes are the three major areas where changes occur to promote development of the humans. Periods of Development - The sequence of development marked by specific time periods affected by biological, cognitive, and socioemotional processes factors. Within scope of studying human development, practitioners must decide which factors are biological, cognitive, or socioemotional processes, & consequence of their timely effect.

Maturation & Experience - orderly sequence of changes dictated by genetic imprint Continuity & Discontinuity - change which is gradual as contrasted by that which is in stages Early & Late Experience - relative impact of early or late maturation Evaluating Development - relationship of all factors impacting childs development Biological processes are changes in an individuals physical nature. Cognitive processes refer to changes in the individuals thought, intelligence, and language. Socioemotional processes involve changes in the individuals relationships with other people, changes in emotions, and changes in personality.

4. Compare and contrast the psychoanalytic theories of Freud and Erikson. Also explain whether Erikson changed psychoanalytic theory in a fundamental way. Erikson Erikson made an enormous contribution to and alteration of Freud's developmental theory. He changed and extended the stages into a more complex theory extended throughout life. He also associated a "virtue" and a related developmental issue with each stage. This is especially important because the failure to resolve those issues explains many problems. The seven stages are essentially as follows. The first, or "oral" stage has the virtue of hope and the issue of trust. The anal stage has the virtue of will and the issue of autonomy. The Oedipal stage has the virtue of purpose and the issue of initiative. The latency stage has the virtue of skill and the issue of industry. Adolescence has the virtue of fidelity and the issue of identity. The stage involving marriage and work has the virtue of love and the issue of intimacy. The stage of parenthood has the virtue of the capacity to care for others and the issue of integrity. A psychoanalytic theory in which eight stages of psychosocial development unfolds throughout the human life span. Each stage consists of a unique developmental task that confronts individuals with a crisis that must be faced.

a. we develop in psychosocial stages b. Primary motivation for human behavior is social and reflects a desire to affiliate with other people. c. Developmental change occurs throughout the life-span. d. Erikson emphasized the importance of both early and later experience. At each stage, a unique developmental task confronts individuals with a crisis that must be resolved. This crisis is not a catastrophe but a turning point marked by both increased vulnerability and enhanced potential. The more successfully and individual resolves the crises, the healthier development will be. Eriksons eight life span stages Erikson proposed that individuals go through distinct, universal stages of development. In terms of continuity-discontinuity issue both favor the discontinuity side of the debate. a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. Freud Behavior and problems are the result of experiences early in life (mainly first 5 years). Adult personalityresolution of conflicts between sources of pleasure at each stage and the demands of reality. Trust vs mistrust (infancy, first year) Autonomy vs shame and doubt ( infancy, 1 to 3 years) Initiative vs guilt (early childhood, preschool years, 3 to 5 years0 Industry vs inferiority ( middle and late childhood, elementary school years, 6 years to puberty) Identity vs identity confusion (adolescence, 10 to 20 years ) Intimacy vs isolation (early adulthood, 20s, 30s) Generativity vs stagnation (middle adulthood, 40s, 50s )Integrity vs despair (late adulthood, 60s onward)

Freuds theory stresses the influence of unconscious mental processes, the importance of sexual and aggressive instincts, and the enduring effects of early childhood experiences on later personality development. He thought that as children grow up, their focus of pleasure and sexual impulses shifts from the mouth to the anus and eventually to the genitals. As a result, we go through five stages of psychosexual development: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital. Our adult personality, Freud claimed, is determined by the way we resolve conflicts between sources of pleasure at each stage and the demands of reality. Freuds theory has been significantly revised by a number of psychoanalytic theorists. Many of todays psychoanalytic theorists believe that Freud over emphasized sexual instincts; they place more emphasis on cultural experiences as determinants

of an individuals development. Unconscious thought remains a central theme, but thought plays a greater role than Freud envisioned. a. We develop in psychosexual stages b. Primary motivation for human behavior is sexual nature c. Our basic personality is shaped in the first five years of life Freud viewed early experiences as far more important than later experiences. Freudian stages because Freud emphasized sexual motivation, his stages of development are known as psychosexual stages. In his view, if the need for pleasure at any stage is either undergratified or overgratified, an individual may become fixated, or locked in at that stage of development. a. b. c. d. Oral stage (birth to 1 years, infants pleasure centers on the mouth) Anal stage (1 to 3 years, childs pleasure focuses on the anus) Phallic stage (3 to 6 years, childs pleasure focuses on the genitals) Latency stage (6 years to puberty, child represses sexual interest and develops social and intellectual skills) e. Genital stage (puberty onward, a time of sexual reawakening; source of sexual pleasure becomes someone outside the family) Chapter 2 5. Describe the development during the germinal, embryological, and fetal periods. Also, explain what factors might contribute to complications at specific times during gestation. Germinal: first two weeks after conception. Creation of the fertilized egg (the zygote). Cell division. Attachment of the zygote to the uterine wall. Blastocystconsist of an inner mass of cells that will eventually develop into the embryo. Trophoblastouter layer of cells that later provides nutrition and support for the embryo. the period of prenatal development that takes place in the first two weeks after conception. It includes the creation of the zygote, continued cell division, and the attachment of the zygote to the uterine wall. Occurs in the first semester.

-rapid cell division by the zygote begins the germinal period. This cell division occurs through a process called mitosis. -by approximately one week after conception, the differentiation of these cells-their specialization for different tasks-has already begun. -at this stage the group of cells, now called blastocyst, consists of an inner mass of cells that will eventually develop into the embryo and the trophoblast, an outer layer of cells that later provides nutrition and support for the embryo.

Implantation: the attachment of the zygote to the uterine wall, takes place about 10 to 14 days after conception. Embryonic period: occurs from the two to eight weeks after conception. Rate of cell differentiation intensifies. Begins as the blastocyst attaches to the uterine wall. Every body part eventually develops from these three layers: endoderm, ectoderm, mesoderm. Occurs in the first semester. 1. The embryos endoderm is the inner layer of cells, which will develop into the digestive and respiratory systems. It primarily produces internal body parts. 2. The ectoderm is the outermost layer, which will become the nervous system, sensory receptors (i.e. ears, nose, and eyes) and skin parts (i.e. hair and nails). It produces surface parts. 3. The mesoderm is the middle layer, which will become the circulatory systems, bones, muscles, excretory system, and reproductive system. It produces parts that surround the internal areas. The mass of cells is an embryo. Organogenesisthe process of organ formation during the first 2 months of prenatal development: organs are especially vulnerable to environmental influences. Life support systems for the embryo develop rapidly. Life support systems include: 1. Amnion: is like a bag or envelope; it contains a clear fluid in which the developing embryo floats. The amniotic fluid provides an environment that is temperature and humidity controlled, as well as shockproof. 2. Umbilical cord (both of which develop from the fertilized egg, not the mothers womb): which contains two arteries and one vein, connects the baby to the placenta. 3. Placenta: consists of a disk-shaped group of tissues in which small blood vessels from the mother and the offspring intertwine but do not join. Fetal period: begins two months after conception and lasts for seven months. Three months after conceptionfetus is about 3 inches long; weighs about 3 ounces. At birth, the average American baby weighs 7 lbs and is about 20 inches long. Begins toward the end of the first trimester and continues through the second and third trimesters.

Adverse Factors Affecting Fetal Development Although the womb provides protection, the fetus remains indirectly connected to the outside world through its mother. Several factors that are linked to the mother can harm the fetus:

Poor nutrition Use of alcohol Smoking Use of certain prescription or over-the-counter drugs

Use of recreational drugs such as cocaine, sedatives, and narcotics X-rays and other kinds of radiation Ingested toxins, such as lead Illnesses such as AIDS, German measles, syphilis, cholera, smallpox, mumps, or severe flu

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome

Mothers who drink heavily during pregnancy may have babies with fetal alcohol syndrome. Babies with this syndrome may have problems such as small head size, heart defects, irritability, hyperactivity, mental retardation, or slowed motor development. Fetal alcohol syndrome is incurable.

6. Define teratogen and give at least two examples of teratogens and their specific effects. Teratogens: are harmful agents or substances that can cross the placenta and cause malformations or defects in an embryo or fetus. The greatest vulnerability to teratogens is during the embryonic stage. Two known teratogens include: a. Alcohol: a common drug abused by women of childbearing age. Infants born to alcoholic mothers demonstrate prenatal and postnatal growth deficiency, mental retardation and other malformations. There are subtle but classical features associated with fetal alcohol syndrome including short Palpebral fissures, maxillary hypoplasia, a smooth philtrum, and congenital heart disease. Even moderate alcohol consumption consisting of 2 to 3oz of hard liquor per day may produce the fetal alcohol effects. Binge drinking also likely has a harmful effect on embryonic brain developments at all times of gestation. b. Nicotine: does not produce congenital malformations but nicotine does have a effect on fetal growth. Maternal smoking is a well-established cause of intrauterine growth restriction. Heavy cigarette smokers were also more likely to have premature delivery. Nicotine constricts uterine blood vessels and causes decreased uterine blood flow thereby decreasing the supply of oxygen and nutrients available to the embryo. This compromises cell growth and may have an adverse effect on mental development. 7. Describe the stages of birth, and explain three birth complications. First stagecontractions cause the womans cervix to stretch and open. Second stagebegins when the babys head starts to move through the cervix.

Third stageis afterbirth. Placenta, umbilical cord, and other membranes are detached and expelled.

Birth complications: Being preterm: preterm infants are those born three weeks or more before the pregnancy has reached its full term-in other words, 35 or fewer weeks after conception. Preterm birth rate in the US increased 18 percent from 1990 to 2004. One of every 8 US births is now preterm. The increase in preterm birth is likely due to such factors as the increasing number of births to women 35 years or older, increasing rates of multiple births, increased management of maternal and fetal conditions (e.g. inducing labor preterm if medical technology indicates it will increase the likelihood of survival), increased substance abuse (tobacco, alcohol), and increased stress. Ethnic variations characterize preterm birth. (e.g. in 2003, the likelihood of being born preterm was 1 in 8 for all US infants, but the rate was 1 in 6 for African American inants) Being small for date: small for date infants (also called small for gestational age infants) are those whose birth weight is below normal when the length of the pregnancy is considered. They weigh less than 90 percent of all babies of the same gestational age. Small for date infants may be preterm or full term. One recent study found that small for date infants had a 400 percent greater risk of death. Low birth weight: low birth weight infants weigh less than 5 pounds at birth. Very low birth weight newborns weigh under 3 pounds, and extremely low birth weight newborns under 2lbs.

8. How do preterm and low-birth weight infants differ? Low birth weight: low birth weight infants weigh less than 5 pounds at birth. Very low birth weight newborns weigh under 3 pounds, and extremely low birth weight newborns under 2lbs. : preterm infants are those born three weeks or more before the pregnancy has reached its full term-in other words, 35 or fewer weeks after conception. Preterm birth rate in the US increased 18 percent from 1990 to 2004. One of every 8 US births is now preterm. The increase in preterm birth is likely due to such factors as the increasing number of births to women 35 years or older, increasing rates of multiple births, increased management of maternal and fetal conditions (e.g. inducing labor preterm if medical technology indicates it will increase the likelihood of survival), increased substance abuse (tobacco, alcohol), and increased stress. Ethnic variations characterize preterm birth. (e.g. in 2003, the likelihood of being born preterm was 1 in 8 for all US infants, but the rate was 1 in 6 for African American infants) 9. Define language, and explain the concept of infinite generativity.

Languagea form of communicationwhether spoke, written, or signedthat is based on a system of symbols. All human languages have some common characteristics such as organizational rules and infinite Generativity. Infinite Generativity: the ability to produce an endless number of meaningful sentences using a finite set of words and rules. 10. Summarize the milestones in the development of language by infants. Birth 1 to 2 months 7 to 11 months 8 to 12 months Crying Cooing begins Change from universal linguist to language specific listener Use gestures, such as showing and pointing. Comprehension of words appears. First word spoken Vocabulary spurts starts Use two word utterances. Rapid expansion of understanding of words

13 months 18 months 18 to 24 months

11. Explain how developmentalists have studied emotions in infants. Bowlbys early work a. Early infancyorientation without discrimination.(2-4 mos) i. Orients to any attending adult ii. Little discrimination among caregiving adults b. Middle infancyorientation with discrimination (6-8 mos) i. Gazing preference for primary caregivers ii. Responds differentially to primary caregivers c. Late infancy early toddlerhoodsafe-base attachment (6-12 mos) i. Actively seek to be near caregivers ii. Seek proximal contact

iii. Become distressed when caregiver leaves (bond across time and space) d. Toddlerhoodgoal corrected partnerships i. Recognize motives of caregivers ii. Toddler adjusts behaviors to needs and motives of caregivers Ainsworth Strange situation Stranger anxietysignals attachment Separation anxietysignals attachment

Attachment Status Secure Attachment Mother return: infant seeks contact; cling tightly; allows mother to comfort and soothe Majority of infants show secure attachment

Attachment Status Insecure Avoidant Attachment No preference for mother (avoids or shows equal preference for mother and stranger) Mother leaves infants undisturbed; Continue playing with stranger

Attachment Status Insecure Resistant\ Ambivalent Attachment Exaggerated stranger and separation anxiety Exaggerated need to maintain proximal contact with mother Some resistant to mothers attempts to soothe Some passive with mothers attempts to console Some variable in response (cycles of calm and anger)

Variable in status

Attachment Status Parental quality and attachment (sensitive responsiveness)

Secure Attachment Timely response Appropriate response

Insecure disorganized or disoriented Attachments abusive parents or parents who suffered abuse themselves

12. explain Eriksons concept of trust vs mistrust. Give a hypothetical situation of a parent-infant interaction that leads to the infant developing trust and an example in which the infant would develop mistrust. Infancy (birth to 18 months)positive resolution: reliance on consistent and warm caregivers produces a sense of predictability and trust in the environment. Negative resolution: physical and psychological neglect by caregivers leads to fear, anxiety and mistrust of the environment. The first stage of Eriksons theory of psychosocial development occurs between birth and one year of age and is the most fundamental stage in life. Because an infant is utterly dependent, the development of trust is based on the dependability and quality of the childs caregivers. If a child successfully develops trust, he or she will feel safe and secure in the world. Caregivers who are inconsistent, emotionally unavailable, or rejecting contribute to feelings of mistrust in the children they care for. Failure to develop trust will result in fear and a belief that the world is inconsistent and unpredictable. Babies will begin to understand that objects and people exist even when theycannot see them. This is where trust becomes important. 13. Explain the main criticisms of the strange situation procedure. Kagan and others believe that too much emphasis has been placed on the attachment bond in infancy. Jerome kagan sees infants as highly resilient and adaptive. They are equipped to stay on a positive developmental curse. Attachment theory ignores the diversity of socializing agents and contexts in an infants world. 14. Explain reciprocal socialization. Provide at least two examples of how parents socialize their children and 2 examples of how children socialize their parents.
Reciprocal socialization: socialization that is bidirectional; children socialize parents; just as parents socialize children. e.g. interaction of mothers and their infants is like a dance or a dialogue in which successive actions of the partners are closely coordinated. This coordinated dance or dialogue can assume the form of mutual synchrony in which each persons behavior depends on the partners previous behavior. or it can be a

reciprocal in the sense that actions of the partners are matched, as when our partner imitates the other or when there is mutual smiling. Scaffolding: parents time interactions so that infants experience turn taking with the parents. It involves prenatal behavior that supports childrens efforts, allowing them to be more skillful than they would be if they rely only on their own abilities. Caregivers provide a positive, reciprocal framework in which they and their children interact. e.g. game peek-a-boo: mother initially covers the baby. Then she removes the cover and registers surprise at the infants reappearance. As infants become more skilled at peek-a-boo, pat-a-cake, and so on, there are other caregiver games that exemplify scaffolding and turn taking sequences. Infants who has more extensive scaffolding experiences with their parents (especially in the form of turntaking) were more likely to engage in turn taking when they interacted with their peers. Engaging in turn taking and games like peek-a-boo reflect the development of joint attention by the caregiver and infant.

15. Compare and contrast fathers and mothers ability to care for infants and each parents typical caregiving practices
Observations of human fathers and their infants suggest that fathers have the ability to act sensitively with their infants. The typical father behaves differently toward an infant than the typical mother. a. b. Maternal interactions usually center on child-care activitiesfeeding, changing diapers, bathing. Mothers do play with infants, but their play is less physical and arousing than that of fathers. Paternal interactions are more likely to include play. Fathers engage in more rough-and-tumble play. They bounce infants, throw them up in the air, tickle them, etc.

16. If you were a parent who has to put their children in day care, what factors would you consider in making decisions? Whether care in someones home or in a day care center, caregivers should be warm and responsive. Developmentally appropriate activities and a variety of play materials should be available. Caregivers should have some training and education in child development. The ratio of children to caregivers should be low. 2 adults should care for no more than 8 infants, no more than 12 toddlers, or no more than 20 4 and 5 year olds.