Coa File

Himanshu Adlakha 09-IT-025
COMPUTER ORGANISATION AND ARCHITECTURE LAB
SUBMITTED BY: Himanshu Adlakha 09-IT-25
SUBMITTED TO: MR. DEVENDER
PRACTICLE-1 VOLTAGES SUPPLIED TO COMPUTER COMPONENTS

The most vital part of the computer being the power supply which brings about this transformation.. The power supply converts the Alternating current from the line and converts it to the direct current. A power supply unit (PSU) is the component that supplies power to the other components in a computer. More specifically, a power supply unit is typically designed to convert general-purpose alternating current (AC) electric power from the mains(100-127V in North America, parts of South America, Japan, and Taiwan; 220-240V in most of the rest of the world) to usable low-voltage direct current (DC) power for the internal components of the computer. Some power supplies have a switch to change between 230 V and 115 V. Other models have automatic sensors that switch input voltage automatically, or are able to accept any voltage between those limits.
The most common computer power supplies are built to conform to the ATX form factor. This enables different power supplies to be interchangeable with different components inside the computer. ATX power supplies also are designed to turn on and off using a signal from the motherboard, and provide support for modern functions such as the standby mode available in many computers. The most recent specification of the ATX standard PSU as of mid-2008 is version 2.31.
Kinds of supplies
In a personal computer (PC), the power supply is the metal box usually found in a corner of the case. The power supply is visible from the back of many systems because it contains the power-cord receptacle and the cooling fan. Power supplies, often referred to as "switching power supplies", use switcher technology to convert the AC input to lower DC voltages. The typical voltages supplied are:
3.3 volts 5 volts 12 volts
The 3.3- and 5-volts are typically used by digital circuits, while the 12-volt is used to run motors in disk drives and fans. The main specification of a power supply is in watts. A watt is the product of the voltage in volts and the current in amperes or amps. If you have been around PCs for many years, you probably remember that the original PCs had large red toggle switches that had a good bit of heft to them. When you turned the PC on or off, you knew you were doing it. These switches actually controlled the flow of 120 volt power to the power supply.
Today you turn on the power with a little push button, and you turn off the machine with a menu option. These capabilities were added to standard power supplies several years ago. The operating system can send a signal to the power supply to tell it to turn off. The push button sends a 5-volt signal to the power supply to tell it when to turn on. The power supply also has a circuit that supplies 5 volts, called VSB for "standby voltage" even when it is officially "off", so that the button will work.
Various components and supplies
The power supply in a PC supplies various voltages to internal devices in a computer via power connectors. These voltages don't have to be exact but they can only vary up or down by a certain amount, called a tolerance. If a power supply is providing the parts of a PC with a particular voltage outside of this tolerance, the device(s) being powered may not work properly or at all.
Power Supply Voltage Tolerances
Himanshu Adlakha 09-IT-025 Voltage Rail +3.3VDC +5VDC +5VSB -5VDC (if used) +12VDC -12VDC Tolerance 5% 5% 5% 10% 5% 10% Minimum Voltage +3.135 VDC +4.750 VDC +4.750 VDC -4.500 VDC +11.400 VDC -10.800 VDC Maximum Voltage +3.465 VDC +5.250 VDC +5.250 VDC -5.500 VDC +12.600 VDC - 13.200 VDC
Power rating
Himanshu Adlakha 09-IT-025 Computer power supplies are rated based on their maximum output power. Typical power ranges are from 500 W to lower than 300 W for small form factor systems intended as ordinary home computers, the use of which is limited to web-surfing and burning and playing DVDs. Power supplies used by gamers and enthusiasts mostly range from 450 W to 1400 W. Typical gaming PCs feature power supplies in the range of 500-800 W, with higher-end PCs demanding 800-1400 W supplies. The highest-end units are up to 2 kW strong and are intended mainly for servers and, to a lesser degree, extreme performance computers with multiple processors, several hard disks and multiple graphics cards. T!he power rating of a PC power supply is not officially certified and is self-claimed by each manufacturer. A common way to reach the power figure for PC PSUs is by adding the power available on each rail, which will not give a true power figure. Therefore it is possible to overload a PSU on one rail without having to use the maximum rated power. This may mean that if:

PSU A has a peak rating of 550 watts at 25C, with 25 amps (300 W) on the 12 volt line, and PSU B has a continuous rating of 450 watts at 40C, with 33 amps (400 W) on the 12 volt line,
and if those ratings are accurate, then PSU B would have to be considered a vastly superior unit, despite its lower overall power rating. PSU A may only be capable of delivering a fraction of its rated power under real world conditions. This tendency has led in turn to greatly overspecified power supply recommendations, and a shortage of high-quality power supplies with reasonable capacities. Very few computers require more than 300350 watts maximum.[1] Higher end computers such as servers and gaming machines with multiple high power GPUs are among the few exceptions. Although, in recent years the power demand of "video cards" in the ability to watch high definition (HD) media has led to even the average ATX computer to consume between 400 and 500 watts.
Standard Output Voltages

PCs use several different voltages to power their various components. The core voltages have mostly remained unchanged over the 20-year history of the PC, though a couple of the less-used voltages have essentially been dropped, and an important new one has been added. The power supply provides each of these voltages, in varying amounts depending on the model, directly from its circuitry. Most of the power provided by the power supply is in the form of positive voltages, but some is in the form of negative voltages. Negative voltage is a slightly strange concept when used in reference to a DC current. In a nutshell, it just means that the voltage potential is measured from ground to the signal, instead of the signal to ground. It's essentially like turning a battery upside-down: same voltage, the current just goes backwards. The diagram below shows this better than I can explain it. :^)
Scale illustration of the various voltages provided by a typical, modern power supply. The color of each line corresponds to the color normally given wires carrying that voltage in the supply's motherboard connectors The black zero voltage line represents the system's ground, which is the reference point. The amount of current provided at each voltage level is important because of its impact on determining the supply's ability to provide sufficient power for your system. That larger issue is discussed in a separate section. Here are the details on the various voltages provided by today's power supplies:
-12 V: This voltage is used on some types of serial port circuits, whose amplifier circuits require both -12V and +12V. It is not needed on some newer systems, and even on older ones not very much is used, because the serial ports require little power. Most power supplies provide it for compatibility with older hardware, but usually with a current limit of less than 1 A. -5 V: A now archaic voltage, -5 V was used on some of the earliest PCs for floppy controllers and other circuits used by ISA bus cards. It is usually provided, in small quantity (generally less than 1A), for compatibility with older hardware. Some form factor power supplies such as the SFX no longer bother to supply it (systems using the SFX power supply are intended not to have ISA bus slots). 0 V: Zero volts is the ground of the PC's electrical system, also sometimes called common or (especially in the UK) earth. The ground signals provided by the power supply are used to complete circuits with the other voltages. They provide a plane of reference against which other voltages are measured. +3.3 V: The newest voltage level provided by modern power supplies, it was introduced with the ATX form factor and is now found on the ATX/NLX, SFX and WTX form factors. It is not found in Baby AT or older form factors. Originally, the lowest regular voltage provided by the power supply was +5 V, which was used to provide power to the CPU, memory, and everything else on the motherboard. Starting with the second generation Pentium chips, Intel went to a reduced 3.3 V voltage, in order to reduce power consumption as the chips got faster. This required motherboard manufacturers to put voltage regulators on their boards to change the +5 V to
Himanshu Adlakha 09-IT-025 +3.3 V. The regulators produced a great deal of waste heat and having to do this reduction on the motherboard was very inefficient, so now the power supply provides +3.3 V directly. It is used to run most newer CPUs, as well as some types of system memory, AGP video cards, and other circuits. +5 V: On older form factor systems (Baby AT and earlier) , this is the voltage used to run the motherboard, the CPU (directly or indirectly) and the vast majority of other components in the system. On newer systems, many of the components, especially the CPU, have migrated to the lower +3.3 V described above, but the motherboard and many of its components still use +5 V. +12 V: This voltage is used primarily to power disk drive motors. It is also used by fans and other types of cooling devices. It is in most cases not used by the motherboard in a modern PC but is passed on to the system bus slots for any cards that might need it. Of course, drives are connected directly to the power supply through their own connectors.
A computer's motherboard is the large circuit board into which all other components connect. It has slots for memory and accessory cards, as well as a connector for power. Personal computer makers have long since adopted a standard called ATX, which delivers 12-, 5- and 3.3-volt power via a standard connector. The motherboard takes this dual-voltage power and further converts it to other voltages required by the components plugged into it. Processor Several different microprocessor chips have evolved to work in different environments. For example, net books use low-voltage, low-power processors, and gaming computers tend to have faster, more complex ones. For example Intel's Pentium M processor had two modes for portable use: a 1.3-volt high-performance mode and a .988 battery optimized mode. The newer Core Duo processor runs on between 1.16 and 1.3 volts. Main Memory Like the processor, a computer's memory also comes in a variety of voltages. In the 1980s, synchronous dynamic random access memory (SDRAM) was the standard for personal computers, and it used 3.3-volt power. Since then, faster integrated circuits in double data rate (DDR) modules took over, gradually decreasing from 2.5 volts to the current 1.5-volt DDR3 memory type. CMOS Memory A computer's programs do most of their work in fast DDR memory. When you turn your computer on, however, it first get its settings in another kind of memory, called CMOS, complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor. CMOS memory, slower than DDR, has the virtue of very low power consumption. A button-type lithium battery will run CMOS memory for years. Computer makers use a variety of different battery voltages, ranging from a 3-volt button battery to custom battery packs of 3.6 to 6 volts.
must for while
Connectors:
Various connectors from a computer PSU.
Typically, power supplies have the following connectors:
PC Main Power connector (usually called P1): Is the connector that goes to the motherboard to provide it with power. The connector has 20 or 24 pins. One of the pins belongs to the PS-ON wire (it is usually green). This connector is the largest of all the connectors. In older AT power supplies; this connector was split in two: P8 and P9. A power supply with a 24-pin connector can be used on a motherboard with a 20-pin connector. In cases where the motherboard has a 24-pin connector, some power supplies come with two connectors (one with 20-pin and other with 4pin) which can be used together to form the 24-pin connector.
ATX12V 4-pin power connector (also called the P4 power connector). A second connector that goes to the motherboard (in addition to the main 24-pin connector) to supply dedicated power for the processor. For high-end motherboards and processors, more power is required; therefore EPS12V has an 8 pin connector.
4-pin Peripheral Power connectors (usually called Molex for its manufacturer): These are the other, smaller connectors that go to the various disk drives of the computer. Most of them have four wires: two black, one red, and one yellow. Unlike the standard mains electrical wire color-coding, each
Himanshu Adlakha 09-IT-025 black wire is a ground, the red wire is +5 V, and the yellow wire is +12 V. In some cases these are also used to provide additional power to PCI cards such as FireWire 800 cards.
4-pin Berg Power connectors (usually called Mini-connector or "mini-Molex"): This is one of the smallest connectors that supply the floppy drive with power. In some cases, it can be used as an auxiliary connector for AGP video cards. Its cable configuration is similar to the Peripheral connector.
Power supply applications:

1. Welding power supply Arc welding uses electricity to melt the surfaces of the metals in order to join them together through coalescence. The electricity is provided by a welding power supply, and can either be AC or DC. Arc welding typically requires high currents typically between 100 and 350 amps. Some types of welding can use as few as 10 amps, while some applications of spot welding employ currents as high as 60,000 amps for an extremely short time. Older welding power supplies consisted of transformers or engines driving generators. More recent supplies use semiconductors and microprocessors reducing their size and weight.
2. AC adapter
A linear or switched-mode power supply (or in some cases just a transformer) that is built into the top of a plug is known as a "plug pack", "plug-in adapter", "adapter block", "domestic mains adapter" or just "power adapter". Slang terms include "wall wart" and "power brick". They are even more diverse than their names; often with either the same kind of DC plug offering different voltage or polarity, or a different plug offering the same voltage. "Universal" adapters attempt to replace missing or damaged ones, using multiple plugs and selectors for different voltages and polarities. Replacement power supplies must match the voltage of, and supply at least as much current as, the original power supply
3. Circuit breakers: One benefit of using a circuit breaker as opposed to a fuse is that it can simply be reset instead of having to replace the blown fuse. A circuit breaker contains an element that heats, bends and triggers a spring which shuts the circuit down. Once the element cools, and the problem is identified the breaker can be reset and the power restored.
4. Thermal cutouts Some PSUs use a thermal cutout buried in the transformer rather than a fuse. The advantage is it allows greater current to be drawn for limited time than the unit can supply continuously. Some such cutouts are self resetting, some are single use only.
The Power supply connectors
4 Pin Berg Connector
Used to connect the PSU to small form factor devices, such as 3.5" Floppy Available in: AT, ATX & ATX-2 4 Pin Molex Connector drives.
This is used to power various components, including hard drives and Optical Available in: AT, ATX & ATX-2 drives
20 Pin Molex ATX Power Connector
This is used to power the motherboard available in: ATX( ATX-2 have four extra pins)
in
ATX
systems.
4 Pin Molex P4 12V Power Connector
Used specifically for Pentium 4 Processor Available in: ATX (integrated into the power connector in ATX-2)
Motherboards.
Himanshu Adlakha 09-IT-025 6 Pin AUX Connector
Provides +5V DC, available in: ATX/ATX-
and
two
connections
of
+3.3V.
ATX Power Supply Pinouts

Below are pin out diagrams of the common connectors in ATX power supplies.
PRACTICLE 2 COMPARITIVE STUDY OF THE MOTHERBOARD Requirements: Tester, multimeter, connectors, screw driver, wires. Introduction: Motherboard
In personal computers, a motherboard is the central printed circuit board (PCB) in many modern computers and holds many of the crucial components of the system, while providing connectors for other peripherals. The motherboard is sometimes alternatively known as the mainboard, system board, or, on Apple computers, the logic board. It is also sometimes casually shortened to mobo.
OVERVIEW OF MOTHERBOARD
SIDE VIEW OF MOTHERBOARD
MAJOR COMPONENTS:
A CPU socket or CPU slot is a mechanical component that provides mechanical and electrical connections between a device (usually amicroprocessor) and a printed circuit board (PCB). The northbridge has historically been one of the two chips in the core logic chipset on a PC motherboard, the other being the southbridge. Increasingly these functions have migrated to the CPU chip itself, beginning with memory and graphics controllers. The southbridge is one of the two chips in the core logic chipset on a personal computer (PC) motherboard, the other being the northbridge. The southbridge typically implements the "slower" capabilities of the motherboard in a northbridge/southbridgechipset computer architecture. Double data rate synchronous dynamic random access memory (DDR SDRAM) is a class of memory integrated circuits used incomputers. DDR SDRAM (sometimes referred to as DDR1 SDRAM) has been superseded by DDR2 SDRAM and DDR3 SDRAM, neither of which are either forward or backward compatible with DDR SDRAM, meaning that DDR2 or DDR3 memory modules will not work in DDR equipped motherboards, and vice versa. A DIMM or dual in-line memory module, comprises a series of dynamic random access memoryintegrated circuits. DIMMs began to replace SIMMs (single in-line memory modules) as the predominant type of memory module as Intel P5based Pentium processors began to gain market share. An IDE connector is used to connect a CD-ROM drive or hard drive to a motherboard, with a long and flat ribbon cable. ATX (Advanced Technology Extended) is a motherboard form factor specification developed by Intel in 1995 to improve on previous de facto standards like the AT form factor.The specification defines the key mechanical dimensions, mounting point, I/O panel, power and connector interfaces between a computer case, a motherboard, and a power supply.
The floppy disk interface uses what is likely the strangest cable of all those in PCs today. It is similar to the standard IDE cable in that it is usually a flat, gray ribbon cable. It is unusual in terms of the number of connectors it has and how it is used to configure the setup of the floppy disks in the system. Super I/O is a class of I/O controller integrated circuits that began to be used on personal computer motherboards in the late 1980s, originally as add-in cards, later embedded on the motherboards. A super I/O chip combines interfaces for a variety of low-bandwidthdevices. The functions provided usually include:

A floppy disk controller A parallel port (commonly used for printers) One or more serial ports A keyboard and mouse interface. Temperature sensor and fanspeed monitoring
PCI slots can handle 64 bits of data at a time. ISA slots can only handle 32 bits of data at a time. PCI stands for "Peripheral Component Interconnect." A 64-bit PCI slot has 64 connections to the motherboard. Each connection is capable of handling 1 bit of data at a time. A 32-bit ISA slot has 32 connections to the motherboard and can handle only 32 bits of data at a time. Below is a picture of how a PCI card is installed. Most computers have some form of an audio port, from a headphone jack to mono and stereo input. There are different forms and combinations of audio ports on both desktop and laptop computers, all serving the purpose of interfacing the sound from the machine to the external realm. LAN-PHY LAN[Local Area Network] Physical Layer.A LAN PHY, operating at a data rate of 10.000 Gb/s. The PS/2 connector is a 6-pin Mini-DIN connector used for connecting some keyboards and mice to a PC compatible computer system.
An RJ-45 port is a data port often found on computers, network routers, switches and hubs. It is commonly used for an Ethernet or serial connection with an 8 position 8 conductor (8P8C) jack. In the past, some modems and telephones included an RJ-45 port that used a true Registered Jack 45 (RJ45) jack. Although the 8P8C jack is not identical to the RJ45, the data port commonly retains the RJ45 name. A parallel port is a type of interface found on computers (personal and otherwise) for connecting various peripherals. In computing, a parallel port is a parallel communication physical interface. It is also known as a printer port or Centronics port. The game port was the traditional connector for video game input devices on x86-based PCs. Since about 1990, the game port has usually been integrated with a PC I/O or sound card, either ISA or PCI, or as an on-board feature of some motherboards; before that, it was usually on a dedicated ISA card ATX motherboards probably always locate the COM1 serial port connector on the motherboard ATX rear panel, but COM2 often comes unwired from the motherboard. To use COM2, you add an internal serial cable from the motherboard to a bracket in a PC rear panel PCI slot. Universal Serial Bus (USB) 2.0 is an external serial interface used on computers and other digital devices to transfer data using a USB cable. The designation 2.0 refers to the standard or version of the USB interface. As of fall 2006, USB 2.0 remains the current standard. The basic input/output system (BIOS), also known as the System BIOS is a de facto standard defining a firmware interface. Certain peripheral cards such as hard-drive controllers and video display adapters carried their own BIOS extension ROM, which provided additional functionality. ROM-BIOS is an abbreviation of Read Only Memory Basic Input Output System. Video port also called a "graphics port" or "VGA port," it is a socket on the back of a computer used to connect a monitor. On a PC, the standard video port is a 15-pin VGA connector for an analog monitor.
A TRS connector (tip, ring, sleeve) also called an audio jack, phone jack, phone plug, jack plug, stereo plug, mini-jack, mini-stereo, or headphone jack, is a common analog audio connector. It is cylindrical in shape, typically with three contacts, although sometimes with two (a TS connector) or four (a TRRS connector).
PRACTICLE 3 STUDY OF VARIOUS CONNECTORS

Networking by definition is the interconnected co-operation of Groups or systems. The main motive of networking is to get a compiled end-result that consists of inputs from various sources so as to enhance the quantity as well as quality.
Network Cabling and its Uses

In a Network, the information need to be transferred, shared and discussed. A cable is a medium through which the information is transmitted from one place to another. Networking Cables are used to connect one network device to other or to connect two or more computers to share printer, scanner etc. Different types of network cables like Coaxial cable, Optical fiber cable, Twisted Pair cables are used depending on the network's topology, protocol and size. The devices can be separated by a few meters (e.g. via Ethernet) or nearly unlimited distances (e.g. via the interconnections of the Internet). While wireless may be the wave of the future, most computer networks today still utilize cables to transfer signals from one point to another
Category Bandwidth
Applications
Cat1
0.4 MHz
Telephone and modem lines
Cat2
10 MHz
Older terminal systems, e.g.IBM 3270
Cat3
16MHz
10BASE-T and 100BASE-T4Ethernet
Cat4
20MHz
16 Mbit/s Token Ring
Cat5
100MHz
100BASE-TX & 1000BASE-TEthernet
Cat5e
100MHz
100BASE-TX & 1000BASE-T Ethernet
Cat6
250MHz
1000BASE-T Ethernet
Cat6e
250MHz (500MHz according to 10GBASE-T (under development) Ethernet some)
Cat6a
500MHz
10GBASE-T (under development) Ethernet
Cat7
600MHz
No applications yet.
Cat7a
1000MHz
Telephone, CATV, 1000BASE-T in the same cable.
Cat8
1200MHz
Under development, no applications yet.
The following sections discuss the types of cables used in networks and other related topics.

Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable Coaxial Cable Fiber Optic Cable

Cable Installation Guides Wireless LANs
Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable

Twisted pair cabling comes in two varieties: shielded and unshielded. Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) is the most popular and is generally the best option for school networks
Unshielded twisted pair The quality of UTP may vary from telephone-grade wire to extremely high-speed cable. The cable has four pairs of wires inside the jacket. Each pair is twisted with a different number of twists per inch to help eliminate interference from adjacent pairs and other electrical devices. The tighter the twisting, the higher the supported transmission rate and the greater the cost per foot. The EIA/TIA (Electronic Industry Association/Telecommunication Industry Association) has established standards of UTP and rated six categories of wire (additional categories are emerging).
Categories of Unshielded Twisted Pair

Category 1 2 3 4 5 Speed 1 Mbps 4 Mbps 16 Mbps 20 Mbps 100 Mbps (2 pair) Use Voice Only (Telephone Wire) LocalTalk & Telephone (Rarely used) 10BaseT Ethernet Token Ring (Rarely used) 100BaseT Ethernet
1000 Mbps (4 pair) 5e 6 1,000 Mbps 10,000 Mbps
Gigabit Ethernet Gigabit Ethernet Gigabit Ethernet
Unshielded Twisted Pair Connector

The standard connector for unshielded twisted pair cabling is an RJ-45 connector. This is a plastic connector that looks like a large telephone-style connector (See fig. 2). A slot allows the RJ-45 to be inserted only one way. RJ stands for Registered Jack, implying that the connector follows a standard borrowed from the telephone industry. This standard designates which wire goes with each pin inside the connector.
Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable

Although UTP cable is the least expensive cable, it may be susceptible to radio and electrical frequency interference (it should not be too close to electric motors, fluorescent lights, etc.). If you must place cable in environments with lots of potential interference, or if you must place cable in extremely sensitive environments that may be susceptible to the electrical current in the UTP, shielded twisted pair may be the solution. Shielded cables can also help to extend the maximum distance of the cables.
Shielded twisted pair cable is available in three different configurations: 1. Each pair of wires is individually shielded with foil. 2. There is a foil or braid shield inside the jacket covering all wires (as a group). 3. There is a shield around each individual pair, as well as around the entire group of wires (referred to as double shield twisted pair).
Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cabling has a single copper conductor at its center. A plastic layer provides insulation between the center conductor and a braided metal shield (See fig. 3). The metal shield helps to block any outside interference from
Fig. 3. Coaxial cable Although coaxial cabling is difficult to install, it is highly resistant to signal interference. In addition, it can support greater cable lengths between network devices than twisted pair cable. The two types of coaxial Thin coaxial cable is also referred to as thinnet. 10Base2 refers to the specifications for thin coaxial cable carrying Ethernet signals. The 2 refers to the approximate maximum segment length being 200 meters. In actual fact the maximum segment length is 185 meters. Thin coaxial cable has been popular in Thick coaxial cable is also referred to as thicknet. 10Base5 refers to the specifications for thick coaxial cable carrying Ethernet signals. The 5 refers to the maximum segment length being 500 meters. Thick coaxial cable has an extra protective plastic cover that helps keep moisture away from the center conductor. This makes thick coaxial a great choice when running longer lengths in a linear bus network. One disadvantage of thick coaxial is that it does
Coaxial Cable Connectors

The most common type of connector used with coaxial cables is the Bayone-Neill-Concelman (BNC) connector (See fig. 4). Different types of adapters are available for BNC connectors, including a T-connector, barrel connector, and terminator. Connectors on the cable are the weakest points in any network. To help avoid problems with your network, always use the BNC connectors that crimp, rather
Fiber Optic Cable

Fiber optic cabling consists of a center glass core surrounded by several layers of protective materials (See fig. 5). It transmits light rather than electronic signals eliminating the problem of
electrical interference. This makes it ideal for certain environments that contain a large amount of electrical interference.
Fiber optic cable has the ability to transmit signals over much longer distances than coaxial and twisted pair. It also has the capability to carry information at vastly greater speeds. This capacity broadens communication possibilities to include services such as video conferencing and interactive services. The cost of fiber optic cabling is comparable to copper cabling; however, it is The center core of fiber cables is made from glass or plastic fibers (see fig 5). A plastic coating then cushions the fiber center, and kevlar fibers help to strengthen the cables and prevent breakage. The outer insulating jacket made of teflon or PVC.
Fig. 5. Fiber optic cable There are two common types of fiber cables -- single mode and multimode. Multimode cable has a larger diameter; however, both cables provide high bandwidth at high speeds. Single mode can provide more distance, but it is more expensive.
Ethernet Cable Summary Specification 10BaseT Cable Type Unshielded Twisted Pair
10Base2 10Base5 100BaseT 100BaseFX 100BaseBX 100BaseSX 1000BaseT 1000BaseFX 1000BaseBX 1000BaseSX
Thin Coaxial Thick Coaxial Unshielded Twisted Pair Fiber Optic Single mode Fiber Multimode Fiber Unshielded Twisted Pair Fiber Optic Single mode Fiber Multimode Fiber
Crossover Network Cables Vs Straight through Cables

Not only is it important to be aware of the different categories of network cabling, it is also beneficial to be aware of the "ends" and "plugs" at each end of the cable. There are basically two types of Ethernet cables. There are the normal regular straight through cables and the other type is crossover cables. I will explain both of these separately below.
Straight Through Cables:

When you buy "regular" computer network cables, you are really just buying a straight through Ethernet cable. This means that both ends of the cables will be identical. The colours of the smaller cables inside the Ethernet cable, will be in the same order, from left to right.
This type of cable is used for connecting a PC to a hub/switch or for connecting a router to a switch. The hub/switch performs the crossover for you, that is why you need a crossover cable, for when you connect a PC directly with another PC.
Crossover Cables:
A Crossover Ethernet cable has a different look on either side of the cable. The purpose of the crossover cable is to connect one device directly to another device, without a switch or hub being present. So if you were connecting one PC directly with another PC, you would then use a crossover network cable. The image below shows you the differences between a crossover cable and a straight through computer network cable.
Color Coding for Wires and Jackets

Buffer/jacket color Meaning
Yellow
single-mode optical fiber
Orange
multi-mode optical fiber
Aqua
10 gig laser-optimized 50/125 micrometer multi-mode optical fiber
Grey
outdated color code for multi-mode optical fiber
Blue
Sometimes used to designate polarization-maintaining optical fiber
CABLE CONNECTORS
There are two types of connectors. Registered and unregistered. They are: A registered jack (RJ) is a standardized physical network interface both jack construction and wiring pattern for connecting telecommunications or data equipment to a service provided by a local exchange carrier or long distance carrier. The standard designs for these connectors and their wiring are named RJ11, RJ14,RJ21, RJ48, etc. Many of these interface standards are commonly used in North America, though some interfaces are used world-wide. The physical connectors that registered jacks use are mainly of the modular connector and 50pin miniature ribbon connector types. For example, RJ11 uses a 6 position 2 conductor (6P2C) modular plug and jack, while RJ21 uses a 50-pin miniature ribbon connector.
Registered jack types:
6P4C crimp-on style connector commonly used for RJ11 and RJ14 The most familiar registered jack is probably the RJ11. This is a modular connector wired for oneplain old telephone service line (using two wires out of six available positions), and is found in most homes and offices in most countries of the world for single-line telephones.[5] Essentially all one, two, and three line analog telephones made today (2009) are meant to plug into RJ11, RJ14, or RJ25 jacks, respectively. RJ14 is similar, but for two lines, and RJ25 is for three lines. RJ61 is a similar registered jack for four lines. The telephone line cord and its plug are more often a true RJ11 with only two conductors.The true RJ45(S) is an extremely uncommon registered jack, but the name RJ45 is also used quite commonly to refer to any 8P8C modular connector.
Unofficial plug names:

These RJ names do not refer to official ACTA RJ types:

RJ9, RJ10, RJ22: 4P4C or 4P2C, for telephone handsets. Since telephone handsets do not connect directly to the public network, they have no registered jack code whatsoever. RJ45: 8P8C, informal designation for T568A/T568B, including Ethernet; not the same as the true RJ45/RJ45S RJ50: 10P10C, often used for data
RJ21:
Female RJ21 connector RJ21 is a registered jack standard for a modular connector using 50 conductors, usually used to implement a 25-line (or less) telephone connection such as that used in the 1A2 key telephone system. It is also known as a 50-pin telco connector, CHAMP(AMP) or an Amphenol connector. (The latter is a genericized trademark, as Amphenol was the largest manufacturer of these at one time.)Dual RJ21 connectors are often used on punch blocks to make a breakout box for PBX and other key telephone systems.RJ21 connectors are used to connect Ethernet ports in bulk from a switch with RJ21 ports to a CAT-5 rated patch panel, or between two patch panels. A cable with an RJ21 connector on one end can support 12 8P8C "RJ45" connectors or Ethernet ports on a patch panel. The same connector (with spring bail locks) is used for SCSI-1 connections. Some computer printers use a shorter 36-pin version known as a Centronics connector.
RJ45:
8P8C modular plug RJ45 is a type of registered jack. As a registered jack, telephone RJ45 specifies the physical male and female connectors as well as the pin assignments of the wires in a telephone cable. The original RJ45 uses a special keyed 8P2C modular connector, with Pins 5 and 4 wired for tip and ring of a single telephone line and Pins 7 and 8 connected to a programming resistor. It is used with a high speed modem. Before the name RJ45 was used to refer to computer networking connectors, RJ45 was originally a Telephone-only standard. Telephone installers who wired telephone RJ45 jacks were familiar with the pin assignment which was part of the RJ45 standard. However, near-identical physical connectors for computer networking became ubiquitous, and informally inherited the name RJ45 due to the overwhelming similarity. While telephone RJ45 uses a "keyed" variety of the 8P body, meaning it may have an extra tab that a computer RJ45 connector is unable to mate with, the visual difference from an Ethernet 8P is subtle. The only other difference is the presence of extra conductors in the cable, which cannot be seen without very close inspection. True telephone RJ45 connectors are a special variant of 8P2C, meaning only the middle 2 positions have conductors in them, while pins 7 and 8 are shorting a programming resistor. Computer RJ45 is 8P8C, with all eight conductors present.
RJ48:
RJ48 is a registered jack. It is used for T1 and ISDN termination and local area data channels/subrate digital services. It uses the 8 positionmodular connector.RJ48C is commonly used for T1 lines and uses pins 1, 2, 4 and 5.RJ48X is a variation of RJ48C that contains shorting blocks in the jack so that a loopback is created for troubleshooting when unplugged by connecting pins 1 and 4, and 2 and 5. Sometimes this is referred to as a "smart jack".RJ48S is typically used for local area data channels/subrate digital services, and carries one or two lines. It uses a keyed variety of the 8P8Cmodular connector.RJ48 connectors are fastened to STP (Shielded Twisted Pair) cables, not the standard UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair) CAT-(1-5).
PRACTICLE 4 VARIOUS CARDS USED IN A SYSTEM

LAN Card
The LAN Card provides a direct interface to your Ethernet 10Base-TLAN or other types of LANS through commercially available bridges. It makes the IDS a network addressable device and supports TCP/IP connections to PCs and other network devices. The LAN Card also leverages the open, standards-based utilities of the LAN, including Simplified Network Management Protocol (SNMP), Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP), Telnet and Ping, to manage the functionality of the device. Executones LAN Card is a sophisticated Computer Telephony Integration (CTI) enabling device that enhances functionality and integration with customers LANs. Users who have access to their organizations network can manage Executones Integrated Digital System (IDS) through their desktop PCs using their existing LAN. By eliminating the need for a dedicated connection between the phone system and administrative terminals, more users can gain access to critical information simply by connecting to their LAN--your administrators and Automatic Call Distribution (ACD) group managers no longer need standalone terminals on their desks. The LAN Card speeds up processes, such as back-up and restore, from minutes to seconds. Executones LAN Card also increases overall system security by leveraging existing LAN security tools
Display Card
A video card, video adapter, graphics-accelerator card, display adapter, or graphics card is an expansion card whose function is to generate and output images to a display. Many video cards offer added functions, such as accelerated rendering of 3D scenes, video capture, TV-tuner adapter, MPEG-2 and MPEG-4 decoding, Fire Wire, light pen, TV output, or the ability to connect multiple monitors, while other modern high performance cards are used for more graphically demanding purposes such as PC games. Video hardware can be integrated on the motherboard, as it often happened with early computers; in this configuration it was sometimes referred to as a video controller or graphics controller. DisplayPort
An advanced license- and royalty-free digital audio/video interconnect released in 2007. DisplayPort intends to replace VGA and DVI for connecting a display to a computer.
In computing, PC Card (originally PCMCIA Card) is the form factor of a peripheral interface designed for laptop computers. The PC Card standard (as well as its successor Express Card) was defined and developed by a group of companies called the Personal Computer Memory Card International Association (PCMCIA). The United States computer industry created the Personal Computer Memory Card International Association to challenge the Japanese JEIDA memory card devices by offering a competing standard for memory-expansion cards. In 1991 the two standards merged as JEIDA 4.1 or PCMCIA 2.0 (PC Card). PC Card was originally designed for computer storage expansion, but the existence of a usable general standard for notebook peripherals led to many kinds of devices being made available in this form. Typical devices included network cards, modems, and hard disks. The cards were also used in early digital SLR cameras, such as the Kodak DCS 300 series. The original use, as storage expansion, is no longer common.
Many notebooks in the 1990s had two adjacent type-II slots, which allowed installation of two type-II cards or one, double-thickness, type-III card. The PC card port has been superseded by the faster Express Card interface, but some modern portable computers still use them.
PCMCIA stands for Personal Computer Memory Card International Association, the group of companies that defined the standard. This acronym was difficult to say and remember, and was sometimes jokingly referred to as "People Can't Memorize Computer Industry Acronyms. To recognized increased scope beyond memory, and to aid in marketing, the association acquired the rights to the simpler term "PC Card" from IBM. This was the name of the standard from version 2 of the specification onwards. These cards are used for wireless networks, modems, and other functions in notebook PCs. The PCMCIA was dissolved in 2009, and all of its activities are now managed by the USB Implementer's Forum, according to the PCMCIA website. Another name for PCMCIA or PC Card is Card Bus, the 32-bit version of the PCMCIA PC Card standard. In addition to supporting a wider bus (32 bits instead of 16 bits), Card Bus also supports bus mastering and operation speeds up to 33 MHz. Card types
All PC Card devices use a similar sized package which is 85.6 mm long and 54.0 mm wide. This is the same size as a credit card. The form factor is also used by the Common Interface form of Conditional Access Modules for DVB broadcasts. The original standard was defined for both 5 volt and 3.3 volt cards. The 3.3 V cards have a key on the side to prevent them from being inserted fully into a 5 V-only slot. Some cards and some slots operate at both voltages as needed. The original standard was built around an 'enhanced' 16bit ISA bus platform. Type I Cards designed to the original specification (version 1.x) are type I and feature a 16-bit interface. They are 3.3 mm thick and feature a single row of 34 holes along a short edge as a connecting interface. Type-I PC Card devices are typically used for memory devices such as RAM, flash, OTP, and SRAM cards. Type II Type-II and above PC Card devices use two rows of 34 sockets, and feature a 16- or 32-bit interface. They are 5.0 mm thick. Type-II cards introduced I/O support, allowing devices to attach an array of peripherals or to provide connectors/slots to interfaces for which the host computer had no built-in support. For example, many modem, network and TV cards use this form factor. Due to their thinness, most Type II interface cards feature miniature interface connectors on the card which are used together with a dongle: a short cable that adapts from the card's miniature connector to an external full-size connector. Some cards instead have a lump on the end with the connectors. This is more robust and convenient than a separate adapter but can block the other slot where slots are present in a pair. Some Type II cards, most notably network interface and modem cards have a retractable jack, when pushed in it will pop out, allowing insertion of a cable from above. When use of the card is no longer needed, the jack can be pushed back into the card and lock in place, protecting it from damage. Most network cards have their jack on one side, while most modems have their jack on the other side, allowing the use of both at the same time as they do not interfere with each other. Wireless Type II cards often had a plastic shroud jutting out from the end of the card, inside which the antennas were housed. Type III Type-III PC Card devices are 16-bit or 32-bit. These cards are 10.5 mm thick, allowing them to accommodate devices with components that would not fit type I or type II height. Examples are hard disk drive cards, and interface cards with full-size connectors that do not require dongles (as is commonly required with type II interface cards).
Type IV Type-IV cards, introduced by Toshiba, have not been officially standardized or sanctioned by the PCMCIA. These cards are 16 mm thick.
Card Information Structure

The Card Information Structure (CIS) is information stored on a PC card that contains information about the formatting and organization of the data on the card. The CIS also contains information about:

The type of card Supported power supply options Supported power saving features The manufacturer Model number And so on.
When a card is unrecognized it is frequently because the CIS information is either lost or damaged. Card Bus
Card Bus are PCMCIA 5.0 or later (JEIDA 4.2 or later) 32-bit PCMCIA devices, introduced in 1995 and present in laptops from late 1997 onward. Card Bus is effectively a 32-bit, 33 MHz PCI bus in the PC Card form factor. Card Bus supports bus mastering, which allows a controller on the bus to talk to other devices or memory without going through the CPU. Many chipsets, such as those that support Wi-Fi, are available for both PCI and Card Bus. The notch on the left hand front of the device is slightly shallower on a Card Bus device so, by design, a 32-bit device cannot be plugged into earlier equipment supporting only 16-bit devices. Most new slots accept both Card Bus and the original 16-bit PC Card devices. Card Bus cards
can be distinguished from older cards by the presence of a gold band with eight small studs on the top of the card next to the pin sockets. The speed of Card Bus interfaces in 32-bit burst mode depends on the transfer type; in byte mode it is 33 MB/s, in word mode 66 MB/s, and in word mode 132 MB/s. Card Bay Card Bay is a variant added to the PCMCIA specification in 2001. This was intended to add some forward compatibility with USB and IEEE 1394, but was not universally adopted and only some notebooks have PC Card controllers with Card Bay features. This is an implementation of Microsoft and Intel's Drive Bay initiative. Descendants and variants The interface has spawned a generation of flash memory cards that set out to improve on the size and features of Type I cards: Compact Flash, MiniCard, P2 Card and Smart Media. For example, the PC Card electrical specification is also used for Compact Flash, so a PC Card Compact Flash adapter need only be a socket adapter.
Express Card
It is a later specification from the PCMCIA, intended as a replacement for PC Card, built around the PCI Express and USB 2.0standards. The PC Card standard is closed to further development and PCMCIA strongly encourages future product designs to utilize the Express Card interface. As of 2007, the majority of laptops now ship with only Express Card slots or neither slot type (leaving expansion to USB and Fire wire only), though the Lenovo ThinkPad T60 and Z60m, among other models, currently ships with both Card Bus and Express Card slots. Express Card and Card Bus sockets are physically and electrically incompatible. Therefore, a simple mechanical adapter between the two formats is infeasible. However, several companies now produce ExpressCard-to-CardBus and Cardbus-to-ExpressCard adapters that use a secondary slot to allow older cards to work with newer PCs and vice versa. Adapters for PC Cards to Personal Computer ISA slots were available as well as currently there are PC Card (Card bus) adapters for PCI slots. Wireless (802.11) PCMCIA cards were sometimes sold with PC Card to PCI adapter for desktop use, such as Linksys WPC11 wireless pc card and WDT11 pc card to pci adapter. Memory Cards are a popular storage medium for many of todays consumer electronic devices, including digital cameras, cell phones, and handy cam. Memory Card or a memory card is a device (card) that serves as storage of digital data (such as pictures, audio and video) on a gadget such as digital cameras, PDAs and mobile phones. The size of this memory various kinds
ranging from 128 MB to 16 GB.Flash memory is nonvolatile that is the memory card will not lose its data when removed from the device, and can be erased and reused. When buying a memory card you have to consider price, capacity and compatibility. Some devices will support specific type of memory card. Suppose In mobile phones there is only miniSD card is used, others are cant fit into them. So its important to read the information that came with your device to ensure you purchase a memory card that will work in your device. They are a few major types of memory cards that can be used in your electronics device. Here are the types of memory cards 1. Memory Stick Memory Stick is a memory card to be introduced by Sony and patented for electronic equipment output. Almost all the cameras made by Sony uses memory stick as storage media. * Memory Stick Pro and Memory Stick Duo It is the second-generation Memory Stick with the speed and storage capacity increases. * Memory Stick Micro M2 Memory Stick Micro (M2) offers greater data storage, has now reached the size of 8GB. 2. Multimedia Card (MMC) Multimedia Card (MMC) is a standard memory card, is bigger than the Memory Stick and can be used in SD Card slot. * RS-MMC (Reduced Size Multimedia Card) MMC is the next generation with a smaller size, can be used in MMC and SD Card slots using an adapter 3. Secure Digital Card (SD Card) Form-sized SD Card with MMC with a speed faster data transfer. Many used from mobile phones, cameras and computers. SD Card has a switch that works for SD Card to be writing protected. * Mini SD Its size is roughly half the size of the SD Card, can be inserted into the SD Card or MMC slots by using an adapter. * Micro SD / Trans Flash Its size is smaller than the Mini SD and is widely used in mobile phones today. Data capacity up to 16 GB * XD Card Developed by Olympus and Fuji cameras products output.
4. Compact Flash Card (CF Card) Compact Flash Card (CF Card) memory card is the most widely used in digital cameras. It has a data transfer speed of the fastest because it has a memory controller chip. In addition to save multimedia files can also store other data files such as text and so forth. There are 2 sizes of CF Compact Flash Memory is the Compact Flash type I and type II. CF II are thicker (approximately 5mm) of CF I (approximately 3.3 mm) and have a greater storage capacity as well. 5. Smart Media Card Smart Media card is the first challenger to the flash memory market. It was jointly invented by Olympus and Fuji. It became quite popular among manufacturers and consumers. It is smaller and thinner than the CF cards. It also has contact pins directly on the surface of the card. This design proved to be less reliable than the CF interface design when used over time. Bat the real reason that caused the demise to Smart Media cards is its 128 MB limitation. 6. Compact Flash Compact Flash is the de facto standard to flash memory Storage. It is used everywhere from digital cameras to MP3 players to embedded systems. There are two variants of Compact Flash: Type 1 & Type 2. CF Type 2 cards are a little bit thicker than CF type I Cards. Currently CF Type 2 cards house devices like Microdrive and WiFi network Card. CF cards are very robust and industrially proven to be reliable.
EXPANSION CARDS:-
The expansion card (also expansion board, adapter card or accessory card) in computing is a printed circuit board that can be inserted into an expansion slot of a computer motherboard to add functionality to a computer system. One edge of the expansion card holds the contacts that fit exactly into the slot. They establish the electrical contact between the electronics (mostly integrated circuits) on the card and on the motherboard. Connectors mounted on the bracket allow the connection of external devices to the card. Depending on the form factor of the motherboard and case, around one to seven expansion cards can be added to a computer system. In the case of a backplane system, up to 19 expansion cards can be installed. There are also other factors involved in expansion card capacity. For example, most graphics cards on the market as of 2010 are dual slot graphics cards, using the second slot as a place to put an active heat sink with a fan. Some cards are "low-profile" cards, meaning that they are shorter than standard cards and will fit in a lower height computer chassis. (There is a "low profile PCI card" standard that specifies a much smaller bracket and board area). The group of expansion cards that are used for external connectivity, such as a network, SAN or modem card, is commonly referred to as input/output cards (or I/O cards). The primary purpose of an expansion card is to provide or expand on features not offered by the motherboard. For example, the original IBM PC did not provide graphics or hard drive capability as the technology for providing that on the motherboard did not exist. In that case, a graphics
expansion card and an ST-506 hard disk controller card provided graphics capability and hard drive interface respectively. In the case of expansion of on-board capability, a motherboard may provide a single serial RS232 port or Ethernet port. An expansion card can be installed to offer multiple RS232 ports or multiple and higher bandwidth Ethernet ports. In this case, the motherboard provides basic functionality but the expansion card offers additional or enhanced ports.
Punched cards:
A punched card, punch card, IBM card, or Hollerith card is a piece of stiff paper that contains digital information represented by the presence or absence of holes in predefined positions. Now an obsolete recording medium, punched cards were widely used throughout the 19th century for controlling textile looms and in the late 19th and early 20th century for operating fairground organs and related instruments. They were used through the 20th century in unit record machines for input, processing, and data storage. Early digital computers used punched cards, often prepared using keypunch machines, as the primary medium for input of both computer programs and data. Some voting machines use punched cards.
Video Card: This Is Also Referred To As The Graphics Adapter, Display Adapter Or Video Adapter. This Is A Circuit That Is Used To Display Information On The Monitor. Monitor Resolution, Number of Colours, Monitor Refresh Rate, Video Card and the Monitors Quality All Determine the Quality of the Display.
Sound Card: To Handle Sound, To Insert A Microphone Or Connect A Speaker This Sound Card Is Used. Many Sound Cards Have MIDI Controllers. This Is Also Called SWSynth. Network Interface Card: This Is Also Referred As NIC. The Computer Can Be Connected To A Network Only With The Use Of This Network Interface Card. Ethernet Card: Ethernet Card Is Used To Connect Computers To Computers. A Cable Is Used To Connect The Ethernet Cards In Each Computer To Make A Network. Accelerator Card: This Is A Printed Circuit Board. This Card Is Used To Increase Of Speed Of The Computer And Can Be Inserted Into Any Of The Expansion Slot Provided In The Motherboard. For Example, A Graphics Accelerator Card Is Used To Increase The Quality Of The Graphics. Video Capture Card: This Card Is Used To Convert Analog Signals (Signals From Video Camera Or VCR) To A Compressed Digital Signal. This Compressed Digital Signal Can Be Stored In Your Computer As A Video File. TV Tuner Card: TV Tuner Card Is Used To Convert Your Analog Or Digital TV Signal And View Your TV Channels In Your Computer. Win TVD TV Tuner Card Comes With Video Capture And Stereo Surround Features.
Secure Digital Card (SD card)

SD cards are used in many small portable devices such as digital video camcorders, digital cameras, handheld computers, audio players and mobile phones. In use since 1999, SD Memory Cards are now available in capacities between 16 Megabytes and 1 Gigabyte, and still growing. An SD card typically measures 32 mm x 24 mm x 2.1 mm and weighs approximately 2grams. MiniSD Card After the success of the SD Card (Secure Digital Card), the miniSD Memory Card was developed to meet the demands of the mobile phone market. The MiniSD Card provides the same benefits as the SD Card, but is smaller than the original SD Card. MiniSD Cards are typically found in many newer mobile phones with features such as built-in digital cameras, downloading and games, basically the mobile phones where the miniSD can meet the requirements for increased data storage. MiniSD cards are 21.5 mm x 20 mm x 1.4 mm and generally provide 16MB to 256MB of storage. Micro SD
Mainly used in mobile phones and other small handheld devices the Micro SD format is currently available in capacities up to 4GB, and it roughly 1/4th the size of the SD card at 15mm W 11mm W 0.7mm. The Micro SD card is also the smallest memory card available. Card adapters can be purchased that enable backwards compatibility this would allow Micro SD cards to work in SD and MiniSD slots, and also for Micro SD cards to work in SD card slots. Multi Media Card (MMC) The Multi Media Card (MMC) standard was introduced by San Disk and Siemens in 1997. The card itself is 32 mm x 24 mm x 1.4mm and is often used in place of the SD card. Transfer speeds of a MMC is around 2.5MB/s and they can often be used in SD Card readers.
Sony Memory Sticks Sony Memory Sticks are light, compact and designed for a wide variety of devices including digital cameras, recorders, and more. With the use of an adapter most Sony Memory Sticks can be used with almost all Memory Stick PRO compatible products.

Memory Stick Micro (M2): 15 mm x 12.5 mm x 1.2 mm Memory Stick PRO: 50 mm x 21.5 mm x 2.8 mm. The Memory Stick PRO format has an an 8bit parallel interface with theoretical transfer rates up to 480Mb/s. It is commonly used in high mega pixel digital cameras and digital camcorders. Memory Stick PRO DUO: 31 mm x 20 mm x 1.6 mm. The Memory Stick PRO Duo media is about one-third the volume and half the weight of standard-size media, but offers all the advanced functions of Memory Stick PRO media.
X D -Picture Card
Abbreviated as x D (Extreme Digital), the x D-Picture Card is a type of removable flash memory designed for use in digital cameras. The x D is ultra-compact with its size of 20mm x 25mm x 1.7mm. The x D-Picture Card was developed by Fuji film and Olympus and is used in many models of digital cameras made by Olympus and Fuji film.
PRACTICLE 5 HOW TO STUDY, REPLACE AND REMOVE FLOPPY DISK DRIVE

The earliest floppy disks, invented at IBM, were 8 inches in diameter. They became commercially available in 1971. Disks in this form factor were produced and improved upon by IBM and other companies such as Memorex, Shugart Associates, and Burroughs Corporation.
8-inch disk drive with diskette (3-inch disk for comparison) ( BASF double-density 5-inch diskette.) In 1976 Shugart Associates introduced the first 5-inch FDD and associated media. By 1978 there were more than 10 manufacturers producing 5-inch FDDs, in competing disk formats: hard or soft sectored with various encoding schemes such as FM, MFM and GCR. The 5-inch formats quickly displaced the 8-inch for most applications, and the 5-inch hard-sectored disk format eventually disappeared. In 1984, IBM introduced the 1.2 megabyte dual sided floppy disk along with its AT model. Although often used as backup storage, the high density floppy was not often used by software manufacturers for interchangeability. In 1986, IBM began to use the 720 kB double density 3.5" microfloppy disk on its Convertible laptop computer. It introduced the so-called "1.44 MB" high density version with the PS/2 line. These disk drives could be added to existing older model PCs. In 1988 IBM introduced a drive for 2.88 MB "DSED" diskettes in its top-of-the-line PS/2 models; it was a commercial failure. Throughout the early 1980s the limitations of the 5-inch format were starting to become clear. Originally designed to be smaller and more practical than the 8-inch format, the 5-inch system was itself too large, and as the quality of the recording media grew, the same amount of data could be placed on a smaller surface.
A number of solutions were developed, with drives at 2-inch, 2-inch, 3-inch and 3-inch (50, 60, 75 and 90 mm) all being offered by various companies. They all shared a number of advantages over the older format, including a small form factor and a rigid case with a sliding write protection tab. The almost-universal use of the 5-inch format made it very difficult for any of these new formats to gain any significant market share.
3-inch, high-density diskettes affixed with adhesive labels. Sony introduced its own small-format 90.0 mm 94.0 mm disk.; however, this format suffered from a fate similar to the other new formats: the 5-inch format simply had too much market share. A variant on the Sony design, introduced in 1982 by a large number of manufacturers, was then rapidly adopted. By 1988 the 3-inch was outselling the 5-inch. By the end of the 1980s, the 5-inch disks had been superseded by the 3-inch disks. Though 5-inch drives were still available, as were disks, they faded in popularity as the 1990s began. By the mid-1990s the 5-inch drives had virtually disappeared as the 3-inch disk became the predominant floppy disk. One of the chief advantages of the 3-inch disk, besides its smaller size which allows it to fit in a shirt pocket, is its plastic case, which gives it better protection from dust, liquids, fingerprints, scratches, sunlight, warping, and other environmental risks.
3 Inch Floppy Disk Drive Replacement

WARNING
disconnect the power from the computer may result in personal injury. the computer. The case contains sharp edges. Use caution. If you are not properly grounded, you could generate static electricity that may cause a component to fail. sure your hands are dry before performing this task. Tools Required: Phillips Screwdriver
HINT: Note the location of all wires, cables, or connectors before disconnecting. These wires, cables, or connectors will need to be reconnected to either the same or new devices. Step 1: Turn off your computer and all peripheral devices. Disconnect the power cord from the outlet and then from the back of the computer. Disconnect all devices connected to the back of the computer (e.g. keyboard, mouse, monitor). Place the computer on an appropriate work area (a flat-level surface).
Step 2: From the diagrams (Figures 1.A and 1.B), determine your case by the location of the AC power receptacle and follow the appropriate figures (either A or B). Remove the screws indicated on the diagram. Do not lose the screws. Step 3: Slide the cover toward the rear to free it from the system and lift it off until it can be removed completely (Figure 2.A or 2.B). CAUTION: The case contains sharp edges. **Ground yourself by touching the metal frame every time you remove the cover. If you are not properly grounded, you could generate static electricity that may cause a component to fail.
Figure 1. A
Figure 1. B
Figure 2. A INTERNAL COMPONENTS
Figure 2. B
Figure 3. A
Figure 3. B
Step 4: Locate all optical devices (CD-ROM, DVD-ROM, or CDRW drive) on your computer. Locate the Hard disk drive and HDD bracket on your computer. Locate the 3 inch floppy disk drive on your computer (Figures 3.A or 3.B). Step 5: For each optical device disconnect all connectors from back of each device (Figure 4): - IDE connector
- power supply connector - audio connector (if applicable)
Figure.4
Be sure to pull on the plastic connecters and not the wires when removing the connectors from
the drive. Note the location of these connectors.
Step 6: Remove the two screws securing each optical device to the case and remove the device by pushing the back of the device forward (Figure 5). Do not lose the screws.
Figure.5 Step 7: Remove the one screw securing the HDD bracket to the computer and then slide the HDD bracket (Figure 6). You do not need to remove any cables connected to the HDD. Carefully move the HDD aside. Do not lose the screw.
Figure. 6
Step 8: Detach cables from the computer case (Figure 7.A). Release the four tabs (Figure 7.B) and slowly pull the faceplate off. Carefully put the faceplate aside.
Figure7.A
Figure7.B
Step 9: Disconnect all cables/connectors from back of the floppy disk drive: - IDE cable
- power supply connector Note the location of these cables/connectors. Step 10: Remove the screws securing the 3 inch floppy disk drive to the case and carefully remove the drive by pushing the back of the drive forward (Figure 8). Do not lose the screws.
Figure 8 Step 11: Insert the new 3 inch floppy disk drive and secure the drive to the case with the screws. Step 12: Connect the cables/connectors to back of the 3 inch floppy disk drive: - IDE cable - power supply connector Step 13: Replace the faceplate. Make sure the four tabs are completely in (Figure 7.B). Step 14: Replace the front panel connector cables to the case (Figure 7.A) Step 15: Reattach the HDD to the computer case (Figure 6). Step 16: Reinstall all optical devices previously removed in steps 5 and 6. Secure each device to the case. Step 17: Slide the computer cover back into place so that the screw holes are properly aligned. Secure the cover to the case with the screws previously removed. Step 18: Reconnect the computers devices (e.g. keyboard, mouse, monitor, printer). Reconnect the power cord to the AC power receptacle. Plug the power cord to the outlet. Step 19: Turn on the computer and make sure it is functioning properly. If it is not working properly, repeat the steps above and make sure all the connectors are inserted correctly. If a problem still persists, call our technical support line.
PRACTICLE 6 REMOVE ,STUDY AND REPLACE HARD DISK
Installation Procedure
This procedure provides instructions for installing a hard disk drive into a system case. Performing this installation is not that difficult as long as you follow the directions, of course. It is important to install hard disk drives correctly, because as the warehouse for your data, the hard disk is one of the most important devices in the PC. This procedure deals only with the physical installation of the drive. Procedure Overview:

Difficulty Level: 2 (Low). Risk Factor: 2-4 (Low to High). The actual risk to the drive is quite low. The risk is to any data that may be on the drive. If the drive is empty or at least has been backed up, there isn't really that much risk. Hardware Required: Screwdriver and screws; you may need additional screws if using a mounting kit. Software Required: None. Time to Perform: Usually about 5-10 minutes. Can take slightly longer if there are fit problems or adapters are needed.
Preparation / Warnings: o If you have not already done so, please read the section on general installation and assembly tips. o It is always wise to make sure you have a backup of any drive before moving it to a new PC or reinstalling it. Of course, it's generally too late to do anything about this if the drive is already out of its system. :^) o Ensure you have already decided how you want to configure the hard disk drive, and that you have already set the appropriate jumpers. See this procedure if you have not already done this. o Make sure that the interface cable will reach the drive in its intended location. Refer to the system layout planning procedure if necessary. Unlike with floppy drives, you cannot just get a longer cable in most cases when you are dealing with IDE/ATA drives. The length of the cable is limited to 18" and in some cases less. See here for more details. o Ensure that a power cable from the power supply will reach the drive. o Make sure that you don't mount the drive upside-down or backwards. The label of the drive goes up, and the circuit board down. The connectors should face into the middle of the case so the interface cable can reach them. o The system case should be open before you begin. For instructions on opening the case, refer to this procedure. o Some cheap cases are made from very flimsy sheet metal and may require you to flex them somewhat to get the drive to slide in properly. o Internal hard disk drives have an exposed circuit board on the bottom (the drive's integrated logic board). Be especially careful not to damage this board, and ensure during installation that nothing contacts it. Check after installation to ensure that nothing can accidentally contact the board.
Procedure Steps: 1. Find Pin 1 On Drive: Take a close look at the drive and determine which end of the interface connector is pin 1. There should be some sort of a marking near pin 1 to indicate it, which may be a small number "1", a dot, an arrow, a square around the pin where it connects to the circuit board, or some other indication. You'll need to know where pin 1 is when you connect the drive up, which may be much later on. It's much harder to determine which end is pin 1 after the drive is installed. Tip: Hard disks usually have pin 1 of the connector next to the drive's power connector.
2. Install Mounting Kit, If Necessary: Virtually all modern cases have internal 3.5" drive bays meant specifically for hard drives. However, if you are installing into an older case or one that has its internal 3.5" bays full, you will need to use a mounting or adapter kit. To use this kit, place the drive into the middle of the adapter, and then use four screws to mount the drive to the inside of the adapter. Some adapters mount using screwholes on the bottom of the drive and some using screwholes on the side. Make sure you orient the
drive correctly. Then test the mounted drive by sliding it into the drive bay. Ensure that it fits properly. 3. Mount Drive Into Case: There are three common ways of mounting a hard disk drive into the system case that I have encountered. Determine which of the following matches your case and follow the appropriate instructions: o Direct Mount: The simplest and most common mounting method is the direct mount, where the drive slides into the bay and mounts directly to the drive bay walls. Slide the drive into the bay and align the holes on the side of the drive with the holes in the drive bay. There may be more than one place in the bay where the drive will fit into the case. When the drive is lined up correctly, secure the drive to the bay using four screws. o Drive Rails: Some cases, especially older ones, use two thin rails that are mounted to the drive, and then used to slide the drive into the drive bay. If your cases uses these, select two matching rails, one for either side of the drive. Place the drive into the bay without the rails first, to allow you to visualize where the rails need to mount onto the drive so that once inserted, the drive will fit properly into the bay. Attach the rails to either side of the drive, using two screws per rail. Then slide the drive into the bay. Verify that the front of the drive lines up correctly. Some drive rail cases have spring-loaded clips on the front that snap into place when the drive is inserted all the way (mostly newer cases). Others require you to screw the drive into the bay anyway, using holes in the front of the drive bay. Either way, make sure the drive is not free to move around when you are done. o Mounting Box: Some cases, especially desktops, use a removable metal box into which the drive is mounted. The procedure here is similar to that for direct mount, above, except that you have to remove the box first and insert the drive into it, then remount the box. 4. Double-Check Installation: Make sure the drive has been fitted properly into the case and that there is no interference with other components. In particular, make sure that the logic board on the bottom of the drive is not touching anything. Ensure that it is not loose in the case.
PRACTICLE 7 REMOVE, STUDY AND REPLACE OF CD ROM DRIVE
It is quite inexpensive to remove and install the CDROM drive. Disk drives are now disposable because so many of them are readily available at extremely low cost. Although disk drive installation is simple, you should not attempt any short cuts. If you neglect the slightest detail, your new drive may malfunction or may not work at all. Examine Both CDROM Drives If you are removing an older CDROM drive to install a new one, take the time to study every
detail of how the old drive is installed. Take good notes if you think your memory will fail you. Draw a diagram of how and where the data, sound card and power cables connect to the drive. Study how the drive is mounted in the system unit bay and if you will have to disconnect any other components or connections in order to remove the old drive. Removing Your Old CDROM Drive To start with, have a well lit and study work desk. You'll need a tool kit and a small divided box may prove to be useful. Take the time to remove any Electrical Static Buildup from yourself so that no static electricity can damage the chips. Remove the cover from the System Unit by locating and carefully removing all retaining screws. Put all screws in one section of the divided box. Check to be certain the system unit has been unplugged from the surge protector or wall outlet. Locate the old drive at the top of nearly all Tower units and in an assembly in most Desktops. See if the drive can be removed without removing any other connections or components. Disconnect the data, power, and sound card cables from the old drive. Remove the screws securing the drive to the system unit and place them in another section of the divided box. Slide the old drive out through the front of the system unit. Take the time to see if your CDROM Drive's Controller is mounted onto the motherboard or if it is secured if an expansion slot. This Controller acts as the communication between the CPU and the drive itself. If the new drive has an IDE Interface, the drive's ribbon cable will connect to the controller without the need of another adapter card. If the new drive is a SCSI Drive, it will need to be Daisy-chained. This means that one drive or device can be connected to another with up to 7 devices connected together. The last device must be terminated with a jumper. Installing Your New CDROM Drive A Disk Drive Controller can serve up to three drives through the Ribbon Cable. The last drive must be terminated so the controller will know how many drives are installed in the PC. This is done by setting the jumper on the last drive in a certain position. Check the manual to find that position if you have more than one CDROM Drive. The Installation procedure is the opposite of the removal procedure. If you are installing a new drive only, you may have to remove a bezel, which is a faceplate in front of your system unit that covers the new drive's access. Usually a small screwdriver can remove the plate with a small twist. Slide the new drive through the front halfway and reconnect the data, power and sound card cables. With most drives, pin number 1 on the ribbon cable must line up with pin 1 on the adapter. Look for an oddly colored stripe on the cable which will be Pin 1. Now check and double check to see if the cables have been attached correctly. Slide the drive in the bay completely and secure it with the retaining screws in the divided box. Replace the the system unit cover, reconnect all peripherals and turn on the computer.
CDROM Drive Configuration Now that the hardware have been installed we must tell the computer it have a new drive. In most cases, the computer will recognize that it has obtained a new device once you boot up the computer. It may ask for the device driver and you may have to place the cdrom that came with your new drive into your drive. The computer will install the device driver from the cdrom. And after this, the installation should be done. Check your work now by placing a game or other cdrom in the drive and see if the drive operates normally. Place an audio CD into the drive to see if you can play music CDs without problems. If the drive fails to work, check all connections, and take a look to see if the computer has recognized the new drive. Try rebooting the computer and check again for presence of the new drive. Next try reinstalling the device drivers
PRACTICLE 8 VARIOUS DISPLAY DEVICES

Introduction
With the advancement of technology in our era, we have been able to develop state of art inventions which allow the human eye to perceive through modern equipments what it can see in real life. One such technological advancement, are the various display devices found today. In the form of touch screens, LCD/LEDs and projectors etc, we are able to visualize with clarity.
Types of Display Devices

The various types of display devices that we see now are Liquid Crystal Display Plasma Display LEDs CRT monitor Projector Touchscreen
LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY (LCD)

LCD is a thin, flat electronic visual display that uses the light modulating properties of liquid crystals (LCs). LCDs do not emit light directly. They are used in a wide range of applications, including computer monitors, television, instrument panels, aircraft cockpit displays, signage, etc. They are common in consumer devices such as video players, gaming devices, clocks, watches, calculators, and telephones. LCDs have displaced cathode ray tube (CRT) displays in most applications. They are usually more compact, lightweight, portable, less expensive, more reliable, and easier on the eyes. They are available in a wider range of screen sizes than CRT and plasma displays, and since they do not use phosphors, they cannot suffer image burn-in. LCDs are more energy efficient and offer safer disposal than CRTs. Its low electrical power consumption enables it to be used in battery-powered electronic equipment. It is an electronically-modulated optical device made up of any number of pixels filled with liquid crystalsand arrayed in front of a light source (backlight) or reflector to produce images in colour or monochrome. The earliest discovery leading to the development of LCD technology, the discovery of liquid crystals, dates from 1888.[1] By 2008, worldwide sales of televisions with LCD screens had surpassed the sale of CRT units.
In the above given figure the parts are as follows: 1. Polarizing filter film with a vertical axis to polarize light as it enters. 2. Glass substrate with ITO electrodes. The shapes of these electrodes will determine the shapes that will appear when the LCD is turned ON. Vertical ridges etched on the surface are smooth. 3. Twisted nematic liquid crystal. 4. Glass substrate with common electrode film (ITO) with horizontal ridges to line up with the horizontal filter. 5. Polarizing filter film with a horizontal axis to block/pass light. 6. Reflective surface to send light back to viewer. (In a backlit LCD, this layer is replaced with a light source.)
PRINCIPLE OF WORKING OF LCD

Each pixel of an LCD typically consists of a layer of molecules aligned between two transparent electrodes, and two polarizing filters, the axes of transmission of which are (in most of the cases) perpendicular to each other. With no actual liquid crystal between the polarizing filters, light passing through the first filter would be blocked by the second (crossed) polarizer. In most of the cases the liquid crystal has double refraction. The surface of the electrodes that are in contact with the liquid crystal material are treated so as to align the liquid crystal molecules in a particular direction. This treatment typically consists of a thin polymer layer that is uni-directionally rubbed using, for example, a cloth. The direction of the liquid crystal alignment is then defined by the direction of rubbing. Electrodes are made of a transparent conductor called Indium Tin Oxide (ITO). Before applying an electric field, the orientation of the liquid crystal molecules is determined by the alignment at the surfaces of electrodes. In a twisted nematic device (still the most common liquid crystal device), the surface alignment directions at the two electrodes are perpendicular to each other, and so the molecules arrange themselves in a helical structure, or twist. This reduces the rotation of the polarization of the incident light, and the device appears grey. If the applied voltage is large enough, the liquid crystal molecules in the center of the layer are almost completely untwisted and the polarization of the incident light is not rotated as it passes through
the liquid crystal layer. This light will then be mainly polarized perpendicular to the second filter, and thus be blocked and the pixel will appear black. By controlling the voltage applied across the liquid crystal layer in each pixel, light can be allowed to pass through in varying amounts thus constituting different levels of gray. WORKING
There are various types of LCDs. They are : Twisted Nematic In-plane switching Multi-domain Vertical Display
PLASMA DISPLAY
A plasma display is a computer video display in which each pixel on the screen is illuminated by a tiny bit of plasma or charged gas, somewhat like a tiny neon light. Plasma displays are thinner than cathode ray tube ( CRT ) displays and brighter than liquid crystal displays ( LCD ). Plasma displays are sometimes marketed as "thin-panel" displays and can be used to display either analog video signals or display modes digital computer input. In addition to the advantage of slimness, a plasma display is flat rather than slightly curved as a CRT display is and therefore free of distortion on the edges of the screen. Unlike many LCD displays, a plasma display offers a very wide viewing angle. Plasma displays come in conventional PC displays sizes and also in sizes up to 60 inches for home theater and high definition television.
WORKING
All plasmas require a source of energy. As in uorescent lamps, the plasma in a PDP is produced by applying a voltage across a gap that contains gas. The plasmas used in PDPs are considered "cold" plasmas in the sense that the background gas stays relatively cold while the electrons (and ions) in the plasma are heated by the applied voltage. When the hot electrons collide with the background gas atoms and transfer energy to them, many of those atoms respond by emitting UV radiation. The operating conditions of the display (gas composition, pressure, voltage, geometry, etc.) represent a compromise, taking into account performance requirements such as low voltage operation, long life, high brightness and high contrast. The plasma display itself is a simple device consisting of two parallel glass plates separated by a precise spacing of some tenths of a millimeter and sealed around the edges. The space between the plates is lled with a mixture of rare gases at a pressure somewhat less than one atmosphere. Parallel stripes of transparent conducting material with a width of about a tenth of a millimeter are deposited on each plate, with the stripes on one plate perpendicular to those on the other. These stripes are the "electrodes" to which voltages are applied. The intersections of the rows of electrodes on one side and the columns of electrodes on the opposite glass plate dene the individual color elements or cells of a PDP. To isolate the individual cells barriers are created on the inside surface of one of the plates before sealing. Troughs honeycomb-like structures and other shapes have been used. The red, green and blue phosphors are deposited inside these structures.
CRT MONITOR
The CRT monitor creates a picture out of many rows or lines of tiny colored dots. The more lines of dots per inch, the higher and clearer the resolution. Higher resolutions are important for displaying the subtle detail of graphics. For text, resolution isn't as critical.
Working
Inside a CRT monitor is a picture tube that narrows at the rear into a bottleneck. In the bottleneck is a negative charged filament or cathode enclosed in a vacuum. When electricity is supplied, the filament heats up and a stream or "ray" of electrons pours off the element into the vacuum. The negatively charged electrons are attracted to positively charged anodes which focus the particles into three narrow beams, accelerating them to strike the phosphorcoated screen. Phosphor will glow when exposed to any kind of radiation, absorbing ultraviolet light and emitting visible light of fluorescent color. Phosphors that emit red, green and blue light are
used in a color monitor, arranged as "stripes" made up of dots of color. The three beams are used to excite the three colors in combinations needed to create the various hues that form the picture.
PROJECTOR
There are two major categories of Video Projectors: 1. TUBED or CRT (Cathode Ray Tube): Projectors are the original and, arguably, still offer the best picture. They use three lenses, each on a different axis, that focus separate red, green, and blue images onto a screen. Mechanism is similar to that of a TV. Commonly used in cinemas and at public displays.
Types of Video Projectors

Standard LCD - These LCD (liquid crystal display) projectors have one panel of LCD glass that controls the three primary colors. These projectors are becoming less common in the projector marketplace, as polysilicon LCD and DLP projectors gain popularity.
Polysilicon LCD - These projectors control colors through three panels and are considered to be of higher quality than standard LCD. The projection through three panels allows polysilicon LCD projectors to have higher color saturation than a standard LCD projector. DLP - DLP (digital light processing) projectors use a single chip with thousands of micro mirrors to modulate the lamp's light and project it through the lens. DLP systems are composed of over 400,000 tiny mirrors, which modulate light from a lamp and project the "modulated" signal out through the lens onto a screen (this type of technology is also referred to as Digital Mirror Device, or DMD). DLP projectors are one of the more common and newest types of projectors on the market.
LCD and DLP Projector Specifics Liquid Crystal Display

LCD projectors are the standard, with polysilicon being of a higher quality than the standard LCD active matrix display. They are normally small and light. They work on similar principles to the LCD computer screen you may be using to read this article.
Digital Light Processing:

These are the up-and-coming technology in the world of projectors. DLP and "Light Valves" are the newest forms of projector technology. DLP's are considered to have brighter images than LCD's, as well as superior video quality. Light Valves are very powerful and bright projectors, and tend to be found on the largest and most expensive models, such as those used in auditoriums and theaters. LCD vs DLP: Most multimedia projectors create their images by aiming bright light through small LCD panels containing a grid of thousands of "gates," each of which can be opened or closed to control the brightness and color of light at a given pixel on the screen. Since the panel grid blocks some of the light, this is an inherently inefficient process. However, Digital Light Processing (DLP) eliminated this inefficiency. Instead of LCD panels, DLP relies on small chips that contain arrays of tiny mirrors, which can be moved to control the brightness and color of light at a given pixel. This arrangement allows nearly all of the light output to make it to the screen
TOUCH SCREEN
A touch screen is an electronic visual display that can detect the presence and location of a touch within the display area. The term generally refers to touching the display of the device with a finger or hand. Touch screens can also sense other passive objects, such as a stylus. Touch screen is common in devices such as computers, tablet, and smart phones. The touch screen has two main attributes. First, it enables one to interact directly with what is displayed, rather than indirectly with a cursor controlled by a mouse or touchpad. Secondly, it lets one do so without requiring any intermediate device that would need to be held in the hand. Such displays can be attached to computers, or to networks as terminals. They also play a
prominent role in the design of digital appliances such as the personal assistant (PDA), satellite navigation devices, mobile phones, and video games
digital
Finger stress
An ergonomic problem of touch screens is their stress on human fingers when used for more than a few minutes at a time, since significant pressure can be required for certain types of touch screen. This can be alleviated for some users with the use of a pen or other device to add leverage and more accurate pointing. The introduction of such items can sometimes be problematic, depending on the desired use). Also, fine motor control is better achieved with a stylus, because a finger is a rather broad and ambiguous point of contact with the screen itself.
Fingernail as stylus
Pointed nail for easier typing. The concept of using a fingernail trimmed to form a point, to be specifically used as a stylus on a writing tablet for communication, appeared in the 1950 science fiction short story Scanners Live in Vain. These ergonomic issues of direct touch can be bypassed by using a different technique, provided that the user's fingernails are either short or sufficiently long Rather than pressing with the soft skin of an outstretched fingertip, the finger is curled over, so that the tip of a fingernail can be used instead. The thumb is optionally used to provide support for the finger or for a long fingernail, from underneath. This method does not work on capacitive touch screens. The fingernail's hard, curved surface contacts the touch screen at one very small point. Therefore, much less finger pressure is needed, much greater precision is possible (approaching that of a stylus, with a little experience), much less skin oil is smeared onto the screen, and the fingernail can be silently moved across the screen with very little resistance, allowing for selecting text, moving windows, or drawing lines. The human fingernail consists of keratin which has a hardness and smoothness similar to the tip of a stylus (and so will not typically scratch a touch screen). Alternately, very short stylus tips
are available, which slip right onto the end of a finger; this increases visibility of the contact point with the screen.
Fingerprints
Touch screens can suffer from the problem of fingerprints on the display. This can be mitigated by the use of materials with optical coatings designed to reduce the visible effects of fingerprint oils, such as the oleo phobic coating used in the iPhone 3G S, or by reducing skin contact by using a fingernail or stylus.
Combined with haptics

The user experience with touch screens without tactile feedback or haptics can be difficult due to latency or other factors. Research from the University of Glasgow Scotland [Brewster, Chohan, and Brown 2007] demonstrates that sample users reduce input errors (20%), increase input speed (20%), and lower their cognitive load (40%) when touch screens are combined with haptics or tactile feedback, [vs. non-haptic touch screens].
Gorilla arm
The Jargon File dictionary of hacker slang defined "gorilla arm" as the failure to understand the ergonomics of vertically mounted touch screens for prolonged use. The proposition is that the human arm held in an unsupported horizontal position rapidly becomes fatigued and painful, the so-called "gorilla arm". It is often cited as a prima facie example of what not to do in ergonomics. Vertical touch screens still dominate in applications such as ATMs and data kiosks in which the usage is too brief to be an ergonomic problem. Discomfort might be caused by previous poor posture and atrophied muscular systems caused by limited physical exercise Fine art painters are also often subject to neck and shoulder pains due to their posture and the repetitiveness of their movements while painting
COMPARITIVE STUDY OF DIFFERENT DISPLAY DEVICES DEVICE Liquid Crystal Display ADVANTAGES
1.Uses Less Power. LCDs also produce less heat, which means less load on air conditioning. 2.Takes up less space. LCD monitors are small, thin, and weigh less. 3. Highly adjustable. Many LCD models can be rotated 90 degrees, allowing you to view websites in portrait mode. 4. 4.LCDs can also be mounted on the wall or on an arm. 5. No flicker. LCDs don't have lines that need to be scanned
DISADVANTAGES
1. More expensive than CRTs. 2. Dead pixels. When the electrical current to one or more pixels does not operate properly, one or more cells are permanently aligned, resulting in a dead pixel. 3. Screen care and fragility. LCD monitors may be slim and sexy, but they're also more prone to damage and screen breakage. 4. Native resolution. LCD monitors can only display information well at the
like in CRTs. No flicker = a lot less eye strain. Less glare. Due to the material of the LCD screen, less light is reflected at the user. Same with "no flicker", this re sults in less eye strain. Brightness. LCD monitors are brighter than the traditional CRTs. Less distortion. Using a direct digital input from the graphics card produces cleaner 'output'. The monitor's perfect geometry means images aren't distorted, which is a boon for graphic designers and the like
resolution they were designed for. At any other resolution, image quality will suffer. 5. Pixel response time. In videos and fast-paced video games, LCDs suffer from the ghosting effect.
Plasma
Plasma display is used in retail environment to promote instore sales of their products. To display enlarged images, multiple units are arranged in groups of four, six, or nine units. Creating a dramatic effect with multiple units is successful when displaying music videos, usually in shopping malls. Plasma signage is also known to larger viewers, usually representing multiple advertisers, when placed in venues such as airports, stadiums, trade shows, and theme parks. Plasma display is also used in professional settings such as banks, universities, hospitals, and offices where the messages are provided directly to the particular needs of the clientele.
Potential Burn-In: Because of the phosphor technology in Plasma TVs (see How Plasma TVs Work), it is possible for traces of an image to be 'burned-in' to the display. This is generally only a concern in commercial uses, where images are displayed for longperiods of time. Lower Brightness: Although still considerably brighter than rear-projection TVs, direct view and LCD TVs often are able to provide a brighter picture Not the Lightest or Slimmest: Although Plasma TVs are MUCH lighter and thinner compared to direct view and rear projection TVs, a lighter, slimmer technology does exist: LCD TVs. LCD TVs use the same technology as used in most laptop
computers. Shorter Life Fragility: Plasma TVs are a very fragile technology, and the units are quite easy to damage
Cathode Ray Tube
1.Cost: One of the main advantages CRT monitors hold over their competition is price. CRT monitors are typically much more affordable than LCD monitors with comparable components. 2.Viewing Angles: You may notice with certain monitor and television types that the picture quality changes drastically depending on your angle to the picture. 3.Quality: CRT monitors, offer all of these colors easily. Overall Image Quality: Aside from the actual colors themselves, CRT monitors also have other qualities that give them a good image quality.
Space: CRT monitor is big and it occupies a lot of space. Greater power consumption: It uses more electrical power. Cost of repair: Cost of repair is very high since the equipment is complex.
Touch Screen
1. A touch screen is very intuitive 2. Easy to use ( as the user simply touches what he or she sees on the display. 3. Save space as no keyboard or mouse is required. 4. Touch monitors can even be mounted on the wall. 5. Touching a visual display of choices requires little thinking and is a form of direct
1. Some disadvantages are that the user must be within arms reach of the display, it would be difficult to select small items, 2. it could have a possible retrofit problem (the touch screen must be fitted on the screen), and there could be possible arm fatigue. 3. It can cause you to feel a little electric shocks if you
manipulation that is easy to learn. 6. Touch screens are the fastest pointing devices. 7. Touch screens have easier hand eye coordination than mice or keyboards. 8. No extra work space is required as with other pointing devices. 9. Touch screens are durable in public access and in high volume usage.
touch the screen with your wet fingers. 4. User's hand may obscure the screen. 5. Screens need to be installed at a lower position and tilted to reduce arm fatigue. 6. Some reduction in image brightness may occur. 7. They cost more than alternative devices
Projector
Best image, provide big Very expensive, need to be pictures close to the screen installed by experts, (i.e.: 60 inch picture at 2.5m) experience is required to use and align the lenses, not easy to move because they are usually fixed assets (mounted to the ceiling or floor).
PRACTICAL - 9 TYPES OF KEYBOARDS AND MOUSE

INTRODUCTION OF KEYBOARD:
The keyboard is an important peripheral that is used as an input device of a computer and many other devices. Keyboards are available for desktop computers, laptop computers, PDA and smart phones. Usually, there are around 110 keys on a computer keyboard. The keyboard is used to enter letters, numbers and other special function keys, which are used for some special functions. The different types of keyboards available, depending on the layout of the keyboard is, QWERTY and AZERTY. The QWERTY keyboards are most commonly used nowadays and have the six alphabets (Q, W, E, R, T, and Y) in the first row of the keyboard. The AZERTY keyboards are used primarily, in the French countries. The types of keyboards vary according to their connection with the CPU, the application, the layout of the keys and some special function keyboards. Older standard keyboards come with alphabet and numeric keys. In addition standard keyboards include Escape (Esc), Print Screen, Scroll-Lock, Pause-Break, Arrow and other functional keys. Functional keys allow you to tab, type in all caps, insert, delete and perform countless other functions. Newer standard keyboards also come with Internet short cut keys. These keys allow you to check your email with the click of a button, store your favorite web sites and power on and off the Internet. Standard keyboards are also ready for use with a USB port. You can also choose between varieties of colors when selecting a standard keyboard.
TYPES OF KEYBOARD: 1. Wireless Keyboards:

As our technology demands that all our appliances go wire-free, so has the traditional computer keyboard. Today there is sophisticated technology built in so that we can be typing 15ft away from our computer and moving at the same time. A wireless keyboard is exactly the same as a normal computer keyboard except for one major difference: Wireless
keyboards transfer typing data to the computer via infrared beams. A beam of information is sent from the keyboard, as you type, to a receiver, which is plugged into the computer. This allows for a cordless experience, which eliminates the potential for another tangled cord behind your computer The wireless keyboards use three basic types of connections, viz.

Bluetooth Keyboards
Infrared (IR) Keyboards Radio Frequency Keyboards
2. Wired Keyboard:
Wired keyboard is a very old classification of keyboard; some people still prefer wired keyboards. They dont need to be charged up, and thus wont die unexpectedly. Also, if you use a desktop computer, there are rarely times when you need to walk 30 feet away from it and still use your keyboard. Keyboards used to use AT connectors. They are a round plug with prongs at the bottom. Some desktops still require this connection, some have one included in case you have an older keyboard, and other brand new desktops may not have one at all. ATX keyboards use PS/2 connectors. The PS/2 and USB are the two wired connections that connect the keyboards to your desktop computers. The PS/2 keyboards are very commonly used and they are called so because they use the PS/2 connection. They are one of the cheapest keyboards that are available in the market. The USB keyboards use a USB (Universal Serial Bus) to connect to the CPU. The PS/2 and USB keyboards are usually plug and play. To the average person, the plug looks almost exactly the same as an AT connector. However, this connector is much more commonly used. The most common connection for wired keyboards now is USB. The cord plugs into any standard USB port on any computer.
3. Ergonomic Keyboard:
Ergonomic keyboards can be simple or as complicated. The primary purpose of ergonomic keyboards is to keep your hands and wrists in a natural, comfortable position to help prevent carpal tunnel syndrome and aid in preventing problems due to poor posture which causes numbness and tingling sensation in hands and fingers after typing for a long duration. These keyboards also help the keyboard user maintain a comfortable position. Most ergonomic keyboards have a split center that separates the keys and are indented slightly where the letter keys are. Typically such keyboards are constructed in a V shape, to allow right and left hands to type at a slight angle more natural to the human form.
4. Roll up Keyboard:
Some keyboards are designed out of flexible materials that can roll up in a moderately tight bundle. Normally the external materials are either silicone or polyurethane. It is important to note that although many manufacturers claim that the keyboards are foldable, they cannot be folded without damaging the membrane that holds the circuitry. Typically they are completely sealed in rubber, making them watertight like membrane keyboards. Like membrane keyboards, they are reported to be very hard to get used to, as there is little tactile feedback. As of 2005, roll-up keyboards include:

the CoolMac keyboard , the Eumax keyboard, the VIK ("virtually indestructible keyboard") , the Flexboard keyboard , the CoolMIR keyboard , and the Whitelite FX100 Keyboard .
5. Capacitive Keyboard:
In this type of keyboard, pressing the key changes the capacitance of a pattern of capacitor pads. Unlike "dome switch" keyboards, the pattern consists of two D-shaped capacitor pads for each switch, printed on a printed circuit board (PC board) and covered by a thin, insulating film of soldermask which plays the role of a dielectric. The mechanism of capacitive switches is very simple,
compared to mechanical ones. Its movable part is ended with a flat foam element (of dimensions near to a tablet of Aspirin) finished with aluminium foil below. The opposite side of the switch is a PC board with the capacitor pads. When a key is pressed, the foil tightly clings to the surface of the PC board, forming a daisy chain of two capacitors between contact pads and itself separated with thin soldermask, and thus "shorting" the contact pads with an easily detectable drop of capacitive reactance between them. Usually this permits a pulse or pulse train to be sensed. The keys do not need to be fully pressed to be fired on, which enables some typists to work faster. As of 2008 they are a rare find in generic PC keyboards. Vintage PC s may in some cases be equipped with this type of keyboard, because the original IBM keyboards for the Personal Computer, Personal Computer XT, and Personal Computer AT were Model F keyboards, which used the buckling spring mechanism to actuate a capacitative switch, unlike the 101-key Enhanced Keyboard, also known as the Model M, which also had the buckling spring mechanism, but a membrane contact switch. At the present time, the best-known keyboard for use with desktop personal computers that uses a capacitative switch is that made by Topre, either under its own name, or for Fujitsu, which sells a keyboard custom-manufactured for it to its specifications as the Happy Hacking Keyboard. The Topre mechanism uses a spring underneath a rubber dome, and the depression of the spring causes a change in capacitance between the underlying capacitor pads.
6. Membrane Keyboard:
There are two types of membrane-based keyboards, flat-panel membrane keyboards and full-travel membrane keyboards: Flat-panel membrane keyboards are most often found on appliances like microwave ovens or photocopiers. A common design consists of three layers. The top layer (and the one the user touches) has the labels printed on its front and conductive stripes printed on the
back. Under this it has a spacer layer, which holds the front and back layer apart so that they do not normally make electrical contact. The back layer has conductive stripes printed perpendicularly to those of the front layer. When placed together, the stripes form a grid. When the user pushes down at a particular position, their finger pushes the front layer down through the spacer layer to close a circuit at one of the intersections of the grid. This indicates to the computer or keyboard control processor that a particular button has been pressed. Generally, flat-panel membrane keyboards do not have much of a "feel", so many machines which use them issue a beep or flash a light when the key is pressed. They are often used in harsh environments where water or leak proofing is desirable. Although used in the early days of the personal computer (on the Sinclair ZX80, ZX81 and Atari 400), they have been supplanted by the more tactile dome and mechanical switch keyboards. However, membrane keyboards with interchangeable key layouts, such as the IntelliKeys and Discover:board are still commonly used by people with physical, visual, orcognitive disabilities as well as people who require assistive technology to access a computer.
7. Laser Keyboard:
A laser projection device approximately the size of a computer mouse projects the outline of keyboard keys onto a flat surface, such as a table or desk. This type of keyboard is portable enough to be easily used with PDAs and cellphones, and many models have retractable cords and wireless capabilities. However, sudden or accidental disruption of the laser will register unwanted keystrokes. Also, if the laser malfunctions, the whole unit becomes useless, unlike conventional keyboards which can be used even if a variety of parts (such as the keycaps) are removed. This type of keyboard can be frustrating to use since it is susceptible to errors, even in the course of normal typing, and its complete lack of tactile feedback makes it even less user-friendly than the cheapest membrane keyboards.
INTRODUCTION TO MOUSE:
A mouse is a hardware device which allows the user to control a cursor to manipulate data without complicated commands. The mouse or mice was invented by Douglas Englebart in 1963, who at the time was working at the Stanford Research Institute, which was a think tank sponsored by Stanford University. The Mouse was originally referred to as an X-Y Position Indicator for a Display System. Xerox later applied the mouse to its revolutionary Alto computer system in 1973. However, because of Alto's unfortunate success, it was first widely used in the Apple Lisa computer. Today, the mouse is now found on every Apple and PC computer and used with various different GUIS. A computer mouse is a human interface device that operates by detecting two dimensional movements relative to its supporting surface. It comprises an object held under the users hand with multiple buttons. The computer mouse features other elements also e.g. wheels which enables the user to perform various system dependent operations. The motion of the computer mouse is converted into motion of a cursor on display.
TYPES MOUSE:
OF
Mechani cal mouse:

The mechanical mouse comprises a single ball that could rotate in any direction. The ball mouse has two freely rotating rollers. They are located 90 degrees apart. One roller senses the forward backward motion of the mouse and other the leftright motion. Opposite the two rollers is a third one (white, in the photo, at 45 degrees) that is spring-loaded to push the ball against
the other two rollers. Each roller is on the same shaft as an encoder wheel that has slotted edges; the slots interrupt infrared light beams to generate electrical pulses that represent wheel movement. Each wheels disc, however, has a pair of light beams, located so that a given beam becomes interrupted, or again starts to pass light freely, when the other beam of the pair is about halfway between changes. Simple logic circuits interpret the relative timing to indicate which direction the wheel is rotating. (This scheme is sometimes called quadrature encoding or some similar term by technical people.) The mouse sends these signals to the computer system via a data-formatting IC and the mouse cable. The driver software in the system converts the signals into motion of the mouse cursor along X and Y axes on the screen. The ball is mostly steel, with a precision spherical rubber surface. The weight of the ball, given an appropriate working surface under the mouse, provides a reliable grip so the mouses movement is transmitted accurately. Another type of mechanical mouse, the analog mouse (now generally regarded as obsolete), uses potentiometers rather than encoder wheels, and is typically designed to be plug-compatible with an analog joystick. The mechanical mouse develops problems when the wheels get entangled with the basic dust particles on the pavement, which in turn hinder the operation of the device. The user must clean the mouse with cleaning products when such issues arise. The same problem will persist if the mouse pad and surrounding areas are not protected from dust and dirt.
Optical mouse:
An optical mouse uses a light-emitting diode and photodiodes to detect movement relative to the underlying surface, unlike wheeled mice which use a set of one rolling ball and two chopper wheels for motion detection. Modern surface-independent optical mice work by using an optoelectronic sensor (essentially, a tiny low-resolution video camera) to take successive images of the surface on which the mouse operates. As computing power grew cheaper, it became possible to embed more powerful special-purpose image-processing chips in the mouse itself. This advance enabled the mouse to detect relative motion on a wide variety of surfaces, translating the movement of the mouse into the movement of the cursor and eliminating the need for a special mouse-pad. The technology underlying the modern optical computer mouse is known as digital image correlation, a technology pioneered by the defense industry for tracking military targets. Optical mice use image sensors to image naturally occurring texture in materials
such as wood, cloth, mouse pads and Formica. These surfaces, when lit at a grazing angle by a light emitting diode, cast distinct shadows that resemble a hilly terrain lit at sunset. Images of these surfaces are captured in continuous succession and compared with each other to determine how far the mouse has moved. Optical mice capture one thousand successive images or more per second. Depending on how fast the mouse is moving, each image will be offset from the previous one by a fraction of a pixel or as many as several pixels. Optical mice mathematically process these images using cross correlation to calculate how much each successive image is offset from the previous one. An optical mouse might use an image sensor having an 18 x 18 pixel array of monochromatic pixels. Its sensor would normally share the same ASIC as that used for storing and processing the images. One refinement would be accelerating the correlation process by using information from previous motions, and another refinement would be preventing dead bands when moving slowly by adding interpolation or frame-skipping. There is no mechanical part in this type of mouse and thus the issue of interference by dust, etc. does not arise. A very user friendly computer accessory, the optical mouse is easy to clean and maintain. It is considered a model specific and very sensitive as the mechanical mouse. But with a shiny polished surface or pad, such mice can develop problems and start giving the wrong signals. The reason is that sensors do not work as it merges with the reflections made by the pad. Care must be taken to use an antiglare or friendly mouse pad while using the optical mouse.
Laser mouse:
The laser mouse uses an infrared laser diode instead of a LED to illuminate the surface beneath their sensor. As early as 1998, Sun Microsystems provided a laser mouse with their Sun SPARCstation servers and workstations. However, laser mice did not enter the mainstream market until 2004, when Logitech, in partnership with Agilent Technologies, introduced its MX 1000 laser mouse. This mouse uses a small infrared laser instead of an LED and has significantly increased the resolution of the image taken by the mouse. The laser enables around 20 times more surface tracking power to the surface features used for navigation compared to conventional optical mice, via interference effects. Glass laser (or glaser) mice have the same capability of a laser mouse but can also is used on top of mirror or transparent glass with few problems. In August 2009, Logitech introduced mice with two lasers, to track on glass and glossy surfaces better; they dubbed them "dark field" mice. It is very sensitive, accurate and efficient device. Used by those who are using computers for highly skilled jobs and the most sensitive laser mouse is very efficient and friendly. Computer users increasingly prefer them despite the cost factor. However, there is an energy efficient device, which consumes less electricity than other types of mice. Laser mice are becoming increasingly common because they are perceived to have better tracking ability. In addition, they are not as subject to gumming up and subsequent distortion of the signal
as conventional ball mice. The lack of moving parts also makes them far less subject to damage.
Gyroscopic mouse:
With Gyration's intelligent Air Mouse featuring Smart Motion, the world just got a little bit easier to navigate. No strings, no wires, no tricks, no gimmicks - just better technology allowing a more comfortable, portable mouse to operate in the air or on the desk. We can take control of our applications with a flick of the wrist. Experience the patented Motion Sense technology inside the Air Mouse that delivers precise in-air cursor control and convenience. Ideal for any desktop or notebook computer user, the Air Mouse features a sleek, stylish design that is comfortable to use yet compact and portable enough to be easily used at home, at the office, or on the road. The RF USB receiver fits neatly in the Air Mouse and stow nicely in the included protective case for increased convenience when traveling. Use natural and comfortable wrist movements to take inair control of your computer. Trigger activated Motion Sense technology translates your hand movements into on screen cursor motion for in-air operation. On the desk, the Air Mouse uses the latest in laser sensor technology giving you precise, smooth, and flawless cursor track. Unleash yourself from strain-inducing surfaces. Interference free 2.4 GHz RF allows you to take mouse control from up to 100 feet (30m) away with no line of sight restrictions. No need to worry about obstacles or obstructions, the Air Mouse truly works on the desk, in the air, anywhere you chose to roam for the ultimate freedom of movement. Take total control of your applications and initiate commands away from your computer with the flick of your wrist. A quick hand motion can control volume or skip music tracks with multimedia players or highlight important presentation points with the wave of your hand. With the three assignable Air Mouse buttons and included Gyration software, application controls, features, and configurable functions are at your finger tips.
3-D MOUSE:
3-D mouse are also known as bats,] flying mice, or wands, these devices generally function through ultrasound and provide at least three degrees of freedom. Probably the best known example would be 3DConnexion/Logitech's Space Mouse from the early 1990s. In the late 1990s Kantek introduced the 3D Ring Mouse. This wireless mouse was worn on a ring around a finger, which
enabled the thumb to access three buttons. The mouse was tracked in three dimensions by a base station. Despite a certain appeal, it was finally discontinued because it did not provide sufficient resolution. A recent consumer 3D pointing device is the Wi-Fi Remote. While primarily a motion-sensing device (that is, it can determine its orientation and direction of movement), Wi-Fi Remote can also detect its spatial position by comparing the distance and position of the lights from the IR emitter using its integrated IR camera (since the nunchuk accessory lacks a camera, it can only tell its current heading and orientation). The obvious drawback to this approach is that it can only produce spatial coordinates while its camera sees it
A mouse-related controller called the Space Ball has a ball placed above the work surface that can easily be gripped. With spring-loaded centering, it sends both translational as well as angular displacements on all six axes, in both directions for each.3-d Revolutionizes the way we work with the computer. A person can Pan, zoom and rotate the model or camera as if he is holding it in his hand. Its a level of control thats simply not possible with a traditional mouse and keyboard. Whether youre working on complex assemblies, dazzling 3D models or fantastic fly through, with a 3D mouse you can set your imagination free! At the heart of every 3Dconnexion 3D mouse is the Controller Cap. Gently push, pull, twist or tilt to simultaneously pan, zoom and rotate. Increase pressure to go faster or decrease pressure to make intricate adjustments. 3D Mouse Benefits: Increase Productivity: Average gains of 21% from simultaneously navigating, creating and editing your model. Enhanced Comfort: Reduce mouse movement and clicks by up to 50%.
Design Performance: Whether youre working on a sketch or a complex 3D model, the superior navigation experience encourages levels of model exploration that are crucial to avoiding costly design errors. Tactile mouse: Now a system has been developed to make it easier for blind people to navigate the internet, use word-processing software and even trace the shapes of graphs and charts. Its inventors hope it will enable more blind people to work in offices. In 2000, Logitech introduced the "tactile mouse", which contained a small actuator that made the mouse vibrate. Such a mouse can augment user-interfaces with haptic feedback, such as giving feedback when crossing a window boundary. The system developed by staff at Tactile World, an Israeli company, uses a device that looks similar to a conventional computer mouse. On its top, however, it has two pads, each with 16 pins arranged in a four-byfour array. Software supplied with the mouse translates text displayed on the screen into Braille. In traditional Braille, numbers and letters are represented by raised bumps in the paper of the page being read. The pins on the mouse take the role of these bumps. As the cursor controlled by the mouse is moved across the screen, the pins rise and fall to represent the text across which they are moving. One pad represents the character under the cursor, the other gives the reader information about what is coming next, such as whether it is a letter or the end of the word. This advance information makes interpretation easier. As the user reads the text, the system also announces the presence of links to other websites. And the user can opt, if he wishes, to have the computer read the whole text out loud. The mouses software has an anchor feature, to hold onto the line of text that is being read. Alternatively, a user can click a button on the mouse and the text will scroll along and run under his fingers without him having to move the device.
PRACTICAL - 10 HOW TO ASSEMBLE A PC

Things to get in place before starting:

Anti-static wrist strap Set of screwdrivers and pliers Piece of cloth CPU Thermal compound (recommended) PC components Tip: CPU Thermal compound is not a necessity but it is recommended to keep your CPU cool under load conditions by helping heat dissipate faster. It is a must if you intend to overclock your PC. Note: You can find the meaning of an abbreviation at the end of this article under the heading Jargon Buster. Optional, but useful tools
Some other tools and equipment can come in handy as well, such as:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Spring action parts grabber. Electrical tape Wire or nylon ties Flashlight, preferably hands-free A second, working computer to swap parts, look for tips, ask for help on-line, download drivers and patches, etc. - very useful 6. A can of compressed air - useful when working with older parts that have collected dust. A better alternative but also more costly, is a vacuum cleaner designed for cleaning electronics.
Step 1: Installing the motherboard

Make sure you have all the components in place and a nice, clean and big enough place to work with. Put your antic-static wrist strap on to prevent your components from getting affected. Make sure your hands are clean before starting. First we will be installing the motherboard which is a piece of cake to install.

Open the side doors of the cabinet Lay the cabinet on its side Put the motherboard in place Drive in all the required screws
Tip: Most motherboards come with an antistatic bag. It is advisable to put the motherboard on it for some time and then remove it from the antistatic bag before placing it in the cabinet. The first thing you should do is unpack your ATX case. Take off the cover of your case so that you can access the inside. Place the case on a desk so that you are looking down towards the open case. Your case should come with motherboard mounting screws. If your ATX back plate it not already fitted you can fit it by placing your plate near the ATX back plate cut out and pushing the plate outwards, it should clip on. Now place your motherboard on top of the mounting screw holes. Make sure your ATX devices on the motherboard such as PS/2 and parallel port are facing towards ATX back plate cut out. Gently push your motherboard towards the cut out, every devices should fit easily into its corresponding cut out, as shown below.
The screw holes on your motherboard should align with the screw holes on your case. Place your screws that came with the case into the appropriate holes and gently screw it on using a screw driver. The motherboard is now securely mounted to the case. You can now place the ATX power connector to the motherboard. Your ATX case should come with a power supply unit (PSU) and should already be mounted to the case. The ATX power connector is shown on image below.
Place the ATX power connector on top of the power socket on the motherboard. Push down the power connector and it should clip onto the socket. If you try to fit the power connector the wrong way round, it won't fit, it will only fit one way. So, if the power connector does not go in, it should go in the other way round.
Step 2: Installing the CPU

CPU is the heart of a computer so make sure you handle it properly and do not drop it or mishandle it. Also try not to touch the pins frequently so that they do not get dirty. Get hold of your motherboard and CPU manual. You need to place the CPU on the dotted white patch of the motherboard in a particular fashion for it to fit properly. There is a golden mark on the CPU to help
you assist. Consult both your motherboard and CPU manual to see which position it fits exactly or you could also use try all the 4 positions.

Lift the CPU lever on the motherboard Place the CPU properly on the motherboard Pull down the lever to secure the CPU in place Warning: Do not try to push the CPU into the motherboard! Got the thermal compound? Now is the time to use it. Take small amount of it and carefully apply it on the top surface of the processor. Be careful not to put it on the neighboring parts of the motherboard. If you do so clean it immediately using the cloth. Tip: Thermal compounds should be changed once every six months for optimal performance. Locate the processor socket on your motherboard. I am installing an Intel PIII 866 processor on a socket 370 as shown on the following image. The installation would be slightly different if you have a different processor i.e. Slot1 PIII CPU, P4 Socket 478, Core 2 Duo Socket 775, AMD Slot A / Socket A, Socket AM2 CPU etc. Raise the brown lever on the socket and slowly put the processor in place. You have to make sure the pin 1 of your CPU goes into the pin 1 of your CPU socket otherwise the CPU would not get into the socket, so don't try to force it in. It will go in gently if you fit it correctly. Now close the brown lever which will securely hold the CPU in place.
If you bought a retail boxed CPU it would include a heat sink + fan. If you bought an OEM CPU make sure you got a fan that is correct for the speed of your CPU, otherwise your CPU will overheat and behave abnormally or could be damaged. Take off the plastic cover from the bottom of the CPU fan that covers the heat transfer pad. Now place the CPU fan on top the CPU and push down the metal clips on the fan so that it clips onto the CPU socket.
Step 3: Installing the heat sink

After installing the processor we proceed to installing the heat sink. There are different kinds of heat sinks that are bundled with the processor and each has a different way of installation. Look into your CPU manual for instructions on how to install it properly.

Place the heat sink on the processor Put the jacks in place Secure the heat sink with the lever After this you will need to connect the cable of the heat sink on the motherboard. Again look into the motherboard manual on where to connect it and then connect it to the right port to get your heat sink in operational mode.
Step 4: Installing the RAM

Installing the RAM is also an easy job. The newer RAMs ie. DDR RAMs are easy to install as you dont have to worry about placing which side where into the slot. The older ones, SDRAMs are plagued by this problem. If you want to use dual channel configuration then consult your manual on which slots to use to achieve that result.

Push down the RAM into the slot Make sure the both the clips hold the RAM properly
Installing memory is quite simple. Find the SDRAM banks on your motherboard, they should look similar to the banks below. Notice the memory banks has a white clip on each side. Make sure you release the clips so it bends to each side.
Hold each corner of the SDRAM placing it on top of the bank 1. You will notice that the SDRAM has a cut at the bottom side, it is there to prevent the memoy going in the wrong way round. If you are holding the SDRAM the incorrect way you will not be able insert it. Gently push down the SDRAM and it should clip on to the memory bank. The two white clips will now become straight holding each corner of the memory. If you have more that one SDRAM perform same steps as above but placing the SDRAM in memory bank 2 and so on.
Step 5: Installing the power supply

We will now install the power supply as the components we install after this will require power cables to be connected to them. There is not much to be done to install a PSU.

Place the PSU into the cabinet Put the screws in place tightly Tip: Some PSU have extra accessories that come bundled with it. Consult your PSU manual to see how to install them.
Step 6: Installing the video card

First you will need to find out whether your video card is AGP or PCI-E. AGP graphics cards have become redundant and are being phased out of the market quickly. So if you bought a spanking new card it will certainly be a PCI-E.

Remove the back plate on the cabinet corresponding to the graphics card Push the card into the slot Secure the card with a screw Plug in the power connection from PSU (if required)
High-end graphics cards need dedicated power supply and if your graphics card needs one then connect the appropriate wire from PSU into the graphics card.
Step 7: Installing the hard disk

Hard disk is another fragile component of the computer and needs to handled carefully.

Place the hard drive into the bay Secure the drive with screws Connect the power cable from PSU Connect the data cable from motherboard into the drive If your hard drive is a SATA one then connect one end of SATA cable into the motherboard and other into the SATA port on the hard disk. If your hard disk is PATA type then use the IDE cable instead of the SATA cable. Tip: If your PSU does not support SATA power supply then you will need to get an converter which will convert your standard IDE power connector to a SATA power connector. If you look at the rear side of a SATA hard drive it should look similar to the image below. The SATA cable connector is on the left hand side which consists of few pins. Next to the SATA connector on the right side is SATA power connector which consist of many pins. You will notice that SATA hard drives do not have any jumper
settings for slave or master as each drive will connect to a dedicated SATA port on the motherboard. Place your hard drive into the HDD mounting slot of your case, make sure the SATA connector is facing outwards. Screw the HDD to the case using screws provided with the HDD or the ATX case. Now have a look at the SATA data cable as show on the image below. You need to connect one end of the SATA data cable to the SATA connector of the hard drive. Look at the top of the cable to see which way it should go in. It would only fit one way so you can not fit it the wrong way round. Gently push the cable into place. The image below is a SATA power connector. This needs to be connected to the power socket of the SATA hard drive. Gently push it into place. It will only fit one way so there is no danger of fitting it wrong way round. If you have an old ATX power supply you will not have a SATA power connector as they only have 12V molex connector. In this case, if you do not want to replace your power supply unit then you can get a 'Molex to SATA' power cable converter . Finally you need to fit the other end of the SATA data cable to a SATA socket / port on the motherboard. Again it will only fit one way and gently fit into position. It does not matter which socket you plug it into as it will work on any SATA socket. But it is better to plug it into SATA socket 1 if you only have one hard drive. If you add another SATA device you can connect it to SATA socket 2 and so on.
Step 8: Installing optical drive

The installation an optical drive is exactly similar to an hard drive.

Place the optical drive into the bay Drive in the screws Connect the power cable and data cable Tip: When installing multiple optical drives take care of jumper settings. Make sure you make one as primary and other slave by using the jumper. This is not applicable if the drives are SATA drives.
Step 9: Connecting various cables

First we will finish setting up internal components and then get on to the external ones. You will need to consult your motherboard manual for finding the appropriate port for connecting various cables at the right places on the motherboard.

Connect the large ATX power connector to the power supply port on your motherboard Next get hold of the smaller square power connector which supplies power to the processor and connect it to the appropriate port by taking help from your motherboard manual Connect the cabinet cables for power,reset button in the appropriate port of the motherboard Connect the front USB/audio panel cable in the motherboard Plug the cable of cabinet fans
You are done with installing the internal components of the PC. Close the side doors of the cabinet and get it upright and place it on your computer table. Get the rest of the PC components like monitor, keyboard, mouse, speakers etc. which we will connect now.

Connect the VGA cable of the monitor into the VGA port If mouse/keyboard are PS/2 then connect them to PS/2 ports or else use the USB port Connect the speaker cable in the audio port Plug in the power cable from PSU into the UPS Also plug in the power cable of the monitor
You are now done with setting up your PC. Power on and see your rig boot to glory.
Step 10: Installing the OS and drivers

We are done with the hardware part. Now get your favorite OS disks ready and the CD that came with your motherboard.

Set the first boot device to CD/DVD drive in BIOS Pop in the OS disk Reboot the PC Install the OS Install drivers from motherboard CD (applicable only to Windows OS)
Safety precautions:
1. Static electricity is the biggest danger to the expensive parts you are about to assemble, even a tiny shock, much too small for you to feel, can damage or ruin the delicate electronic traces, many times smaller than a human hair, that make up your CPU, RAM and other chips. Its important to use your anti-static wrist strap to prevent damage to these components. Once you have the power supply installed in the case, clip the end of the wrist strap to the outside of the power supply. (Never plug your computer in while you are connected to it by a wrist strap.) This will ensure that you, the case and the power supply are all connected to a common ground, in other words there will be no inequality of charge that will allow a spark to jump from you to the case. Its also helpful to have an anti-static mat to set the case and other components on. 2. Nobody but you is at fault if you shock your components with static electricity. Make sure that you take the precautions in the previous paragraph to ground yourself from static electricity. (Note: if you really must work on a computer and have not got proper anti-static equipment, it is usually OK if you make sure that you do not move about much; are not wearing any staticprone clothing; handle components by the edges; and regularly (once a minute or so), touch a grounded object.). The case metal of your PC's power supply will usually be a suitable grounded object. As noted above, touch it every few minutes while you are working on your PC if you havent got a wrist strap. 3. Turn off your computer and switch off your Power Supply at the wall before installing or removing any components - if power is flowing to components as they are installed or removed, they can be seriously damaged. In order to have a computer properly grounded, you need it plugged in at the wall but turned off at the power supply and at the wall. 4. Never cut the grounding pin off your power cord. This "safety ground" stands between you and potentially lethal voltages inside the power supply. 5. Be wary of sharp edges! Many lower-end PC cases have sharp, unfinished edges. This is especially so on interior surfaces, and where the case has been cut or punched-out. Use care and take your time to avoid cutting your hands.If your case has this problem, a little time with some sandpaper before you begin construction can spare you a lot of pain. 6. Dismantling discrete electronic components such as Power Supply or Monitor is dangerous. They contain high voltage capacitors, which can cause a severe electric shock if you touch .

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COMPUTER ORGANISATION AND ARCHITECTURE LAB

SUBMITTED BY: Himanshu Adlakha 09-IT-25

SUBMITTED TO: MR. DEVENDER

Himanshu Adlakha 09-IT-025

PRACTICLE-1 VOLTAGES SUPPLIED TO COMPUTER COMPONENTS

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Various components and supplies

Standard Output Voltages

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must for while

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Various connectors from a computer PSU.

Typically, power supplies have the following connectors:

Power supply applications:

Himanshu Adlakha 09-IT-025

The Power supply connectors

4 Pin Berg Connector

20 Pin Molex ATX Power Connector

4 Pin Molex P4 12V Power Connector

Himanshu Adlakha 09-IT-025 6 Pin AUX Connector

Provides +5V DC, available in: ATX/ATX-

ATX Power Supply Pinouts

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SIDE VIEW OF MOTHERBOARD

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Himanshu Adlakha 09-IT-025

Himanshu Adlakha 09-IT-025

Himanshu Adlakha 09-IT-025

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PRACTICLE 3 STUDY OF VARIOUS CONNECTORS

Network Cabling and its Uses

Telephone and modem lines

Himanshu Adlakha 09-IT-025

Older terminal systems, e.g.IBM 3270

10BASE-T and 100BASE-T4Ethernet

16 Mbit/s Token Ring

100BASE-TX & 1000BASE-TEthernet

100BASE-TX & 1000BASE-T Ethernet

250MHz (500MHz according to 10GBASE-T (under development) Ethernet some)

10GBASE-T (under development) Ethernet

Telephone, CATV, 1000BASE-T in the same cable.

Under development, no applications yet.

Himanshu Adlakha 09-IT-025

Cable Installation Guides Wireless LANs

Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable

Categories of Unshielded Twisted Pair

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1000 Mbps (4 pair) 5e 6 1,000 Mbps 10,000 Mbps

Gigabit Ethernet Gigabit Ethernet Gigabit Ethernet

Unshielded Twisted Pair Connector

Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable

Himanshu Adlakha 09-IT-025

Coaxial Cable Connectors

Fiber Optic Cable

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Crossover Network Cables Vs Straight through Cables

Straight Through Cables:

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Color Coding for Wires and Jackets

single-mode optical fiber