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Theory of generator:
DC GENERATOR THEORY DC Generators Figure 3 Basic Operation of a DC Generator A single conductor, shaped in the form of a loop, is positioned between the magnetic poles. As long as the loop is stationary, the magnetic field has no effect (no relative motion). If we rotate the loop, the loop cuts through the magnetic field, and an EMF (voltage) is induced into the loop. When we have relative motion between a magnetic field and a conductor in that magnetic field, and the direction of rotation is such that the conductor cuts the lines of flux, an EMF is induced into the conductor. The magnitude of the induced EMF depends on the field strength and the rate at which the flux lines are cut, as given in equation (5-1). The stronger the field or the more flux lines cut for a given period of time, the larger the induced EMF. Eg = KFN (5-1) where Eg = generated voltage K = fixed constant F = magnetic
flux strength N = speed in RPM The direction of the induced current flow can be determined using the "lefthand rule" for generators. This rule states that if you point the index finger of your left hand in the direction of the magnetic field (from North to South) and point the thumb in the direction of motion of the conductor, the middle finger will point in the direction of current flow (Figure 4). In the generator shown in Figure 4, for example, the conductor closest to the N pole is traveling upward across the field; therefore, the current flow is to the right, lower corner. Applying the left-hand rule to both sides of the loop will show that current flows in a counter-clockwise direction in the loop.
Working:
A D.C. generator is an energy converter. Mechanical power input received from a prime mover (D.C. motor in this case) is converted electromagnetically into electrical energy. This electrical energy can be changed into heat as is done by connecting load resistors across its armature terminals. It is essential that the field windings of the generator be excited with D.C. current. The two main fields are the shunt & series. If the shunt field alone is used then the generator is called a shunt generator; while if the series field alone is used, it is called a series generator. When both windings are used, we have the compound generator. As the name indicates, the shunt field is connected in parallel with the armature, whereas the series field is connected in series with the armature or the load. The shunt field is of larger number of turns and of higher resistance than the series field. The shunt field can be excited either from a separate source (separately excited generator) or from the armature of the same generator (selfexcited shunt generator0. It is possible to have two types of compound generators; one is for the cumulative operation and the other for the differential operation; in the former the series field
assists the shunt-field, while in the latter it opposes it. This will be seen from the results of he experiment. A. Shunt Generator: The connections are shown in FIG.1 (a). The motor is started keeping Ra1 maximum and Rf1 zero. Cut out step by step Ra1 fully and adjust Rf1 to bring the machine to the rated speed of the generator. This speed is held constant throughout. Rf2 is adjusted to bring the voltage Vt to the rated value with no load on the generator. Rf2 is not altered afterwards. Switch SW2 is closed and for various loads IL, Vt and If are noted. (Maximum allowable load current depends on the rating of the generator.) B. Compound Generator-Cumulative & differential operations The connections are done as in FIG.1 (b) with series winding connected. The motor is started as before and brought to the rated speed of generator and Rf2 adjusted to get rated voltage on no load. The load is changed and VT, IL and If a re noted. If this connection gives the cumulative operation, the differential operation is obtained by interchanging the leads S1 and S2. If the original connection gives differential operation, then cumulative operation is obtained by interchanging the leads S1 and S2.The experiment is done both for cumulative as well as differential operations. The extreme load of short circuit should be attempted only for differential operation and that too after the voltage is brought to a low value by switching on all the sections of load l. C. Separately excited generator The connections are done as in FIG.1 (c) The motor is started and run up to rated speed of the generator and If is adjusted to the rated voltage of the generator at no load. This current is kept constant and the
DCmotor Principle: It is based on the principle that when a currentcarrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a mechanical force whose direction is given by Fleming's Left-hand rule and whose magnitude is given by Force, F = B I l newton weber/m . I is the current in amperes and l is the length of the coil in meter. The force, current and the magnetic field are all in different directions. The loop can be made to spin by fixing a half circle of copper which is known as commutator, to each end of the loop. Current is passed into and out of the loop by brushes that press onto the strips. The brushes do not go round so the wire do not get twisted. This arrangement also makes sure that the current always passes down on the right and back on the left so that the rotation continues. This is how a simple Electric motor is made. The force F on a wire of length L carrying a current i in a magnetic field B is iLB times the sine of the angle between B and i, which would be 90 if the field were
2
uniformly
vertical. The direction of F comes from the right hand rule*, as shown here. The two forces shown here are equal and opposite, but they are displaced vertically, so they exert a torque. (The forces on the other two sides of the coil act along the same line and so exert no torque.) * A number of different nmemonics are used to remember the direction of the force. Some use the right hand, some the left. For students who know vector multiplication, it is easy to use the Lorentz force directly: F = q v X B , whence F = i dL X B . That is the origin of the diagram shown here. The coil can also be considered as a magnetic dipole, or a little electromagnet, as indicated by the arrow SN: curl the fingers of your right hand in the direction of the current, and your thumb is the North pole. In the sketch at right, the electromagnet formed by the coil of the rotor is represented as a permanent magnet, and the same torque (North attracts South) is seen to be that acting to align the central magnet. Note the effect of the brushes on the split ring. When the plane of the rotating coil reaches horizontal, the brushes will break contact (not much is lost, because this is the point of zero torque anyway the forces act inwards). The angular momentum of the coil
carries it past this break point and the current then flows in the opposite direction, which reverses the magnetic dipole. So, after passing the break point, the rotor continues to turn anticlockwise and starts to align in the opposite direction. In the following text, I shall largely use the 'torque on a magnet' picture, but be aware that the use of brushes or of AC current can cause the poles of the electromagnet in question to swap position when the current changes direction. The torque generated over a cycle varies with the vertical separation of the two forces. It therefore depends on the sine of the angle between the axis of the coil and field. However, because of the split ring, it is always in the same sense. The animation below shows its variation in time, and you can stop it at any stage and check the direction by applying the right hand rule. Motors and generators Now a DC motor is also a DC generator. Have a look at the next animation. The coil, split ring, brushes and magnet are exactly the same hardware as the motor above, but the coil is being turned, which generates an emf. f you use mechanical energy to rotate the coil (N turns, area A) at uniform angular velocity in the magnetic field B, it will produce a sinusoidal emf in the coil. emf (an emf or electromotive force is almost the same thing as a voltage). Let be the angle between B and the normal to the coil, so the magnetic flux is NAB.cos . Faraday's law gives: emf = d/dt = (d/dt) (NBA cos ) = NBA sin (d/dt) = NBA sin t.
The animation above would be called a DC generator. As in the DC motor, the ends of the coil connect to a split ring, whose two halves are contacted by the brushes. Note that the brushes and split ring 'rectify' the emf produced: the contacts are organised so that the current will always flow in the same direction, because when the coil turns past the dead spot, where the brushes meet the gap in the ring, the connections between the ends of the coil and external terminals are reversed. The emf here (neglecting the dead spot, which conveniently happens at zero volts) is |NBA sin t|, as sketched.