Cell Biology and Genetics

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Cell Theory -All cells come from preexisting cells -The cell is the basic unit of life -All living things are made up of cells
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Basic Structure of the Cell

Plasma membrane - membraneseparates the cell from its surrounding environment Cytoplasm- thick gel-like substance inside of the cell composed of numerous organelles suspended in watery cytosol; each type of organelle is suited to perform particular functions Nucleus- large membranous structure near the center of the cell
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Functions of the Cell

Cell metabolism and energy use Synthesis of molecules Communication- cells produce and receive electrical and chemical signals Reproduction and Inheritance- each cell contains DNA, the genetic material of the cell.

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Cell Membranes
Primary structure of a cell membrane is a double layer of phospholipid molecules
Heads are hydrophilic (water-loving) Tails are hydrophobic (water-fearing) Molecules arrange themselves in bilayers in water Cholesterol molecules are scattered among the phospholipids to allow the membrane to function properly at body temperature Most of the bilayer is hydrophobic; therefore water or water-soluble molecules do not pass through easily

Plasma Membrane
Phospholipid bilayer Fluid Mosaic Model Embedded with proteins which control what moves into and out of the cell Selectively permeable Production of charge difference (membrane potential) across the membrane by regulation of intracellular and extracellular ion concentrations Glycocalyx: combinations of carbohydrates and lipids (glycolipids) and proteins

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Membrane Lipids
Phospholipids and cholesterol predominate Phospholipids: bilayer. Polar heads facing water in the interior and exterior of the cell (hydrophilic); nonpolar tails facing each other on the interior of the membrane (hydrophobic) Cholesterol: interspersed among phospholipids. Amount determines fluid nature of the membrane Fluid nature provides/allows Distribution of molecules within the membrane Phospholipids automatically reassembled if membrane is damaged Membranes can fuse with each

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Membrane Proteins
A cell controls what moves through the membrane by means of membrane proteins embedded in the phospholipid bilayer Some membrane proteins have carbohydrates attached to them, forming glycoproteins that act as identification markers Some membrane proteins are receptors that react to specific chemicals, sometimes permitting a process called signal transduction

Membrane Proteins
Integral or intrinsic Extend deeply into membrane, often extending from one surface to the other Can form channels through the membrane Peripheral or extrinsic Attached to integral proteins at either the inner or outer surfaces of the lipid bilayer Functioning depends on 3-D shape and chemical characteristics. Markers, attachment sites, channels, receptors, enzymes, or carriers.
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Marker Molecules: Glycoproteins and Glycolipids

Allow cells to identify one another or other molecules
Immunity Recognition of oocyte by sperm cell Intercellular communication
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Membrane Proteins
Hydrophilic region faces inward; charge determines molecules that can pass through Includes channel proteins, carrier proteins, and ATPpowered pumps.

Transport Proteins Nongated ion channels: always open

Responsible for the permeability of the plasma membrane to ions when the plasma membrane is at rest

Gated ion channels can be opened or closed by certain stimuli

Ligand gated ion channel: open in response to small molecules that bind to proteins or glycoproteins Voltage-gated ion channel: open when there is a change in charge

Carrier Proteins
Also called transporters Integral proteins move ions from one side of membrane to the other
Have specific binding sites Protein changes shape to transport ions or molecules Resumes original shape after transport

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ATP-Powered Transport
Requires ATP. The use of energy allows the cell to accumulate substances Rate of transport depends on concentration of substrate and on concentration of ATP

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Receptor Proteins
Proteins or glycoproteins in membranes with an exposed receptor site Can attach to specific chemical signal molecules and act as an intercellular communication system Ligand(signal) can attach only to cells with that specific receptor

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Receptors Linked to Channel Proteins

Receptor molecules linked to channel proteins Attachment of receptorspecific chemical signals (e. g., acetylcholine) to receptors causes change in shape of channel protein Channel opens or closes Changes permeability of cell to some substances
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Enzymes in the Plasma Membrane

Enzymes: some act to catalyze reactions at outer/inner surface of plasma membrane. Surface cells of small intestine produce enzymes that digest dipeptides

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 Passive transport processesdo not require any energy expenditure of the cell membrane. Include: Diffusion- simple and facilitated Osmosis Filtration Active transport processesrequire the expenditure of metabolic energy by the cell Active transport via protein pumps Vesicular transport- endocytosis and exocytosis

Movement of Substances through the Plasma Membrane

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Diffusion
Molecules move from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration, down a concentration gradient Concentration or density gradient: difference between two points

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Osmosis
Diffusion of water (solvent) across a selectively permeable membrane. Water moves from an area of low concentration of solute to an area of high concentration of solute Osmotic pressure: force required to prevent water from moving across a membrane by osmosis
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Osmosis
Comparative terms used to describe osmotic pressures of solutions
Isosmotic: solutions with the same concentrations of solute particles Solution with a greater concentration of solute is hyperosmotic Solution with a lesser concentration of solute is hyposmotic
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Osmosis and Cells

Important because large volume changes caused by water movement disrupt normal cell function Cell shrinkage or swelling Isotonic: cell neither shrinks nor swells Hypertonic: cell shrinks (crenation) because water leaves the cell Hypotonic: cell swells (lysis) due to water entering the cell

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Filtration
Works like a sieve Depends on pressure difference on either side of a partition Moves from side of greater pressure to lower Example: urine formation in the kidneys. Water and small molecules move through the membrane while large molecules remain in the blood
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Mediated Transport
Involve carrier proteins or channels in the cell membrane Characteristics
Specificity for a single type of molecule Competition among molecules of similar shape Saturation: rate of transport limited to number of available carrier proteins
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Facilitated Diffusion
Facilitated diffusion: mediated passive transport A special kind of diffusion whereby movement of molecules is made more efficient by the action of transporters embedded in a cell membrane Transports substances down a concentration 3-24

Saturation of a Carrier Protein

1. When the concentration of x molecules outside the cell is low, the transport rate is low because it is limited by the number of molecules available to be transported. 2. When more molecules are present outside the cell, as long as enough carrier proteins are available, more molecules can be transported; thus, the transport rate increases. 3. The transport rate is limited by the number of carrier proteins and the rate at which each carrier protein can transport solutes. When the number of molecules outside the cell is so large that the carrier proteins are all occupied, the system is saturated and the transport rate cannot increase.

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Active Transport
Mediated process ATP-Powered Transport
Requires ATP. The use of energy allows the cell to accumulate substances Rate of transport depends on concentration of substrate and on concentration of ATP Example: Na+/K+ exchange pump that creates electrical potentials across membranes

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Endocytosis
Internalization of substances by formation of a vesicle Types
Phagocytosis (shown)- cell eating Pinocytosis- cell drinking Receptor-mediated endocytosis

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Pinocytosis and Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis

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Exocytosis

Accumulated vesicle secretions expelled from cell Examples

Secretion of digestive enzymes by pancreas Secretion of mucous by salivary glands Secretion of milk by mammary glands
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Cytoplasm
Cellular material outside nucleus but inside plasma membrane Composed of Cytosol, Cytoskeleton, Cytoplasmic Inclusions, Organelles Cytosol: fluid portion. Dissolved molecules (ions in water) and colloid (proteins in water)

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Organelles
Small specialized structures with particular functions Membrane bound vs. Nonmembrane bound Most have membranes that separate interior of organelles from cytoplasm Related to specific structure and function of the cell

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Cytoskeleton
The cells internal supporting framework made up of rigid, rodlike pieces that provide support and allow movement and mechanisms that can move the cell or its parts Microtubules: hollow, made of tubulin.
Internal scaffold, transport, cell division

Microfilaments: actin.
Structure, support for microvilli, contractility, movement

Intermediate filaments: mechanical strength

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Centrioles and Spindle Fibers

Located in centrosome: specialized zone near nucleus Center of microtubule formation Before cell division, centrioles divide, move to ends of cell and organize spindle fibers

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Nucleus
Membrane-bound spherical body in the center of the cell, contains the DNA of the cell Nucleoplasm- The Fluid within the membrane Nucleolus- where the RNA is manufactured Nuclear envelope- the membrane, essentially the same as the plasma membrane except for nuclear pores

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DNA
DNA determines both structure and function of cells and heredity Chromatin: DNA complexed with proteins (histones) During cell division, chromatin condenses into pairs of chromatids called chromosomes. Each pair of chromatids is joined by a centromere

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Ribosomes
Nonmembranous Made in the nucleolus, exported to the cytoplasm Sites of protein synthesis Composed of a large and a small subunit Types:
-Attached

(to endoplasmic

reticulum) -Free
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Endoplasmic Reticulum
Types
Rough
Has attached ribosomes Proteins produced and modified here

Smooth
No attached ribosomes Manufactures lipids

Cisternae: Interior spaces isolated from rest of cytoplasm

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Golgi Apparatus
Modification, packaging, distribution of proteins and lipids for secretion or internal use Membranous organelle consisting of cisternae stacked on one another and located near the nucleus Processed proteins leave the final cisterna in a vesicle; contents may then be secreted to outside 3-38 the cell

Function of Golgi Apparatus

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Action of Lysosomes
Made of microscopic membranous sacs that have pinched off from Golgi apparatus The cells own digestive system; enzymes in lysosomes digest the protein structures of defective cell parts, including plasma membrane proteins, and particles that have become trapped in the cell
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Mitochondria
Major site of ATP synthesisThe power plants of cells; mitochondrial enzymes catalyze series of oxidation reactions that provide about 95% of cells energy supply Membranes Cristae: Infoldings of inner membrane Matrix: Substance located in space formed by inner membrane Mitochondria increase in number when cell energy requirements increase. Each mitochondrion has a DNA molecule, allowing it to produce its own enzymes and replicate 3-41

Cilia
Appendages projecting from cell surfaces Capable of movement Moves materials over the cell surface

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Flagella
Similar to cilia but longer Usually only one per cell Move the cell itself in wave-like fashion Example: sperm cell

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Microvilli
Extension of plasma membrane Increase the cell surface area Normally many on each cell One tenth to one twentieth size of cilia Do not move

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Genes and Gene Expression

Gene
Functional unit of heredity Types
Structural: serve as template for mRNA, code for amino acid sequences Regulatory: control which structural genes transcribed in given tissue

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Protein Synthesis
Transcription: Instructions from DNA used to form mRNA (in nucleus) Translation: synthesis of a protein at the ribosomes using mRNA, tRNA and rRNA ribosome reads code from mRNA (in cytoplasm) assembles amino acids into polypeptide chain

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Transcription
The strands of DNA are separated RNA polymerase binds at a promoter region RNA polymerase catalyses the formation of a mRNA chain using the DNA as a template and following the rules of complimentary base pairing
A with U C with G

Transcription ends at a terminator sequence

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Posttranscription Processing
The mRNA is modified after transcription and before it can leave the nucleus
Introns (unnecessary code) removed Exons (good code) spliced together

The mRNA now contains the genetic code that will be used to manufacture a polypeptide

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Translation
mRNA moves from the nucleus to the cytoplasm Process occurs on ribosomes Turns mRNA into a polypeptide(small protein) Involves rRNA, tRNA, and mRNA
mRNA binds to ribosomal subunits tRNA delivers amino acids to mRNA tRNA anticodon binds to mRNA codon 1 mRNA codon translates to 1 amino acid Enzymes join amino acids with peptide bonds At stop codon, components separate

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Regulation of Protein Synthesis

All nucleated cells except germ cells have the full complement of DNA. During development, differentiation occurs and some segments of DNA are turned off in some cells while those segments remain on in other cells. During the lifetime of a cell, the rate of protein synthesis varies depending upon chemical signals that reach the cell.
Example: thyroxine from the thyroid causes cells to increase their metabolic rate. More thyroxine, higher metabolic rate; less thyroxine, lower metabolic rate. 3-50

Cell Life Cycle

Interphase: phase between cell divisions
Replication of DNA Ongoing normal cell activities

Mitosis: series of events that leads to the production of two cells by division of a mother cell into two daughter cells. Cells are genetically identical.
Prophase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase

Cytokinesis: division of cell cytoplasm

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Replication of DNA
DNA strands separate The old strands become the templates for the new (complementary) strands to form Two identical DNA molecules are formed by semiconservative replication

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Mitosis
Interphase DNA replication occurs Mitosis
Prophase nuclear envelope disintegrates, chromatin condenses, spindles attach to kinetochore Metaphase chromosomes are aligned at the nuclear equator Anaphase spindles separate the chromatids, cytokinesis begins Telophase chromosomes decondense, nuclear envelope reforms, cytokinesis continues

Cytokinesis cytoplasmic division, separate process from mitosis

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Meiosis and the Transmission of Genes

Meiosis: DNA replication followed by two cell divisions Homologous pairs are separated Resulting gametes (egg, sperm) unite to form a zygote Homologous pairs are reunited
New pairs are a mixture of DNA from two individuals
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