MSc Energy Assignment Cover Sheet

Surname ABDEBAGI

Forename(s) OSAMA AHMED

Registration No. 071271639

Institute or Dubai Campus DUBAI CAMPUS

Module code B49DJ

Module leader Dr W-G FRUH

Coursework / module title NEED FOR REDUCTION OF CO2 EMISSIONS BY DEVELOPING

NEW TECHNOLOGIES

Coursework due date END OF JANUARY 2008

All students are advised to keep a duplicate copy of all work submitted for reference.

1 DECLARATION
I certify that this assignment is my original work expressed in my own words. Any
reference made to the work of other authors in any form (eg ideas, figures, text, tables)
are acknowledged at their point of use.

Signature of student: O. A. ABDELBAGI Date of submission: FEB 6th 2008

Reduction of CO2 Emissions

Contents
Introduction…………………………………………………………. 3

1. The Carbon Dioxide Problem………………………………………………………4

Imbalance Due to Human Activities

The Consequences of Climate Change

2. Solutions being implemented to reduce the greenhouse effect……………6

Energy Management

Switching to Renewable Energies

Use of Lower-Carbon Fossil Fuels

3. Why Do we Need New Technologies?...........................................................6

4. What is New?...................................................................................................8

Something special has happened in U.A.E.-Abu Dhabi.

Sustainable Solution from the Sun: Photovoltaic Cells

Cell Production

Solar Panels and Systems

The opportunities opened up by CCS

Capture Techniques

CO2 Transport

Storage Techniques

5. Summary……………………………………………………………………………..13

6. Referevces…………………………………………………………...………………15

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Reduction of CO2 Emissions

Module: FOUNDATIONS OF ENERGY

Assignment # 1
Date: January 2008

Need for reduction of CO2 emissions

by developing new technologies
By Osama Abdelbagi

Introduction
When we think of daily activities that cause pollution we tend to think of driving
to work, cooling the house or washing the clothes. But the biggest impact of individuals is
through the products that they buy. Ultimately, it is consumers (including companies and
government) buying products, that triggers the chain of events that leads to most
pollution.
If you buy a television set, you share responsibility for the energy used by the shop and
for the transport of the TV set from its country of assembly. But it does not stop there.
Components are typically produced in numerous other countries. Each component is
produced in a factory, which requires electricity, chemicals, plastic or metals. If one
traces the production system back to its origin it will end in areas such as a coal mine in
China, an iron-ore mine in Australia, a bauxite mine in Brazil, and an oil well in Canada.
The pollution from these mining activities in distant lands to the purchase of a TV set in
a Norwegian shopping centre generates considerable pollution. This pollution lies behind
most of our personal footprints.
During the Rio Earth Summit[1] in 1992 many nations of the world came to the agreement
to stabilize the atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gasses to “prevent dangerous
anthropogenic interference with the climate system” as they signed the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change (Bonn: UNFCCC). To this convention, the
Kyoto Protocol (KP) was added in 1997, which states that the Annex 1 countries to the
protocol should reduce their overall emissions of greenhouse gasses (CO2, CH4, N2O,
HFC´s, PFC´s and SF6) by 5.2 % below 1990 level during the first commitment period
2008-2012. The KP has now entered into force as Russia signed the protocol in the fall of
2004. Carbon dioxide (has been pointed out as the most significant of these greenhouse
gasses since it contributes to the largest radiative forcing. Three quarters of the CO2
comes from the burning of fossil fuels.The UNFCCC agreed to a set of a “common but
differentiated responsibilities.” The parties agreed that:

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Reduction of CO2 Emissions

1. The largest share of historical and current global emissions of greenhouse gases
has originated in developed countries;
2. Per capita emissions in developing countries are still relatively low;
3. The share of global emissions originating in developing countries will grow to
meet their social and development needs.

[1] The Rio Earth Summit: http://dsp-psd.pwgsc.gc.ca/Collection-R/LoPBdP/BP/bp317-e.htm

In other words, China, India, and other developing countries were not included in any
numerical limitation of the Kyoto Protocol because they were not the main contributors
to the greenhouse gas emissions during the pre-treaty industrialization period. However,
even without the commitment to reduce according to the Kyoto target, developing
countries do share the common responsibility that all countries have in reducing
emissions. The Protocol also reaffirms the principle that developed countries have to pay
billions of dollars, and supply technology to other countries for climate-related studies
and projects.
We all wish to contribute to the establishment of a sustainable future based on energy
from renewable resources. Solar, wind, hydro, ocean waves and tides, geothermal and
biomass will become precious sources of energy. Consequently, energy must be
distributed to the consumer with highest efficiency and used intelligently to provide high
levels of comfort and services. Rational use of energy and energy conservation are the
cornerstones of the Renewable Energy Economy.

1. The Carbon Dioxide Problem

The visible solar radiation mostly heats the surface, not the atmosphere, whereas most of
the infrared radiation escaping to space is emitted from the upper atmosphere, not the
surface. The infrared photons emitted by the surface are mostly absorbed in the
atmosphere by greenhouse gases and clouds and do not escape directly to space. In the
Earth’s atmosphere, the dominant infrared absorbing gases are water vapor, carbon
dioxide, and ozone (O3). The same molecules are also the dominant infrared emitting
molecules. CO2 and O3 have “floppy” vibration motions whose quantum states can be
excited by collisions at energies encountered in the atmosphere. For example, carbon
dioxide is a linear molecule, but it has an important vibrational mode in which the
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Reduction of CO2 Emissions

molecule bends with the carbon in the middle moving one way and the oxygens on the
ends moving the other way, creating some charge separation, a dipole moment, thus
carbon dioxide molecules can absorb IR radiation. Collisions will immediately transfer
this energy to heating the surrounding gas. On the other hand, other CO2 molecules will
be vibrationally excited by collisions. Roughly 5% of CO2 molecules are vibrationally
excited at room temperature and it is this 5% that radiates. A substantial part of the
greenhouse effect due to carbon dioxide exists because this vibration is easily excited by
infrared radiation. CO2 has two other vibrational modes. The symmetric stretch does not
radiate, and the asymmetric stretch is at too high a frequency to be effectively excited by
atmospheric temperature collisions, although it does contribute to absorption of IR
radiation.

a. INBALANCE DUE TO HUMAN ACTIVITIES[1]

The circulation of carbon, either in gaseous form, dissolved in water or as a solid, is a key
to the understanding of the earth's climate and the changes it may undergo. Carbon
dioxide, made up of one atom of carbon and two atoms of oxygen, is absorbed by plants,
bacteria and plankton. Plankton absorbs the carbon and releases the oxygen. And when
organic matter[2] breathes or decomposes, the opposite process occurs. When biomass
remains unchanged, this exchange cycle maintains a balance between the amount of CO2
absorbed and the amount released. CO2 exchange occurs in the oceans too, with the gas
dissolving in water and being released into the atmosphere, depending on water
temperature. If that temperature does not change, a balance between the two is
maintained. But since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution in the 19th century,
human activities have begun to disrupt this cycle. This is mainly due to the increasing use
of fossil fuels - coal, oil and natural gas - that are burned to provide heat, light, energy for
transport and industrial processes. Fossil fuel combustion generates CO2 emissions.
This increase in the concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere has been so rapid that it
appears our planet is capable of absorbing only half of the emissions now generated by
human activities. The oceans and forests act as "carbon sinks", absorbing surplus CO2
from the atmosphere, but they are now unable to keep up with the pace of human-related
emissions.

b. THE CONSEQUENCES OF CLIMATE CHANGE [1]

The lifespan of the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere varies considerably from one gas
to another. Methane, for example, has a 'life expectancy' of only about 12 years, but
carbon dioxide can remain for about 100. So it contributes to the greenhouse effect for a
long time too.
As a result of the increased greenhouse effect, the earth's temperature could rise by
between 2°C and 5°C by the end of this century, according to the Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)[3]. This wide range in estimates can be explained on the
one hand by uncertainty about emissions scenarios during the 21st century (which depend
on future political decisions and technology breakthroughs) and on other hand by the
difficulty of climate-change modelling (which must factor in complex phenomena).

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[1] TOTAL, January 2008, Project Information Dossier, Lacq CO2 Capture and Geological Storage, Pilot Project.
[2] Organic matter: matter from organisms containing carbon, whether plant or animal, living or dead.
[3]The IPCC is a body set up in 1988 by the United Nations. Its mission is to assess all available scientific, technical and socio-economic
information relating to climate change and to provide information to decision-makers and the general public. The IPCC takes into account all
points of view and uncertainties while trying to highlight elements that have consensus support among the scientific community. The IPCC
was a joint winner of the Nobel Peace Prize for 2007.

2. Solutions being implemented to reduce the greenhouse

effect [1]
The Kyoto Protocol sets GHG emissions reduction targets for signatory countries. They
have several solutions to help them meet their international commitments.

a. Energy Management
The first solution for reducing GHG emissions is to reduce energy consumption, often
referred to as energy management. The challenge here is to induce end users to change
their behaviour and switch to equipment that uses less energy, and to persuade industrial
companies to manufacture products that emit less CO2.

b. SWITCHING TO RENEWABLE ENERGIES

Renewable energy sources (solar power, hydro electricity, wind power, etc.) will be
called on to make a greater contribution to the energy matrix because using them to
generate electricity produces only very low CO2 emissions.

c. USE OF LOWER-CARBON FOSSIL FUELS

Another solution is to switch to more suitable fossil fuels. For example, using natural
gas as a combustible instead of coal can reduce CO2 emissions by more than 40%.
Starting in the 1970s, use of natural gas has increased faster than any other fossil fuel.
Nevertheless, demand for coal is still growing strongly, particularly in the United States
and China. About 70% of China's power stations are coal-fired plants.

3. Why Do we Need New Technologies: [2]

The good news first. Renewable energy, combined with the smart use of energy, can
deliver half of the world’s energy needs by 2050. This new report, ‘Energy [R]evolution:
A sustainable World Energy Outlook’, shows that it is economically feasible to cut global
CO2 emissions by almost 50% within the next 43 years. It also concludes that a massive
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uptake of renewable energy sources is technically possible. All that is missing is the right
policy support.
The bad news is that time is running out. An overwhelming consensus of scientific
opinion now agrees that climate change is happening, is caused in large part by human
activities (such as burning fossil fuels), and if left un-checked, will have disastrous
consequences. Furthermore, there is solid scientific evidence that we should act now.
This is reflected in the conclusions of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC), a UN institution of more than 1,000 scientists providing advice to policy makers.
Its next report, due for release in 2007, is unlikely to make any better reading.
In the Reference Scenario of the International Energy Outlook 2007[3], oil production
(including natural gas liquids) is projected to rise from 29 mb/d in 2004 to 33 mb/d in
2010 and to 50 mb/d by 2030. In some countries, this may require opening up the
upstream sector to foreign investment. The contribution of giant oilfields to total
production will drop sharply, from 75% today to 40% in 2030, as mature giant fields
decline and new developments focus more on smaller fields. Production in Middle East
and North Africa (MENA) countries, especially in the Middle East, increases more rapidly
than elsewhere because their resources are

[1] TOTAL, January 2008, Project Information Dossier, Lacq CO2 Capture and Geological Storage, Pilot Project.
[2] European Renewable Energy Council (EREC), January 2007, Energy Revolution, A sustainable World Energy Outlook, Greenpeace
International.
[3] International Energy Outlook 2007, Highlights.

greater and their production costs lower. Growth in aggregate production outside MENA
is expected to slow over the Outlook period. Saudi Arabia, which has the largest proven
reserves of oil in the world, will remain by far the largest supplier. Its output will rise from
10.4 mb/d in 2004 to 11.9 mb/d in 2010 and just over 18 mb/d in 2030. Iraq is expected to
see the fastest rate of production growth, and the biggest increase in volume terms after
Saudi Arabia. In some countries, including Iraq, increased production will hinge on large-
scale foreign investment.
On this basis, MENA’s share of world oil production would jump from 35% in 2004 to
44% in 2030. Almost all the increase comes from the Middle East. Saudi Arabia’s share of
total MENA oil output in 2030 will be much the same as today, at about 36%. Four
countries will see their share in MENA output increase: Iraq, Kuwait, the UAE and Libya.
World coal consumption is projected to increase from 114.5 quadrillion Btu in 2004 to
199.1 quadrillion Btu in 2030, at an average annual rate of 2.2 percent. World coal
consumption increased sharply from 2003 to 2004, largely because of a 17-percent
increase on a Btu basis in non-OECD Asia.
Moreover, the electric power sector accounts for about two-thirds of the world’s coal
consumption throughout the projection period, and the industrial sector accounts for most
of the remainder. World net electricity generation grows by 85 percent in the IEO2007
reference case, from 16,424 billion kilo-watthours in 2004 to 22,289 billion
kilowatthours in 2015 and 30,364 billion kilowatthours in 2030. Most of the projected
increase in electricity demand is in the non-OECD nations, where electricity generation
increases on average by 3.5 percent per year from 2004 to 2030, as compared with 1.3
percent per year in the OECD nations.

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Reduction of CO2 Emissions

To meet the increment in world liquids demand in the reference case, total supply in
2030 is projected to be 35 million barrels per day higher than the 2004 level of 83
million barrels per day. Natural gas consumption increases on average by 1.9 percent per
year in the reference case, from a world total of 99.6 trillion cubic feet in 2004 to 129.0
trillion cubic feet in 2015 and 163.2 trillion cubic feet in 2030.
We all wish to contribute to the establishment of a sustainable future based on energy
from renewable resources. Solar, wind, hydro, ocean waves and tides, geothermal and
biomass will become precious sources of energy. Consequently, energy must be
distributed to the consumer with highest efficiency and used intelligently to provide high
levels of comfort and services. Rational use of energy and energy conservation are the
cornerstones of the Renewable Energy Economy.

4. What is New?

a. Something special has happened in U.A.E.-Abu Dhabi..

As we all Know, the politics of the majority Middle East countries now headed towards
the renewable energy which inconsistent with the World Energy Outlook 2005 that
expected more production during the next two decades. Moreover, the role of Iraq as
large oil production country is declining regarding the political worries.
The World Future Energy Summit 2008 (WFES) in United Arab Emirates-Abu Dhabi
held on January 21st–23rd which brought together the world’s leading innovators,
educators, scientists, venture capitalists and experts in the field of future energy - people
who are champions and catalysts in creating real and sustainable Solutions. The
ambitious programme will lead to investment in: renewable energy infrastructure
projects based on solar, wind and hydrogen power generation; carbon reduction and
management; sustainable development and planning; research and development;
education; and the manufacturing of future energy solutions.[1] Today, as the global
demand for the energy continues to expand and as climate change becomes a real and
growing concern, the time has come to look to the future.
The Middle East countries -as large oil and gas producers- are responsible for large part
of the CO2 emissions, beside that, the appetite for energy is is inexorably growing in the
absence of new policies, in fact the great industrial countries polices are motivate the
production cycle of the ME, because their economy is increasingly depending on the ME
oil and gas production.
A World Alternative Policy Scenario demonstrates that if governments around the
world were to implement new policies they are considering today, aimed at addressing
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environmental and energy-security concerns, fossil-fuel demand and carbon-dioxide

emissions would be significantly lower[2]. But even in this scenario, global energy
demand in 2030 would still be 37% higher than today and the volume of MENA
hydrocarbon exports would still grow significantly, so the needs for new polices are
increasing and it is necessary to be effectively associated by new technologies of
renewable energies.

No doubt that the new technologies are the most suitable solution to the CO2 problem,
especially when the efficiency appears as a complementary factor. The large firms are
racing towards the best efficiencies; I had the opportunity to experience the latest new
technologies in the World Future Energy Summit 2008. Together, the Photovoltaic Cells,
and the Carbon Dioxide Capture and Storage technologies-introduced by Total - persuade
me to write about them for what I think they will participate effectively in reducing the
CO2 emissions.

[1] World Future Energy Summit 2008 (WFES), DAILY NEWS, Day2, 22nd January 2008

[2] World Energy Outlook 2005, Executive Summary.

b. Sustainable Solution from the Sun: Photovoltaic Cells [1]

Solar power, which is clean, abundant and inexhaustible. The sun
constantly sends 10,000 times more energy to earth than people
use. What’s more, it offers remarkable development prospects.
One of the greatest solar technologies is the use of the
Photovoltaic Cells to produce electricity.
Photovoltaic cells are generally made from monocrystalline or
polycrystalline silicon wafers or amorphous silicon films. When
combined, they form solar panels that convert around 15% of the
solar energy they receive into electricity. A one-square-meter
panel can supply 100 watts and generate 80 to 150 kWh per year.
The panels are wired to a receiver. The amount of electricity
generated depends on the amount of sunlight received. The
panels’ electrical performance is guaranteed for 25 years. To meet
demand, they can be assembled and interconnected to form a
photovoltaic field. A 20 to 30-square-meter array, for example,
can provide enough power for an entire household in Southern
Europe. Photovoltaic solar power systems are particularly useful
for pumping water into storage tanks. Very often, however,
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people need electricity when there is no sunlight or for

applications such as lighting or refrigeration that require an
uninterrupted supply. To get around this, the electricity can be
stored in batteries for use when needed. A charge controller is
also installed to protect the batteries from damage that can be
caused by overcharging or excessive drawdown.
An inverter is often added to convert the direct current produced
by the photovoltaic cells into alternating current for use by
household appliances and other equipment. In industrialized
nations, solar panels are used for radio relays, beacons and time
clocks. Although they do supply isolated, off-grid sites such as
mountain shelters, they are primarily installed at grid-connected
locations.

i. Cell Production:
To make a photovoltaic cell, ultra-pure electronics-grade silicon
is melted and formed into ingots with a cross-section of 100 to
250 square centimetres. The ingots are sliced into wafers that are
200 to 300 microns thick.
The silicon is then doped with boron or phosphorous to make the
wafers light sensitive by modifying their electron balance.
Electrical contacts are then deposited on the cells to collect the
electricity. The cells are wired together and covered with glass.
Currently available panels offer ratings of up to 200-watts peak
(Wp).
Since it was commissioned in late 2003, the Photovoltech plant
in Belgium has made a name for itself as a highly effective
photovoltaic cell manufacturer. Production capacity stood at 20
MWp at the end of 2005 and is scheduled to rise to 80 MWp by
the end of 2008. Photovoltech’s cells are made from
polycrystalline silicon, a material that offers several advantages:
there is little cutting waste, manufacturing requires two to three
times less energy than with monocrystalline silicon, and the cells
are more than twice as efficient as their amorphous silicon
cousins. Photovoltech’s cells deliver a conversion efficiency of
15 to 16%, one of the highest in the world for polycrystalline
silicon-based cells made with similar industrial technologies. To
achieve these results, Photovoltech has deployed an innovative
process on an industrial scale in which the wafers’ surface is
treated by isotropic texturing to limit sunlight reflection and
energy loss.
[1] TOTAL, January 2008, Solar Energy, Photovoltaic Technology: Proficiency and perform.

To increase the cells’ conversion efficiency, their anti-reflective

coating has been optimized with silicon nitride. The metal
contactors have also been made more effective. Accelerated
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aging tests have demonstrated that the modules maintain more

than 80% of their efficiency after 25 years. Research is currently
being conducted with Interuniversity MicroElectronics Center
(IMEC) to enhance the cells’ conversion efficiency and
appearance while reducing their production cost and the amount
of silicon needed.

ii. Solar Panels and Systems

Equally owned by Total and EDF since May 2005, when it was
renamed Tenesol, the company is a major player in photovoltaic
solar power. Tenesol designs, installs and maintains photovoltaic
equipment. The company designs customized systems and, since
1999, manufactures its own solar panels, giving it greater
technical proficiency and financial control over projects.

Solar Panel Production

Tenesol has two production subsidiaries: Tenesa and Tenesol
Technologies based in South Africa, Tenesa offers an annual
production capacity of 35 MWp. Its photovoltaic panels are used
for all types of systems devised by Tenesol. Tenesol Technologies
is based in Toulouse, France. The 15 MWp plant was
commissioned on a temporary site in June 2005. Its panels are
primarily used for roofs and siding in Europe. Tenesol
Technologies’ output should be sufficient to equip 7,500
European homes a year.

Photovoltaic Systems
With operations on four continents, Tenesol has installed tens of
thousands of solar power systems. Thanks to their reliability and
longevity, these systems are profitable.

Tenesol has electrified homes and water pumping systems

in sites that could not be connected to the grid. It holds the
management concession for decentralized rural
electrification programs in Morocco and participates in
programs led by such international organizations as the
World Bank, European Development Fund, UNIDO, South
Pacific Commission, Caisse Française de Développement,
French Global Environment Facility and KfW Förderbank.
The company also electrifies professional installations such as
telecommunication relays and isolated sites that can be difficult
to access.

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c. The opportunities opened up by CCS [1]

CO2 Capture and Storage (CCS), offers a solution that
complement energy efficiency programmes and greater use of
lower-carbon energies. CCS technology can be regarded as a
transition solution, to be implemented rapidly so that it can have
a positive effect on the overall amount of CO2in the atmosphere
within the next few decades.
Because of the capital investment involved and the technical
specificities of CCS, the optimum targets are CO2sources that
exceed 100,000 tons of CO2per year.
According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCG), this covers about 7,000 sites worldwide. This
technology could capture 80% - 90% of the CO2produced (albeit
with higher than normal energy consumption). And by 2050 this
technology could be processing 20% - 40% of all world
CO2emissions. Whether or not this is achieved will of course
depend on the political will of the countries involved and the
technological resources devoted to the effort. By the end of the
century, CCS technology could account for anything from 10%
to 55% of the overall reduction in emissions. If this is to happen,
then pilot facilities need to be set up now.
CCS involves three stages: capture, transport and storage. CO2is
captured at a large, fixed source then concentrated and
transported to a suitable storage site. For each of these stages,
various techniques are either already available or being
evaluated.

i. CAPTURE TECHNIQUES
The first phase of CCS is to capture the CO2in the combustion
smoke/fumes and separate it from the other main gases, i.e. water
vapour and nitrogen. The techniques used here mostly involve
tried and tested physical and chemical processes. Separation and
recovery of CO2 is already carried out in a number of major

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industrial plants, particularly those engaged in natural gas

processing, ammonia extraction or fertilizer manufacture. But in
most cases the CO2 is subsequently released into the atmosphere.
There are three possible techniques for capturing CO2, and all
are compatible with most of today's energy-production facilities:
> Capture by precombustion. This involves using a chemical
process to produce a synthetic gas from the carbon-based
combustible, then separating the CO2 and burning the remaining
hydrogen to produce energy. This combustion then produces
only water vapour. In this case, the C02 is captured upstream of
the energy-production plant.
> Capture by postcombustion. The CO2 is extracted from the
smoke/fumes produced by normal combustion of coal, gas or oil
- or even biomass. In this case extraction occurs downstream of
energy production. The processes used may be physical or
chemical, depending on the type of solvent used. This technique
has now been fully mastered, but at the present stage of
development it is expensive and energy intensive; new
developments are ongoing to improve efficiency.

[1] TOTAL, January 2008, Project Information Dossier, Lacq CO2 Capture and Geological Storage, Pilot
Project.

> Capture by oxycombustion. This is the process involves

combustion of the fossil fuel in pure oxygen rather than air so
that the smoke/fumes have a very high CO2 content, 90% or
even 95%. Combustion in the presence of pure oxygen has
been used for a number of years (particularly in glass-making)
to enhance the performance of industrial processes, but its use
in C02 capture is still being evaluated.

ii.
CO2 TRANSPORT
After the CO2 has been captured it must be transported to the
storage site. The two options for large-scale transport are
maritime transport and gas pipeline. As gas is very
voluminous, it will be transported in its "dense phase", i.e.
either compressed or cooled in order to reduce its volume.
> Maritime transport. The vessels used will be similar to
those used to ship liquefied natural gas (LNG).

> Gas pipeline. This technology is not new: gas pipelines

were first used to transport CO2 in the United States at the

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start of the 1970s, but for oil production and for projects
valorising the gas in coal mines. These pipelines make up a
network of more than 5,800 kilometres and they transport
more than 40 million tons of CO2 per year. The challenge for
CCS is the cost of developing a network able to transport large
volumes of CO2 from where the emissions are generated to the
storage sites.

iii. STORAGE TECHNIQUES

Once the CO2 has been captured and transported, it must be
stored for long periods - hundreds or even thousands of years -
so that it does not contribute to climate change. The basic
technology required here is already used by the oil and gas
industry. CO2 is often injected into oil reservoirs already pro-
ducing so as to make the oil less viscous: the gas dissolves in the
crude oil, so making it more fluid so that it flows better towards
the producing wells. This increases the oil recovery rate.

The CCS storage option preferred by most industrialised

countries is underground, or geological storage. This involves
injecting CO2 into some sort of underground reservoir. There are
a number of natural structures that could be suitable, as there are
numerous reservoirs containing CO2 that have existed for
millions of years. There are three types of geological formation
that are suitable for storing CO2.

> Hydrocarbon reservoirs that are either already depleted or

in production decline. The International Energy Agency (lEA)
estimates that the worldwide storage potential of this type of
reservoir amounts to some 930 billion tons of CO2.
In comparison, human activities are responsible for releasing 29
billion tons of CO2 into the atmosphere each year, and CSS
projects are expected to handle 20%-40% of the emissions
generated by large industrial facilities and power stations.
Unfortunately the suitable geological formations are not
conveniently spread across the planet close to major sources of
CO2 emissions.
> Deep saline formations. These are aquifers containing very
salty water - with up to three times the salt content of seawater -
that is quite unsuitable for consumption or even irrigation. These
aquifers are found in sedimentary basins either onshore or
offshore, throughout the world. The formations can extend for
hundreds and sometimes thousands of kilometres and the
aquifers are sometimes several kilometres thick.

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The International Energy Agency (lEA) estimates world CO2

storage capacity in these formations at between 400 billion and
10,000 billion metric tons. But little is known about these sites
and extensive research will have to be done on the detailed
makeup of the aquifers and their behaviour over the long term.

> Coal seams that are either too deep or too thin to mine.
CO2 is absorbed and retained by coal. Indeed this mechanism
also frees the methane that is fixed naturally on the surface of the
coal, and this hydrocarbon gas can then be recovered and
valorised. World CO2 storage capacity in coal seams is estimated
to be about 40 billion tons. For the purposes of CCS, work needs
to be done on the porosity and permeability of the coal seams. If
these are too low, CO2 will not be fixed in volumes large enough
to be worthwhile.

Summary
In recent years, atmospheric concentrations of carbon
dioxide—one of the most important greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere—have been increasing at a rate of about 0.5 percent
annually. Because anthropogenic (human-caused) emissions of
carbon dioxide result primarily from the combustion of fossil
fuels for energy, energy use has emerged at the centre of the
climate change debate. World carbon dioxide emissions continue
to increase steadily in the IEO2007 reference case, from 26.9
billion metric tons in 2004 to 33.9 billion metric tons in 2015 and
42.9 billion metric tons in 2030, an increase of 59 percent over
the projection period. Hence, the dire need to a new technologies
increasing day after day, and the companies on the field are
racing to introduce new technologies to the market.
The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) of the Kyoto
Protocol allows Annex B countries (countries with emission
obligations under the Kyoto Protocol) to offset CO2 emissions
through investing in CO2 reducing activities in developing
countries. This is an effective way to reach the goals for reducing

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CO2 emissions, with MENA as a main producers. The CDM

mechanism typically helps developing countries approach
Western standards in energy efficiency and pollution control.
Whilst beneficial, the CDM is not enough to solve the climate
change problem. Therefore, offsetting through CDM must be
accompanied by active promotion of new sustainable low carbon
solutions in developing countries.
Although the worldwide PV market has been growing at over
40% per annum in recent years, the contribution it makes to
electricity generation is still very small. Development work is
focused on improving existing modules and system components
and developing new types of cells in the thin-film sector and new
materials for crystalline cells. It is expected that the efficiency of
commercial crystalline cells will improve by between 15 and
20% in the next few years, and that thin-film cells using less raw
material will become commercially available.
The learning factor for PV modules has been fairly constant over
a period of 30 years at around 0.8, indicating a continuously high
rate of technical learning and cost reduction. Assuming a globally
installed capacity of 2,000 GW in 2050, and a decrease in the
learning rate after 2030, we can expect that electricity generation
costs of around 5-9 cents/kWh will be possible by 2030.
Compared with other technologies for utilising renewables,
photovoltaic power must therefore be classified as a long-term
option. Its importance derives from its great flexibility and its
enormous technical potential for rural electrification for the 2
billion people currently having no access to electricity.
The introduced Photovoltaic systems-as an example of new
technology- are attractive options for MENA countries
especially the Middle East countries for their huge amount of
wasted solar energy. These quiet, reliable systems cost less, are
easier to deploy and require less maintenance. They provide
between 50 and 150 Wp - enough to meet an isolated
community’s basic needs. These include water pumping and
purification, lighting, refrigeration for vaccines and food, TV and
telecommunications.

Even though a lot of research is being done on CCS, a lot more is

needed before the technology is fully optimized on a large scale.
One of the main problems is the efficiency penalty when
capturing CO2. In a power plant the penalty is expected to be in
the order of 10 %, which makes the technology costly.
Consequently other ways of mitigating climate change, e.g.
efficiency improvement, may be more successful initially. In the
long run however, CCS is expected to play an important roll,

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Reduction of CO2 Emissions

since it can contribute a lot to the long term goal that e.g. EU has
of a 70 % reduction in greenhouse gas emissions compared to
1990 levels.
Whether CCS will become a reality on a global scale or not, does
not only depend on cost, but also on the development of
international policy. Today it is not even clear how CCS is going
to be handled under the KP. However, CCS may still become a
reality in the North Sea since the oil companies will need CO2 for
Enhanced Oil Recovery, and the benefits of Enhanced Oil
Recovery may pay most of the costs for the CO2 capture.

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Reduction of CO2 Emissions

References:
1. Greenpeace International, September 2005; Energy
Revolution: A sustainable pathway to clean energy future for
Europe.
2. L.J.Anthony, Information Sources in Energy Technology,
Butterworth.
3. Ramage, J.(1997). Energy: A guidebook (2nd ed.). Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
4. Rasmus Reinvang and Glen Peters, January 2008
“Norwegian Consumption, Chinese pollution. An example
of how OECD imports generate CO2 emissions in
developing countries.”
5. Science and Technology Division, November 1992, The
Rio Earth Summit: Summery of the United Nations
Conference on Environment and Development.
6. Scientific American, January 2008, Ken Zweibel, James
Mason and Vasilis Fthenakis, A Solar Grand Plan.
7. TOTAL, January 2008, Project Information Dossier, Lacq
CO2 Capture and Geological Storage, Pilot Project.
8. TOTAL, January 2008, Solar Energy, Photovoltaic
Technology: Proficiency and perform.

9. Ulf Bossel, August 2003, We Need a Renewable Energy

Economy, Not a Hydrogen Economy.
10. IEA( International Energy Agency), World Energy
Outlook 2005.
11. IEA( International Energy Agency), World Energy Outlook
2007.

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