11.

The First World War

UNDERLYING CAUSES OF THE WAR Europe in the early 20th century At the beginning of the 20th century, there were six major European powers: Britain, France, Germany, Austria-Hungary, Russia and Italy. Together with the growing powers of United States and Japan, these countries dominated world affairs. 1. Britain a. Britain was the world's greatest colonial power, with an empire which covered a quarter of the world. b. For most of the 19th century, she had also been the greatest industrial power. But, in the early 1900s, she was overtaken by the United States and Germany. c. She had by far the largest navy in the world and for much of the late 19th century had pursued a policy of 'splendid isolation' from the affairs of Europe. 2. France a. In the second half of the 19th century, France became industrialized and gained the world's second-largest colonial empire. b. Her defeat in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-71 created great hostility in France to the new state of Germany. France was determined to regain land she had lost to Germany as a result of the war. c. In 1900, her army was about the same size as the German army. 3. Germany a. Since her unification, Germany had industrialized rapidly. In 30 years she had become the leading industrial power in Europe. b. However, it was increasingly difficult to find markets for her goods. Her attempts to gain colonies were opposed by the colonial powers, especially Britain. c. Germany aimed to build the strongest army and navy in the world. By 1900, she had a large army and a growing navy. 4. Austria-Hungary a. Austria-Hungary controlled a territorial empire in Europe which consisted of many different peoples. b. The decline of the Ottoman Empire and the growth of Balkan nationalism led to the rise of nationalist movements in her territories. This, in turn, led to Serbian hostility and rivalry with Russia. c. By the early 20th century, Austria-Hungary had become closely allied to Germany.
5.

Russia

a. Russia controlled a huge territorial empire, but was economically backward although she had achieved some industrial growth by 1900. b. With the decline of the Ottoman Empire, Russia hoped to expand her influence in the Balkans. This led to rivalry with Austria-Hungary. c. She had a huge army, but it was poorly equipped and badly organized.

6. Italy a. Italy was the weakest of the major European powers both industrially and militarily. b. She was anxious, however, to gain a larger colonial empire and recognition as a great power. The economic and imperialist rivalries between these nations, together with the growth of militarism and the dangerous forces of nationalism in Europe, contributed to the outbreak of the First World War. Nationalism 1. Nationalism, the desire of peoples to rule themselves and to preserve their traditional ways of life, grew increasingly extreme towards the end of the 19th century. 2. By the early 20th century, nationalism had created dangerous movements which contributed to the outbreak of the First World War. a. The Greater Serbia movement After Serbia had gained independence in 1878, she wanted to control neighboring peoples whose race and culture were similar to her own. This Greater Serbia movement aimed to unite Bosnia and Herzegovina (which were administered by Austria-Hungary), Albania and Montenegro with Serbia. Austria-Hungary opposed this movement because she herself wanted to expand into the Balkans. Hostility between Austria-Hungary and Serbia led to the Bosnian Crisis of 1908 and the assassination of Archduke Francis Ferdinand in 1914, which became the immediate cause of the First World War. b. The Pan-Slav movement Pan-Slavism was a movement to bring all Slavic nations under Russian leadership. Since the Serbs were Slavs, the Pan-Slav movement and the Greater Serbia movement were closely linked. Whenever Austria-Hungary and Serbia quarreled, Russia was quick to support Serbia. In 1914, after the Sarajevo assassination, Russia sided with Serbia. c. The Pan-German movement The Pan-German movement aimed at uniting all the Germans of central Europe under one great German state. Since Pan-Germanism opposed Pan-Slavism, hostility developed between Germany and Russia. When Russia supported Serbia in her quarrel with Austria in 1914, Germany sided with Austria, a German nation. d. The revenge movement in France Extreme nationalists in France wanted to take revenge on Germany for the French defeat in the Franco-Prussian War and the loss of Alsace-Lorraine. The events of 1914 gave France her chance to fight a war of revenge. Imperialism and economic rivalry 1. The revival of imperialism a. Imperialism, the policy of gaining political and economic control over other countries, had declined by the early 19th century. b. After 1870, imperialism revived, because:

as a result of the Industrial Revolution, European nations needed raw materials, markets and lands for their growing populations; the nationalistic new states of Germany and Italy wanted to gain colonial empires in order to establish their status as great powers; Christian missionaries hoped to convert the peoples of Africa and Asia. Some Western countries believed that it was their duty to 'civilize' the peoples of backward countries.

2. The European scramble for colonies a. National pride and the need for raw materials led to a rush for colonies in Africa. King Leopold II of Belgium started this 'scramble' in 1876. b. By 1912, almost all of Africa had been colonized by the European powers. c. They also tried to colonize Asia. Although China and Japan avoided colonization, all of Southeast Asia except Siam had been colonized by 1914. 3. Colonial rivalry The scramble for colonies created bad feeling among the European powers which increased the risk of a general war. a. Hostility between France and Italy, and between France and Britain, developed in North Africa. b. Anglo-German hostility developed in southern Africa and in the Pacific. Britain also opposed the German plan to build a Berlin-Baghdad Railway. c. Germany's Berlin-Baghdad Railway plan and her friendship with Turkey resulted in Russian jealousy and suspicion. d. Rivalry between France and Germany in Morocco led to major crises in 1905 and 1911 which increased bad feeling between them, but drew France and Britain closer. 4. Economic rivalry Economic rivalry contributed to the outbreak of the First World War in several ways. a. Competition for the control of raw materials and markets resulted in conflicting territorial claims. b. Economic rivalry speeded up the arms race and led to protectionism. c. Germany's rapid industrial growth after 1871 led to an economic war with Britain. d. France feared that Germany might take more of her mineral deposits in the north because of German industrial expansion. e. There was commercial rivalry between Russia and Germany in Turkey and between Russia and Austria in the Balkans. 5. Effects of colonial and economic rivalry a. Economic rivalry helped to create political and military rivalry during the early 20th century, especially as arms manufacturers urged their governments to take aggressive action against foreign competitors. b. However, the importance of colonial and economic rivalry as a cause of the First World War must not be exaggerated. By 1914, the rival powers had already settled most of their conflicting territorial claims. The system of European alliances By 1907, Europe was divided into two armed camps: the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy) and the Triple Entente (Britain, France and Russia). This alliance system became a cause of fear and suspicion.

1. Reasons for the formation of alliances a. The strength of the new Germany created jealousy and fear among the other European powers. b. Austria-Hungary had become weak and needed an ally against Russia. She turned to Germany. c. France had been weakened by her defeat in war and needed an ally against Germany. She turned to Russia. d. Russia needed money to prevent revolution and to finance industrialization; she also needed allies to gain control of the Balkans and feared Germany. She turned to France. e. Britain was alarmed by the growing naval and industrial power of Germany. 2. The Triple Alliance The alliance system was started in the l870s by Bismarck, who wanted to preserve peace in order to build up the power of Germany and to isolate France so that she could not start a war of revenge. a. The League of the Three Emperors (Dreikaiserbund) The League was formed in 1872 as an alliance between Germany, AustriaHungary and Russia. It collapsed after the Congress of Berlin in 1878, when Bismarck supported Austria and prevented Russia from gaining control of the new state of Bulgaria. Russia withdrew from the League and became more friendly with France. b. The Dual Alliance of 1879 The alliance was formed between Germany and Austria-Hungary after the collapse of the Dreikaiserbund. Each country agreed to help the other if it was attacked by Russia. c. The formation of the Triple Alliance After France seized Tunisia in 1881, Italy became closer to Germany and Austria-Hungary. Both Germany and Austria-Hungary welcomed Italian support: for Germany, it provided another ally against France; for Austria-Hungary, it provided another ally against Russia. In 1882, Italy joined the Dual Alliance which then became the Triple Alliance. They agreed that if one of these three Central Powers was attacked by two powers, the others would come to its aid. In 1883, Rumania allied herself with the Central Powers; this damaged Russian ambitions in the Balkans. d. The isolation of France The new tsar of Russia, Alexander III, agreed to rejoin the Dreikaiserbund in 1881. With the formation of the Triple Alliance, Bismarck had successfully isolated France. Britain would not help France because of her policy of 'splendid isolation'. e. The Reinsurance Treaty of 1887 The Three Emperors' League collapsed again in 1887 because of AustroRussian rivalry in the Balkans. But Germany managed to remain friendly with Russia until 1890. By the Reinsurance Treaty of 1887, Germany promised to support Russia in the Balkans; Russia promised not to join France if France made war on Germany. f. The breakdown of Bismarck's alliance system. Between 1890 and 1907, Bismarcks alliance system broke down for several reasons:

When Bismarck was dismissed in 1890 and his successor did not renew the Reinsurance Treaty, Russia became closer to France. Friendlier relations between France, and Russia prepared the way for a military alliance. The Pan-Slav movement increased Austro-Russian rivalry in the Balkans. Britain ended her policy of isolation because of the growing power of Germany. Italy had lost interest in the Triple Alliance because she wanted to recover territories from Austria and needed French support for the conquest of Tripoli.

3. The Triple Entente An important result of the breakdown of Bismarck's alliance system was the formation of the Triple Entente in 1907. a. The Franco-Russian Alliance of 1894 Franco-Russian relations improved in the early 1890s because of the large French investments in Russia. Both countries were looking for an ally because they felt threatened by the new power of Germany. By the Franco-Russian Alliance, each power promised to help the other in case of a German attack, or in case of an Austrian or Italian attack supported by Germany. b. The Entente Cordiale of 1904 After France gave up her claims in the Sudan in 1898, Anglo-French relations improved. Britain and France felt threatened by the growth of German naval and industrial power. In 1904, Britain signed the Entente Cordiale (Dual Entente or Anglo-French Entente) with France, which settled disputes between them in North Africa. France recognized British control of Egypt and Sudan, and Britain recognized French interests in Morocco. c. The Anglo-Russian Entente of 1907 In the early years of the 20th century, Anglo-Russian relations improved. Britain was no longer afraid of Russian expansion in the Far East, following Russia's defeat by Japan in 1905. Britain had more reason to fear Germany than to fear Russia. France encouraged Anglo-Russian friendship. The Anglo-Russian Entente settled differences between the two countries in Central Asia, especially in Persia (present-day Iran). d. The formation of the Triple Entente As a result of the Anglo-Russian agreement, the Dual Entente became the Triple Entente. Japan was not a member, but she was allied to Britain by the Anglo-Japanese Alliance of 1902. Militarism 1. Between 1871 and 1914, the European powers became increasingly militaristic: in other words, they pursued a policy of always being prepared for war and ready to use force in order to gain advantages. a. Extreme nationalism, colonial and economic rivalry, and the rival alliances in Europe allied to an arms race. b. The production of military and naval equipment increased. 2. The arms race a. Military conscription

After 1871, all the European powers, except Britain, introduced programs of compulsory military training. All of the big European states enlarged and reorganized their armies. a. The failure of the Hague peace conferences resulted in a further build-up of armies. b. Anglo-German naval rivalry In 1898, Germany began to build up her fleet. At first, Britain ignored this as she had an enormous navy, far larger than any other in the world. However, the Second Naval Law of 1900, which planned to double the German fleet by 1916, worried Britain. In 1903, Britain introduced a powerful new battleship, the Dreadnought, which was far superior to any existing battleship. Germany responded by building her own 'Dreadnoughts', and a naval race began between the two powers.
3. The Hague Conferences

a. The desire for peace led to two international peace conferences at The Hague in 1899 and 1907. b. Both conferences failed to achieve their objectives. The powers were not willing to limit or reduce armaments, especially Germany and Britain. They also felt that the Permanent Court of Arbitration, which was formed as a result of the First Hague Conference, was powerless to prevent war. EVENTS LEADING TO WAR The Moroccan Crisis Franco-German rivalry over Morocco in North Africa resulted in two major international crises. 1. The Moroccan Crisis of 1905 a. Background By the Anglo-French Entente of 1904, France gained British support for her plan to annex Morocco. Germany wanted to test the strength of the new Anglo-French Entente and provoked a quarrel with France by declaring that Morocco should remain independent. b. The crisis In 1905 Germany demanded an international conference to settle the status of Morocco. France agreed to the German demand as she was not yet ready to go to war. c. The Algeciras Conference of 1906 The conference decided that Morocco was to remain independent, but that France could control its banking and police. Britain and Russia both supported France, causing a serious diplomatic defeat for Germany. The conference strengthened Anglo-French and Anglo-Russian ties. Military talks began between Britain and France, and in 1907 the Anglo-Russian Entente was formed. 2. The Moroccan (Agadir) Crisis of 1911 a. Because of frequent disturbances in Morocco, French troops occupied its capital in 1911 at the request of the sultan.

b. The crisis As a sign of protest against the French action, Germany sent a gunboat to Agadir and a crisis developed. Both sides prepared for war, with Britain supporting France. This time, however, Germany backed down. c. In November 1911, a Franco-German agreement was signed. Germany agreed to give up all her privileges in Morocco. France was allowed to establish a protectorate over Morocco. In return, France gave a part of the French Congo to Germany. d. Despite this settlement, bitterness between the two countries remained and the Germans blamed Britain for this second diplomatic defeat. Crises in the Balkans Between 1908 and 1914, two crises in the Balkans, which were more serious than the Moroccan crises, increased European rivalries: the Bosnian Crisis of 1908 and the Balkan Wars of 1912 and 1913. 1. The Bosnian Crisis of 1908 a. Background Both Austria-Hungary and Serbia wanted to annex the Turkish provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina. In 1908, when the Young Turks showed signs of wanting to recover full control of the two Turkish provinces, Austria-Hungary annexed them, and a crisis developed. b. The crisis Serbia's hopes of annexing the provinces were disappointed, so she appealed to Russia for help. Russia threatened to go to war to support Serbia, but Germany warned Russia that she would support Austria. Russia backed down because she had not yet fully recovered from her humiliating defeat in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-05 or from the Russian Revolution of 1905. On the advice of Russia, the Serbs agreed to avoid war, and the crisis ended as a victory for Austria-Hungary and Germany. c. Results Austria-Hungary paid Turkey a large sum of money and kept Bosnia and Herzegovina. The crisis increased hostility between Austria and Serbia which eventually led to the Sarajevo assassination and the First World War. Austria-Hungary and Germany became closer allies, but relations between these two countries and Russia seriously declined. 2. The Balkan Wars The rivalries created by the Bosnian Crisis led to the Balkan Wars of 1912 and 1913. a. The First Balkan War of 1912 The Balkan League (Serbia, Montenegro, Bulgaria and Greece) used Turkish treatment of Christians in Macedonia as an excuse to make war on Turkey in 1912. Turkey was defeated and abandoned her remaining European territories, except for a small area around Constantinople (present-day Istanbul). The Treaty of London of 1913 provided for the distribution of the conquered Turkish territories in the Balkans.

b. The Second Balkan War of 1913 Dissatisfied with her share of the conquered territories, Bulgaria made war on Greece and Serbia in 1913. Rumania joined the war against Bulgaria. Bulgaria was quickly defeated and signed the Treaty of Bucharest of 1913, giving up most of her gains from the first war. Austria-Hungary wanted to join the Balkan War and attack Serbia, but the Germans persuaded her against this, because Germany was not yet ready for a major war. c. Results of the Balkan Wars Weakened by the Balkan Wars, Turkey became closer to Germany in order to prevent possible attack by Russia. Their co-operation increased hostility between Russia and Germany. Bulgaria became closer to Austria-Hungary and Turkey, as she needed foreign support to take revenge on her former allies in the Balkan League. The Balkan Wars convinced the European powers that a general war was about to break out, so they speeded up their military expansion. This, in turn, increased the chances of a general war because it tempted military leaders to risk a preventive war. The most serious result was that hostility between Serbia and Austria-Hungary increased. Serbia was determined to gain control of the Serbs living inside Austria-Hungary. The Austrians were afraid this would start a collapse of their empire, and were looking for an excuse to attack and destroy Serbia. Their excuse came with the assassination at Sarajevo. The outbreak of the war 1. The immediate cause of the war was the Sarajevo assassination. a. On 28 June 1914, the Archduke Francis Ferdinand, heir to the Austrian throne, and his wife were assassinated at Sarajevo, capital of Bosnia. b. The assassin was a Bosnian student who belonged to a Serbian secret society. c. The hostility that had been growing for many years between Austria-Hungary and Serbia exploded as a result of the assassination. Austria-Hungary decided to destroy the Serbian threat for ever. However, the Austrians waited a month to prepare their army for war; To make sure that Germany would support them if Russia supported Serbia. d. Having gained the support of Germany, Austria-Hungary issued a harsh ultimatum to Serbia, which she could not possibly accept without losing her independence. 2. a. b. c. d. The outbreak of war On 28 July, Austria declared war on Serbia. The First World War had begun. The Russians ordered a general mobilization of troops (29 July). Germany declared war on Russia (1 August) and France (3 August). When Germany invaded Belgium and violated Belgian neutrality, Britain declared war on her (4 August). e. Austria-Hungary declared war on Russia (6 August). THE WAR The spread of the war Other nations were quickly drawn into the war, making a total of 28 nations: 24 Allies and 4 Central Powers.

1. Japan joined the war in 1914 mainly to strengthen her position in China at the expense of Germany and to seize Germany's island colonies in the Pacific. 2. Italy was a member of the Triple Alliance, but she joined the Allies instead in 1915. She had been bribed to enter the war on the side of the Allies by promises of Austrian and Turkish territories. 3. Having signed an alliance with Germany, Turkey joined the Central Powers in 1914. 4. . In 1915, Bulgaria entered the war on the side of the Central Powers because she had not forgotten her defeat in the war of 1913 by Serbia and the other Balkan states. All the other Balkan nations, which had defeated her in that war, joined the Allies. 5. In 1917, the United States entered the war 'to make the world safe for democracy', in the words of President Wilson, and for a number of other reasons: a. The German V-boat (submarine) campaign was damaging American shipping, and Germans were committing acts of sabotage in the United States. b. The Germans were trying to persuade Mexico to declare war on the U.S.A., promising them the American states of Texas, New Mexico and Arizona in return. c. Before 1917, the Americans had been unwilling to support Russia because of its autocratic and undemocratic government. But when the tsar was overthrown in March 1917, this situation changed. 6. In 1917, China entered the war, hoping to end the unequal treaty system and to cancel the Sino-Japanese agreements relating to the Twenty-One Demands. The strengths of the two sides 1. On land, the Central Powers had the advantage at the beginning of the war. 2. At sea, the advantage was with the Allies. The German navy had expanded rapidly, but it could not rival the combined navies of the Allies. 3. The Allies, too, had more natural resources and greater economic and financial power. 4. Although the Allies were stronger, the Central Powers had the military advantage when the war began. a. It was easier for them to move their armies from one front to another because of their geographical location. b. Their armies also had unity of command under German leadership. c. The German army was the best-disciplined fighting force in the world. The first two years of the war, 1914-16 1. The Western and Eastern Fronts a. Once the German Schlieffen Plan to defeat France in six weeks had failed, the war on the Western Front became a stalemate, with both sides trying to break through a line of trenches stretching from the North Sea to Switzerland. b. On the Eastern Front, the Russians defeated the Austro-Hungarians but were always defeated when they met the Germans. 2. The Southern Front a. Fighting began on the Southern Front when Italy joined the war in 1915. b. She attacked Austria from the south, but did not make much progress, except in preventing supplies from reaching the Central Powers via the Mediterranean. 3. The war against Turkey

a. Allied efforts to remove Turkey from the war failed when the Turks defeated the British at Gallipoli. b. However, the British campaign against the Turks in the Middle East was successful. 4. The war in Asia and Africa a. Japan took over German interests in Shandong and German islands in the Pacific. b. Meanwhile, British and French forces occupied the German colonies in Africa. 5. The war at sea a. Britain used her naval strength to blockade Germany's ports and to keep the German fleet under control in the North Sea. b. However, allied and neutral merchant ships were under constant attack by German U-boats. The final years of the war, 1917-18 After two years of trench warfare, neither side could win a decisive victory on the Western Front, but Russia was close to defeat in the East. Then two important events occurred in 1917: the United States entered the war and Russia withdrew from it. 1. The entry of the United States brought supplies for the Allies as well as the use of the U.S. navy; by the end of 1917,200000 American troops had landed in France. 2. The withdrawal of Russia from the war a. After the Bolsheviks came to power in 1917, they took Russia out of the war and signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany in March 1918. b. With Russia's withdrawal, Rumania was cut off from Allied aid and surrendered to the Germans in 1918. c. Germany was now no longer threatened on the Eastern Front. 3. The last great German attack In a desperate effort to win the war before more American troops reached Europe, the Germans launched a great attack along the Western Front in 1918, but they were defeated. 4. The end of the war a. In 1918, while the Germans were retreating along the entire Western Front, their allies (Bulgaria, Turkey and Austria-Hungary) surrendered one by one. b. Germany surrendered and signed the armistice on 11 November, 1918. The war was over. Reasons for the Allied victory 1. The Allies had greater manpower and resources; they also had more capable leaders such as Lloyd George and Clemenceau. 2. Control of the seas enabled the Allies; a. to get men and supplies from their overseas territories; b. to obtain war supplies from neutral countries; c. to blockade German ports, limiting Germany's war resources and food supplies. 3. The failure of Germany's plan for a quick victory meant that she had to fight a war on two fronts, which she had never intended. This was a great strain which gradually exhausted her resources. 4. With the surrender of all her allies in 1918, Germany was left alone. Faced with a shortage of food and war supplies, as well as mutinies and indiscipline in the armed forces, Germany had no choice but to surrender. On 9 November, Kaiser

William II abdicated and three days later a temporary socialist government signed the armistice. RESULTS OF THE WAR The peace settlement In early 1919, the representatives of 32 countries met at Versailles, near Paris, to discuss a peace settlement. 1. President Wilson's Fourteen Points a. President Wilson of the United States first proposed his 'Fourteen Points' in January 1918 as a possible basis for a negotiated peace, but they were ignored by the Germans who still believed then that victory was possible. b. The terms of the Paris Peace Settlement were largely influenced by these Fourteen Points, which proposed no secret agreements among nations; freedom of the seas; removal of all economic barriers to trade; reduction of armies and weapons; readjustment of all colonial claims, taking into consideration the interests of the subject peoples; evacuation of Russian territory occupied by the Central Powers; evacuation of Belgium and the restoration of her independence; evacuation of French territory occupied by Germany and the return of AlsaceLorraine to France; readjustment 'of Italian frontiers according to the principles of nationality; recognition of the right of the peoples of Austria-Hungary to decide on their own forms of government; restoration of Serbia, Rumania and Montenegro, and access to the sea for Serbia; self-government for the subject peoples of Turkey, with the Dardanelles to be permanently opened; establishment of a free and independent Poland, with access to the Baltic Sea; formation of a League of Nations. The Paris Peace Conference, 1919 a. The conference was dominated by the five principal victorious powers: Britain, France, the United States, Italy and Japan. b. The defeated nations and Russia were not represented. c. The main decisions were made by the so-called 'Big Three', who were the French premier, Clemenceau; the British prime minister, Lloyd George; the American president, Wilson. d. Clemenceau was the most forceful figure of the three. He had a great hatred for the Germans, who had invaded France twice in his lifetime, and was very patriotic. His only concern at the Paris Peace Conference was to ensure the future security of France. He was determined to protect his country against another German attack by imposing a heavy punishment on Germany which would destroy her military and economic power.
2.

e. Wilson aimed to establish a fair peace based on the principle of selfdetermination (that peoples should be able to choose their own governments); he believed that Germany should not be treated too harshly. f. Lloyd George stood between Clemenceau and Wilson. He often tried to reach a compromise between their conflicting views. g. In the end, Wilson agreed to change most of his Fourteen Points in order to gain support for the establishment of a League of Nations. As a result, the peace settlement was very harsh and caused great resentment among the defeated countries. The peace treaties The Treaty of Versailles (1919), which dealt mainly with Germany Germany had to return Alsace-Lorraine to France. The coal mines of the Saar Basin were given to France and the Saar territory was placed under the control of the League of Nations until 1935, when the people there would vote to decide the territory's future. Germany lost some territories to Belgium, Demark, Poland and Lithuania. East Prussia was cut off from the rest of Germany by the 'Polish Corridor' to give Poland a passage to the Baltic Sea. The German port of Danzig was made a free city under the control of the League of Nations. To make sure that Germany would not attack France and Belgium in future, the Rhineland was demilitarized. Germany had to give up her colonies. These were to be administered as mandated territories under the League of Nations. (In other words, they were placed under the control of other countries which were responsible to the League for the way in which they governed them) Germany was disarmed and had to pay heavy war reparations (money to pay for the damage done). Germany had to accept full responsibility for the war. Germany was forbidden to unite with Austria. b. The Treaty of St Germain (1919) with Austria Austria was reduced to a small state. Like Germany, she had to reduce her military forces and pay reparations. c. The Treaty of Neuilly (1919) with Bulgaria Bulgaria had to give up parts of her territory to Rumania, Greece and the new state of Yugoslavia. d. The Treaty of Trianon (1920) with Hungary Hungary, which broke away from Austria, had to give up territory to Rumania and the new states of Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia. Like Austria, she had to reduce her military forces and pay reparations. e. The Treaty of Sevres (1920) and the Treaty of Lausanne (1923) with Turkey The Treaty of Sevres was rejected by a Turkish revolutionary government which came to power in 1922. A new treaty, the Treaty of Lausanne, was therefore signed in 1923. Turkey recovered most of the territory she lost to Greece. However, her territories in the Middle East became British and French mandates. Turkey agreed to open the Dardanelles to all nations. China and Japan at the Paris Peace Conference a. Chinese demands relating to former German and Austrian rights in China, the Twenty-One Demands, and the 'unequal treaty system' were all rejected by the conference.
4.

3. a.

b. Almost all of the Japanese demands, including her claim to the German rights in Shandong and her control of German colonies in the Pacific, were granted by the conference. Weaknesses of the peace settlement a. The large number of nations involved and the shortage of time in drawing up treaties made it difficult to create a lasting settlement.
5.

b. The terms of the Treaty of Versailles, which were dictated to Germany, were so harsh and unjust that the Germans were determined to regain what they had lost in the treaty, even if this would lead to war. c. Since Germany and Russia were excluded from the peace conference, they weakened the peace settlement by not co-operating with the Allies in carrying out the peace terms. d. In creating new states and changing the boundaries of old states, the peacemakers did not apply the principle of self-determination strictly. This aroused anger and resentment among the minority groups. e. The failure of the peace settlement to give Europe a new balance of power in place of the dynastic system it had destroyed made it easier for Nazi Germany to dominate Europe in the 1930s. f. The United States, which did not want to become involved in Europe again, rejected both the Versailles Settlement and the League of Nations. This weakened the authority of the entire settlement. g. The peace settlement failed to develop an effective means of keeping world peace. The League of Nations did not have the necessary power to stop aggressive nations, especially as the United States did not become a member. h. The failure of the peace settlement to provide a solution to economic problems led to economic rivalry and tariff wars.

Other results of the war 1. Political results a. The three great European dynasties of Romanov, Hohenzollern and Habsburg collapsed, and royal absolutism in Europe finally ended. In Russia, the war showed how weak, inefficient and corrupt the tsarist regime was. This aroused widespread discontent which became the immediate cause of the Russian Revolutions of 1917, and led to the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II After the abdication of William II in Germany, the Weimar Republic was formed in 1919. In Austria, the emperor Charles I was deposed, and Austria became a republic. b. The Turkish monarchy was overthrown and Mustapha Kemal (Ataturk) became leader of the new republic in 1923. c. The peace settlement resulted in or recognized the break-up of the AustroHungarian, Ottoman and German empires. d. New nations, almost all of them republics, emerged in Europe. In Eastern Europe, Hungary became independent, Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia were created, and Poland was reborn. New states also emerged around the Baltic Sea: Finland, Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. e. In Italy, dissatisfaction with the settlement contributed to the rise of Mussolini, the first fascist dictator. f. An immediate effect of Chinese dissatisfaction with the Paris Peace Settlement was the May Fourth Movement in China. 2. Economic results a. The First World War was the most costly and the most destructive war up to that time. Europe became a relatively poor continent. b. After the war, Europe's economy steadily improved but Europe never regained her pre-war position as the leader of world trade and industry. c. German reparations and Allied war debts to the United States caused a drain of gold to America, reducing Europe's buying power, and helping to cause the Great Depression of the 1930s. 3. Social results a. About 17 million people died and about 21 million were wounded. b. At the end of the war, Europe was faced with many social problems, such as disease, broken homes, and hundreds of thousands of refugees. MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS 1. One of Bismarck's main aims in starting the alliance system in the 1870s was to a. b. c. d. Stop Russian expansion in the Balkans. Challenge British naval supremacy. Prepare for war against Russia. Isolate France.

2. Which of the following pairs shows a direct cause-and-effect relationship?

a. renewal of the Three Emperors' League: signing of the Reinsurance Treaty between Germany and Russia b. French seizure of Tunisia: inclusion of Italy in the Dual Alliance c. formation of the Franco-Russian Alliance: formation of the Triple Alliance d. formation of the Triple Entente: breakdown of Bismarck's alliance system 3. Which of the following areas became a source of Franco-German conflict in the early 1900s? a. b. c. d. Morocco Tunisia Tripoli Egypt

4. 'She has a world-wide commerce which is rapidly expanding ... She must have a powerful fleet to protect that commerce.' To which European power in the early 20th century does 'she' refer? a. b. c. d. Russia Holland Germany Britain

5. Arrange the following events in chronological order: (1) the formation of the Triple Entente (2) the dismissal of Bismarck (3) the formation of the Triple Alliance a. b. c. d. (1), (2), (3) (2), (1), (3) (2), (3), (1) (3), (2), (1)

6. Which of the following factors contributed directly to the formation of the FrancoRussian Alliance of 1894? a. b. c. d. the British traditional policy of isolation the formation of the Triple Alliance the large French investments in Russia the formation of the Anglo-Russian Entente

Question 7 is based on the cartoon below

7. The cartoon above illustrates the naval rivalry between ______ and ______before the First World War. a. b. c. d. Germany / France France / Britain Russia / Austria-Hungary Britain / Germany

8. The Entente Cordiale of 1904 brought _______and _______together. a. b. c. d. Britain / France Britain / Russia France / Russia France / Italy

Questions 9 and 10 are based on the time line below 9. In which period marked on the time-line was the Triple Alliance formed? a. b. c. d. (1) (2) (3) (4)

10. In which period marked on the time-line was the Second Hague Conference held? a. b. c. d. (1) (2) (3) (4)

11. Arrange the following events in chronological order:

(1) the entry of the United States into the First World War (2) the withdrawal of Russia from the First World War (3) the entry of Italy into the First World War a. b. c. d. (1), (2), (3) (2), (1), (3) (2), (3), (I) (3), (1), (2)

12. Just before Britain declared war on Germany in 1914, the Germany chancellor said that it was incredible that Britain was going to war just for 'a scrap of paper'. The 'scrap of paper' was the treaty guaranteeing the neutrality of: a. b. c. d. Switzerland. Belgium. Holland. Luxembourg.

13. The immediate cause of the First World War was the assassination of Archduke Francis Ferdinand in a. b. c. d. Herzegovina. Austria. Bosnia. Serbia.

Questions 14 and 15 are based on the map below:

14. Which area numbered on the map was annexed by Austria-Hungary in 1908? a. b. c. d. (1) (2) (3) (4)

15. Which country numbered on the map started the Balkan War of 1913?

a. b. c. d.

(2) (3) (5) (6)

16. Which of the following pairs does NOT show a direct cause-and-effect relationship? a. the Austrian annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina: the Balkan Wars b. Germany's unrestricted submarine warfare: the American entry into the First World War c. the Moroccan Crisis of 1905: the calling of the Algeciras Conference d. the 'October Revolution' of the Bolsheviks: the Russian withdrawal from the First World War 17. Which of the following events might have brought about a general war in 1908? a. b. c. d. the Agadir Crisis the Austrian annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina the formation of the Balkan League the Sarajevo assassination

18. Who said that his country entered the First World War to 'make the world safe for democracy'? a. b. c. d. President Wilson Tsar Nicholas II President Poincare Prime Minister Asquith

Question 19 is based on the cartoon below:

19. The cartoon above illustrates the cruel exploitation of _______by _______, which started the European scramble for African colonies in the 19th century. a. the Cameroons / Germany

b. Algeria / France c. Rhodesia / Britain d. the Congo Free State / Belgium 20. According to the Schlieffen Plan, Germany planned to conquer_______ through _______. a. b. c. d. Russia / Rumania France / Belgium Russia / Finland France / Switzerland

21. The Balkan League was formed in 1912 to put an end to Turkish rule in a. b. c. d. Albania. Cyprus. Thrace. Macedonia.

Questions 22 and 23 are based on the map below:

22. The country marked _______on the map was partitioned in the 18th century and was reborn after the First World War. a. b. c. d. (1) (2) (5) (6)

23. The two countries marked _______ and _______on the map were created at the end of the First World War. a. b. c. d. (1),(5) (2), (3) (3),(4) (5), (6)

24. By the Treaty of Versailles, the Rhineland became: a. b. c. d. A demilitarized zone. A mandated territory. A French protectorate. An independent state.

25. Which of the following events was most important in bringing about an Allied victory on the Western Front during the First World War? a. b. c. d. the Battle of Jutland the arrival of American troops in France the success of the Schlieffen Plan the surrender of Bulgaria and Turkey

26. Which of the following points was NOT proposed by President Wilson in his Fourteen Points? a. b. c. d. freedom of the seas a free and independent Poland war reparations from Germany no secret agreements among nations

27. Which of the following countries was NOT invited to the Paris Peace Conference of 1919? a. b. c. d. Japan Italy China Russia

28. Which of the following are INCORRECTLY paired? a. b. c. d. Clemenceau - hatred for anything German Kerensky - Bolshevik government Wilson - peace without bitterness Ebert - Weimar Republic

29. The United States entered the First World War mainly because of (1) Sabotage by German agents in the United States. (2) Germany's unrestricted submarine warfare. (3) The German attempt to involve the United States in a war with Mexico. (4) Russia's withdrawal from the war. a. b. c. d. (1), (2) and (3) (1), (2) and (4) (1), (3) and (4) (2), (3) and (4)

30. Which of the following statements about the Treaty of Versailles is NOT true? a. Germany was not allowed to keep soldiers in the Rhineland. b. Germany was forced to give up all her colonies.

c. Germany lost the Saar territory to France. d. Germany returned Alsace-Lorraine to France.