A Comparative Assessment of Five National Transport Strategies

A Comparative Assessment of Five
National Transport Strategies/Plans

By Peter King
11 February 2008
Table of Contents
1.0 Executive Summary ............................................................................................................................. 6
1.1.1 Economic Competitiveness .......................................................................................................... 7
1.1.2 Equity ........................................................................................................................................... 7
1. 1.3 Spatial Strategy ........................................................................................................................... 8
1. 1.4 Political Consensus ...................................................................................................................... 8
1. 1.5 Planning Efficiency and Jurisdiction ............................................................................................ 8

1. 1.6 Build vs Manage .......................................................................................................................... 8
An examination of the 9
1. 1.7 Sea ...............................................................................................................................................
New Zealand Ministry 9

1. 1.8 Urban Quality of Life ...................................................................................................................
of Transport’s
1. 1.9 Public Transport .......................................................................................................................... 9
discussion paper on 9
1. 1.10 Public Private Partnerships .......................................................................................................
Sustainable Transport10
1.1.11 Electric Vehicles .......................................................................................................................
(update of the New 10
1.2 Lessons from International Experience.............................................................................................
Zealand Transport 10
1.2.1 Policy Completeness and Government Integration ..................................................................
Strategy) through
1.2.2 Outcome Desirability ................................................................................................................. 10
comparing and
1.2.3 Consistent Trade-off Methodology ............................................................................................ 11
contrasting this with
1.3 Conclusion ......................................................................................................................................... 11
strategies from other
2.0 Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 12
relevant nations
2.1 Objective ....................................................................................................................................... 12

2.2 Importance of Transport ............................................................................................................... 12
2.3 Decoupling Transport and the Economy ...................................................................................... 12
2.4 Role of Governments in Transport................................................................................................ 13
2.5 National competitiveness through transport policy ..................................................................... 14
2.6 Competitiveness of Transport Policy ............................................................................................ 14
3.0 Australia (Victoria) ............................................................................................................................ 16
3.1 Victoria .......................................................................................................................................... 20
3.2 Melbourne 2030 – Planning for Sustainable Growth – summary of the Document ................... 21
3.3. “Meeting our challenges” - summary of the Document .............................................................. 22
3.4 Melbourne Port@L Strategy – Summary of the document .......................................................... 23
3.5 Road Safety Strategy ..................................................................................................................... 23
3.6 Our Environment, Our Future – Summary of initiatives ............................................................... 24
3. 7 Evaluation of the Victorian Transport Strategy ........................................................................... 24
3.8 Victorian Transport Policy Critique .............................................................................................. 26
4.0 Ireland ............................................................................................................................................... 28
Relevant Policies ................................................................................................................................. 28
3.1 Towards 2016 .................................................................................................................................... 29
Towards 2016 is not just a Government strategy. It is an agreement between government and
numerous stakeholders including: .......................................................................................................... 29
In Part One it addresses the .................................................................................................................... 29
In Part Two it addresses .......................................................................................................................... 29
Highlights from Part One .................................................................................................................... 29
Transport 21 is a package of land transport development projects ....................................................... 30
Road Safety Strategy to be developed.................................................................................................... 30
3.2 Ireland National Development Plan .................................................................................................. 31
3.3 Transport 21 ...................................................................................................................................... 31
3.4 Irish Climate Change Strategy ........................................................................................................... 34
3.5 Irish Road Safety Strategy ................................................................................................................. 35
3.6 Evaluation of the Irish Transport Strategy ........................................................................................ 37
3.7 Ireland Transport Strategy Critique .................................................................................................. 39
4.0 Japan ................................................................................................................................................. 41
Relevant Strategies ............................................................................................................................. 41
4.1 New Growth Economic Strategy ....................................................................................................... 42
4.2 The 5th Comprehensive National Development Plan Grand Design for the 21st Century .............. 44
4.3 Next Stage for Roads in Japan ........................................................................................................... 48
4.4 Japanese Automobile Manufacturers Association 2007 Report on Environmental Protection Efforts
of the Japanese Automobile Industry ..................................................................................................... 48
4.5 Council for Transport Policy Report No. 20 ...................................................................................... 49
Raison d’etre ....................................................................................................................................... 49
Origins ................................................................................................................................................. 49
Themes ................................................................................................................................................ 49
4.6 Building a low carbon society ........................................................................................................... 50
4.7 Draft Budget for the FY2006 Kyoto Protocol Target Achievement Plan (Jan 2006) ......................... 51
4.8 Vehicle Safety Measures for Building a Society Free from Road Traffic Accidents .......................... 51
4.9 Evaluation of the Japanese Transport Strategy ................................................................................ 52
4.9 Japan Transport Strategy Assessment and Critique ......................................................................... 54
5.0 Norway .............................................................................................................................................. 55
Relevant Policies ................................................................................................................................. 56
5.1 Norwegian National Transport Plan 2006–2015............................................................................... 56
Safety .................................................................................................................................................. 56
Urban Transport .................................................................................................................................. 57
Regional Links...................................................................................................................................... 57
More Efficient Transport System ........................................................................................................ 59
Cleaner Environment and Better Accessibility.................................................................................... 60
Economic frameworks and main priorities ......................................................................................... 61
5.2 Evaluation of the Norwegian Transport Strategy ............................................................................. 62
5.3 ...................................................................................... Critique of the Norwegian Transport Strategy
................................................................................................................................................................ 64
6.0 United Kingdom ................................................................................................................................ 65
Relevant Documents ........................................................................................................................... 65
6.1 Towards a Sustainable Transport System: Supporting Economic Growth in a Low Carbon World .. 66
6.2 The Eddington Transport Study ........................................................................................................ 68
6.2.1 Volume One ............................................................................................................................... 69
6.2.2 Volume 2 .................................................................................................................................... 71
6.2.3 Volume 3 .................................................................................................................................... 72
6.2.4 Volume 4 .................................................................................................................................... 74
6.3 King Review of Low Carbon Cars ....................................................................................................... 74
6.4 The Future of Transport .................................................................................................................... 78
6.5 Future of Air Transport ..................................................................................................................... 80
6.6 Tackling Crime on Public Transport ................................................................................................. 80
6.7 Tomorrow’s Roads Safer for Everyone ......................................................................................... 80
6.8 Ports Policy Interim Report ........................................................................................................... 82
6.9 Planning for a Sustainable Future ................................................................................................. 83
6.10 Evaluation of the UK Transport Strategy ........................................................................................ 86
6.11 British Transport Strategy Assessment and Critique ...................................................................... 87
1.0 Executive Summary
The purpose of any transport policy is to obtain transport outcomes that confer advantage on the nation
which adopts it. Because it is an island nation and our transport outcomes are physically remote New
Zealand has tended to assume it can develop its transport policy in isolation from other nations.
Increasingly however the forces of globalisation mean that this is no longer the case. Policies developed
in other nations can, and do, have a direct affect on the constraints and possibilities of policy in this
country.
The object of this comparative assessment is to examine the draft Update to the New Zealand Transport
Strategy in the light of the strategies of other nations. In many parts of the draft Strategy overseas
examples of transport outcomes are cited as better practice than that achieved in New Zealand. It is
therefore worth examining the policy context in which those transport outcomes have been achieved.
While, in theory, it may be possible to obtain the same outcomes via a different policy or strategy, it
would seem obvious there is more likelihood of obtaining those outcomes by following the same
strategy.
The nations chosen for comparison are based on the following factors:
1. Are geographically similar to New Zealand (i.e long, mountainous and/or islands)
2. Have a similar sized population
3. Compete with New Zealand for investment or in some export markets
4. Supply New Zealand’s with transport goods or services
5. Are customers of New Zealand’s goods and services
6. Inspire New Zealand intellectually
7. Publish their policies in English
The nations selected are:
1. Australia (Victoria)
2. Ireland
3. Japan
4. New Zealand
5. Norway
6. United Kingdom
The assessment examines the performance of these published policies against the NZTS objectives.
1. Assist economic development

2. Assist safety and personal Security
3. Improve access and mobility
4. Protect and promote public health
5. Ensure environmental sustainability
The degree to which the plans or strategies are expected to achieve these objectives is determined by
the following:
1. The level of funding devoted to achieving the objective (if published)

2. The degree of research support presented in the plan or strategy indicating the policy is
evidence-based.
3. The breadth of considerations raised in considering the objectives (as evidence of broad
thinking)
4. The apparent strength of the proposed link between the strategy or plan’s objectives and
the behaviour of those in the economy (realism)
5. The degree of change required from current level of performance to the plan’s proposed
level (ambition).
The Assessment reveals a number of important themes. These are:
1.1.1 Economic Competitiveness1

All the foreign transport strategies are fundamentally about economic competitiveness. They are about
improving access for freight and people so that people can improve their standard of living. No strategy
subordinates any other objective to this primary goal. Each strategy is firmly aware of the competitive
pressure on their transport performance. Even Japan’s METI (arguably the architects of the world’s
second largest economy) is strongly aware of competitive pressure from the United States (California),
China, India and South East Asia. Transport policy is part of the regional development policy aimed at
making the transition to a post-industrial economy. Ireland and Victoria are similarly aware of the
competitive pressure from other states in their respective commonwealths.
The main thrust in the New Zealand update strategy relating to competitiveness is the aim to achieve
carbon neutrality earlier than any other nation. This assessment finds the suggestion that New Zealand
might overtake Norway in this race (given Norway’s current 100% lead) rather unlikely. It also points out
that the residual value of stealing Norway’s glory by achieving carbon neutrality a decade earlier is
undetermined. It is notable that while Norway places high values on safety and sustainability these do
not eclipse the over-all goal of improving the standard of living of Norway’s citizens.
1.1.2 Equity2
Social and economic equity is a core concern of all the transport strategies reviewed. Irelands concerns
are for equity through the human lifecycle, rural/urban equity (given 40% of Irish people live in rural
areas) and equity of access and mobility for disadvantaged people. Japan is very concerned about age
based equity, that is, providing age-neutral transportation opportunities. Victoria’s equity concerns
reflect the issues of rural, peri-urban and urban access – the Victorian plan acknowledges the
importance of the car in the peri-urban and rural parts of the State. Norway’s principle concern is for
links to its far-flung northern community and for the disabled. Britain’s concern is to prevent transport
ghettos creating under-classes with limited social mobility.
1
The word “competitiveness” occurs only twice in the UNZTS in reference to exports (p28 & p31)
2
The word “equity” occurs twice in the UNZTS in reference to the design of the ETS (p10) and road pricing (p54)
1. 1.3 Spatial Strategy
Victoria, Ireland, Japan, and to a lesser extent Britain and Norway have very clear spatial strategies. The
object of a spatial strategy is to examine how planning on a national (inter-regional) level should
proceed. The Japanese spatial strategy is an excellent example of a spatial strategy falling out of an
economic strategy where economic strategy is concerned with the Government’s provision of: fiscal and
monetary policy; educational policy; and regional development/ planning law policy. Spatial strategy
may for example reveal the long term benefits of step-wise improvements to transport infrastructure
(eg moving the South Island ferry terminal to Clifford Bay3 or a road tunnel through the Kaimai ranges,
or an expansion of regional airports such as Rotorua or Napier-Hastings).
All the other strategies are specific about major development projects and how they will facilitate links
between regions and the rest of the world. The New Zealand strategy is the only one which does not.
The Japanese Ministry of Lands Infrastructure and Transport has been collecting world spatial strategies
and has published it on a web-site4. While the Sustainable Transport discussion paper is strongly linked
into the New Zealand Energy Strategy and National Energy Efficiency and Conservation Strategy there is
no New Zealand spatial strategy. The absence of such a strategy takes the achievement of the discussion
targets out of a crucial geographical dimension.
1. 1.4 Political Consensus

Ireland, Japan , Norway and to a lesser extent Victoria have based their spatial strategies on a broad-
based consensus of how each nation will develop economically and socially into the future. Ireland’s
spatial strategy is linked directly to its socio-economic agreement Towards 2016. This consensus means
that there is buy-in to the development from all regions as they all see scope for their own region under
the strategy. Lack of a political consensus can only result in long term strategy chopping and changing as
successive governments meddle with it.
1. 1.5 Planning Efficiency and Jurisdiction

Aside from Britain, transport planning in most nations is carried out by the same body that also manages
infrastructural development, regional development and planning law. The efficiency and effectiveness of
government planning methods was raised by all the nations. In Ireland, Victoria and Britain special
reviews had been conducted to determine the impeding effect of ‘red tape’ ( as Victoria put it). Japan
and to a lesser extent Norway too were also concerned to see that the time between the determination
of the need for major infrastructure projects and their provision.
1. 1.6 Build vs Manage

All nations take a position on the continuum of building new capacity vs managing existing capacity. In
this survey Ireland was building the most new capacity relative to its previous levels followed by Japan,
and Victoria. Norway and Britain while adding capacity emphasised greater management, particularly of
land transport. Ireland’s enormous investment is fundamentally about distributing wealth around the
nation and provide access to rural areas in between to prevent too much concentration on Dublin.
3
http://www.kml.co.nz/proj03CliffordBayFerry.htm
4
http://www.mlit.go.jp/kokudokeikaku/international/sp/index_en.html
Japan’s redevelopment was the emphasis on improving quality of life through access to the previously
neglected rural hinterland.
The fundamental question that precedes the ‘build vs manage debate’ is the extent to which the existing
spatial arrangements are considered satisfactory to the future needs of the nation. Britain does not
challenge its existing spatial relationships through investment because it has clearly reached a level of
network saturation where the addition of much more capacity is becoming too costly. Thus in some
senses Britain’s response to its London centric transport inheritance is simply to raise costs of accessing
its national hub (London) – a spatial strategy through road pricing. By contrast Ireland is managing its
spatial strategy through investment. Only Japan is starting with its base economic strategy to redevelop
its core economic relationships for the 21st century and translating these into changes in its spatial
strategy.
1. 1.7 Sea
All the nations canvassed, except Ireland, anticipated a maritime renaissance for coastal shipping.
Japanese emphasis was on vessel design, Norwegian emphasis was on propulsion systems. Victoria was
projecting a seven-fold increase in Port related traffic while Britain aimed to improve use of inland and
coastal shipping in order to relieve pressure on rail and roads. Sea transport’s impacts inland were well
recognised both in terms of congestion and economic benefit.
1. 1.8 Urban Quality of Life

Urban “Liveability” and “quality of life”5 are key outcomes sought by all but one of the transport
strategies assessed. This was the core value sought by the Victorian policy but was also targeted by the
Irish, Japanese and British. Only Norway focused on the negative outcome of pollution and in fact had
the worst performance in this respect. While quality of life covered all forms of pollution it also included
active transport use and a sense of public enjoyment not captured by the New Zealand objectives. The
notion was that a successful transport system should make life easier without contributing to (in
particular) urban stress. This empowers non-motorised transport without at the same time detracting
from the benefits public and private motorised transport provides.
1. 1.9 Public Transport

All the nations assessed had higher levels of public transport investment in their cities than New
Zealand. That said it was notable that Victoria, despite high agglomeration benefits from Melbourne and
a very high level of urbanisation only has a PT mode share of 9 percent. Melbourne’s target is the same
as the update proposal - ie to achieve 20% PT mode share. This raises serious questions about the
realism of the proposed New Zealand target given the current low mode share level of Auckland as
indicated by the update on page 39.
1. 1.10 Public Private Partnerships

All the nations reviewed had implemented public private partnership projects – even Norway which
certainly has no shortage of state funding. Ireland was making the most extensive use of PPPs. Most
were organised via a single state authority.
5
The phrases “livability” and “quality of life” do not occur in the UNZTS discussion paper.
1.1.11 Electric Vehicles
Only Norway’s transport strategy has made any mention of electric vehicles in regards to transport
strategy. This is problematic as it is from Japan that we might seek to source such vehicles and Norway is
not an automotive manufacturing nation. New Zealand has stated that it will be “one of the first
countries in the world to deploy electric vehicles”. It is notable that Norway has already removed nearly
all taxes on electric vehicles while New Zealand’s regulatory barriers to their introduction remain
formidable.
1.2 Lessons from International Experience

New Zealand’s comparative transport outcomes over the past 25 years are very much in line with its
performance in GNI/capita. That is to say any advantages we may have had 25 years ago have been
largely eclipsed by other nations which have progressed at a faster rate. This has not been substantially
changed by the New Zealand Transport Strategy 2010 and, as was pointed out by the Next Steps Review,
was unlikely to occur due to a disjunction between strategic policy and its practical application.
1.2.1 Policy Completeness and Government Integration

This review has found that the discussion paper for the rewritten strategy as published is unique among
its peers in lacking detail on practical questions of what will be achieved, where, when and (in many
cases) at what cost. This is largely because Sustainable Transport is to a large extent a policy orphan. It
shows a strong derivation from the New Zealand Energy Strategy and the National Energy Efficiency and
Conservation Strategy but little from other transport strategies – eg the National Highway Strategy.
Worse it is not part of any broader spatial or socio-economic strategy and shows no connection to land-
use planning policy. This absence of policy integration raises doubts as to whether it will be any more
successful than its predecessor. The strategies proposed by the five nations reviewed are notable for
broad view of transport compared to the New Zealand Transport update. The equity and lifecycle
concerns evident in the Irish and Japanese strategies are completely novel in New Zealand. The depth of
the economic analysis of the British Eddington Report and the strategic planning of the Japanese MLIT is
likewise is unknown here. Much of this may be due to the institutional constraints of separating the New
Zealand Ministry of Transport from other Ministries – however for a 20-year strategy one might expect
these to be resolved.
1.2.2 Outcome Desirability

International transport policy is largely concerned about Government delivering unequivocal return on
taxation benefits to citizens. This is expressed in terms such as ‘equity’, ‘safety’ ‘quality of life’ and
‘competitiveness’. These are qualities everyone seeks from their transport policy which is obvious when
one considers that nobody desires ‘inequality’, ‘danger’, ‘poor quality of life’ and ‘uncompetiveness’
.The focus of Sustainable Transport is sustainability but it is notable that even in Norway and Britain the
primary focus of transport policy is economic growth. Most people have a clear idea of what economic
growth is, what equity is and what quality of life is and why they should want these things but few have
much idea of what sustainability, integration and responsiveness is and why they are important. The big
question underpinning Sustainable Transport is who wants it and why?
1.2.3 Consistent Trade-off Methodology
The British examination of benefit cost methodologies in the Eddington Report is commended. New
Zealand’s ‘tick the NZTS goal box’ methodology is not robust – particularly given the ill-defined nature of
some of the criteria while the PEM BCR is limited in scope to incremental capacity improvements. The
Ministerial Advisory Group On Roading Costs (p5) noted “The development of a national strategy for
land transport, together with a more detailed roading strategy, is required to provide better direction for
the agencies, with clearly defined and measurable national objectives against which roading projects can
be evaluated.” A common trade-off methodology is crucial as Eddington points out to ensure that all
benefits and costs are properly evaluated.
1.3 Conclusion
The discussion paper ‘Sustainable Transport, update of the New Zealand Transport Strategy’ bears very
little resemblance to any of the strategies published by the five other nations reviewed - other than in its
core subject matter. Its deficiencies ( and possible inconsistencies) are too numerous to list here but its
most glaring omissions by comparison to those strategies of the five other nations evaluated are:
1. No economic strategy context

2. No spatial strategy context
3. Unclear return-on-taxation benefits
4. Unclear linkage to real-world projects, plans and programmes
Of all the goals included in the strategy the clearest is the ambition to be the first carbon neutral nation
in the world. This assessment can only question:
1. The practicality of such an ambition given Norway’s enormous lead

2. The benefit of achieving such an ambition a decade before Norway
3. The cost of achieving such an ambition a decade before Norway
And note that the public of New Zealand might expect more answers to these questions in a document
presaging important changes to their very perception of liberty (their ability to move around) and
economic destiny before any such policy was adopted.
Comparing this policy output provided by the New Zealand Ministry of Transport against those of the
five other nations suggests a very poor level of service by the Ministry to New Zealand taxpayers. It is
hoped that any final strategy adopted will be a significant improvement and be able to sit alongside the
outputs of other international agencies with some measure of pride.
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Objective
The objective of this study is to compare New Zealand’s proposed update of the New Zealand Transport
Strategy with the plans and strategies of other nations. This is to determine the extent to which the
quality and outcomes of the proposed policy is comparable with other nations and the extent to which
New Zealand’s strategy can be said to be competitive on its own terms with the strategies of other
nations.
2.2 Importance of Transport

All societies rely on transport for both their capacity to trade and their ability to prepare and care for
successive generations. This is only obvious when transport capability is restricted or denied. Nations
with limited transport ( eg fewer air passengers per capita, fewer TEUs through ports , limited access to
motor vehicles ) have less GDP/Capita, have less favourable education and health outcomes, restricted
social mobility, and higher levels of poverty. Essentially access to transport allows people to change their
circumstances both economically and socially. Historically transformations in transport (eg European
maritime expansion from AD1500, Rail expansion from 1800, the motor car era from 1920, and the Jet
era from 1970) have all led to ever increasing economic and social growth and transformation. The less
mobile a society the less its members can change their circumstances.
2.3 Decoupling Transport and the Economy

There is strong evidence that the New Zealand economy and its expenditure on transport are strongly
coupled together6. This is largely due to the importance of physical movement of goods and people in its
primary and tourism export industries. By contrast other nations have a weaker relationship between
economic activity and transport. This usually corresponds to a higher proportion of a nation’s GDP being
derived from commercial services exports. Nations with high levels of GDP derived from commercial
services exports tend to be those highly involved in financial services or which lack an agricultural or
industrial base to underpin GDP. Thus nations such as Denmark, Ireland, Cyprus, and Singapore derive a
greater fraction of GDP from commercial services exports7 than New Zealand, although New Zealand
derives a higher proportion than industrial nations such as Germany and the United States.
It is obvious that efforts to decouple New Zealand’s economy from transport must therefore start by
developing a greater proportion of New Zealand’s export revenue from commercial services exports
rather than by simply denying investment in transport. The former will grow the economy and
comparatively reduce demand for transport while the latter will simply hobble the economy for no real
6
http://www.transport.govt.nz/assets/NewPDFs/decoupling-paper.pdf (figure 1)
7
http://www.nationmaster.com/graph/eco_com_ser_exp_cur_us_pergdp-exports-current-us-per-gdp
reason. Policies that improve commercial services exports tend to be associated with policy differentials
with commercial competitor nations. Thus the leading nation in commercial services exports are nations
such as Luxembourg, Netherlands-Antilles, Barbados and Vanuatu famed for their tax advantages and
financial regulation (or lack of it). The scope for increasing commercial services exports therefore
appears to reside largely in that hands of the Treasury and the Inland Revenue Department.
2.4 Role of Governments in Transport

Government has always had an important role in the development of transport. The development of
ports, rail, roads and airports (not to mention telephone and telegraph) have been largely led by
Government or local government investment. New Zealand was originally settled from the sea. Most
New Zealand cities are built around ports. From this rail and road networks expanded into the country.
Later towns were built around railway lines – notably in the King country. More recently Queenstown
has grown rapidly around its airport.
Examples of historical changes in transport include:
Refrigerated shipping (1880s)

Main trunk line (1900s )
Boeing 707/747 (1960s/70s)
Anticipating shifts in market demand and providing marketable solutions is primarily the role of
business. However sometimes providing the infrastructure to be able to do this more effectively can
only be achieved by Government. Examples of this include
Main trunk line (1908)
Homer tunnel (1953)
Auckland harbour bridge (1959)
Kaimai Tunnel (1978)
By investing in a significant transport link the Government opens the way for business development
(and future taxation), In many cases this anticipates developments which can take some considerable
time before business begins to generate returns. For example the Homer tunnel opened the Milford
Sounds to tourism but it was not until the advent of lower-priced international passenger flights (with
the widebody jets from the mid 1970s) that this accessibility could be translated into a much expanded
tourism industry.
The traditional concern of most Governments in transport has been economic development. Since the
1920s safety, and more recently health and environmental protection have also been added to the
Government’s direct concerns in transport. Indirectly Government has also provided transport
assistance to aid its other objectives such as school buses for education and ambulance (air and land)
services and mobile nurses for health.
New Zealand’s transport strategy enumerates five objectives for transport policy:
Although not all nations include these objectives within the transport strategy they remain, nonetheless,
high level considerations for all Governments.
2.5 National competitiveness through transport policy

Transport policy is often the basis of improved national competitiveness. Such competitiveness may be
expressed in a variety of ways:
Military competitiveness (eg German Autobahn construction in the 1930s)

Economic competitiveness (eg US Interstate system in the 1950s)
Boasting rights. (eg the tallest viaduct or longest tunnel)
Military competitiveness essentially anticipates a struggle for national survival where logistics will play a
significant role in success. Since the advent of the United Nations it is difficult to see this as relevant.
Economic competitiveness is the principle form of international competition today. A lower cost logistics
network provides a trading advantage for one nation over another.
Usually “boasting rights” applies to feats of engineering such as the “Chunnel”, the Millau Viaduct or the
Hangzhou Bay Bridge. The update to the New Zealand Transport Strategy states an important “boasting
rights” goal of national competitiveness on page four:
“..Because of our deeper understanding of the need to build a sustainable nation, we have established an
ambition to be the first carbon neutral country in the world..”
No attempt is made to establish whether winning this “race” will confer any particular national
advantage (permanent or temporary) nor is any attempt made to ascertain the costs of achieving the
ambition. Unlike the case of an engineering ‘boasting right’ (eg a bridge or tunnel) there is no
discernable residual value from achievement of the goal as other nations eventually achieve comparable
levels of achievement.
Nevertheless the declaration of a “Carbon neutrality race” essentially establishes that there remains an
element of national competitiveness in the Update to the New Zealand Transport Strategy.
2.6 Competitiveness of Transport Policy

Having established that competitiveness (in one form or another) is one of the purposes of a national
transport strategy the question becomes the degree to which a transport policy is in fact competitive
compared with those of other nations.
The following nations have been selected to form the basis of a comparable assessment:
1. Australia (Victoria)
2. Ireland
3. Japan
4. New Zealand
5. Norway
6. United Kingdom
These nations are selected because they:
1. Are geographically similar to New Zealand (i.e Long, mountainous and/or islands)
2. Compete with New Zealand for investment or in some export markets
3. Supply New Zealand’s with transport goods or services
4. Are customers of New Zealand’s goods and services
5. Inspire New Zealand intellectually
The criteria of this comparative assessment are based on the five key objectives of the 2010 New
Zealand Transport Strategy.
These are the degree with which they:

The degree to which the plans or strategies are expected to achieve these objectives is determined by
the following:
1. The level of funding devoted to achieving the objective (if published)

2. The degree of research support presented in the plan or strategy indicating the policy is
evidence-based.
3. The breadth of considerations raised in considering the objectives (as evidence of broad
thinking)
4. The apparent strength of the proposed link between the strategy or plan’s objectives and
5. The degree of change required from current level of performance to the plan’s proposed
level.
This assesses each plan or strategy in its own terms. However the strategies must also be assessed in
comparison with the New Zealand strategy to examine any implications both nations adopting their
prospective strategies will have on the other. Thus a final form of assessment is the competitive
assessment of the relative merits of the two strategies.
3.0 Australia (Victoria)
Australia is New Zealand’s most important trading and political partner. The Commonwealth
Government of Australia is, however, significantly different to the Government of New Zealand in scope
and structure. The Australian Continent and territories are governed by the Federal Government in
Canberra. Australia is a source of vehicles as both nations drive on the left. In Australia national
transport policy is the responsibility of the Department of Infrastructure, Transport, Regional
Development and Local Government. This Department is responsible for:
infrastructure planning and coordination

transport safety, including investigations
land transport
civil aviation and airports
transport security
delivery of regional and rural specific services
maritime transport including shipping
regional development
matters relating to local government
major projects facilitation
Subsidiary to the Department are:
Auslink, the national roading funding agency

National Road Transport Commission, the road transport regulator
The Australian Transport Safety Bureau
The Bureau of Infrastructure, Transport and Regional Economics
Australian Transport Council, a forum for State government
The new Prime Minister Kevin Rudd announced8 21 January 2008 that he will establish an advisory
council called Infrastructure Australia to advice on a new plan for the development of Australia’s
infrastructure. This seems very similar in function to the Australian Transport Council.
However there is no Australian national Strategic Transport Policy document.
Under the web link Transport in Australia > Legislation & Regulation > Strategic Transport Policy are just
two items:
Strategic Transport Policy
Provides a strategic framework for Commonwealth leadership of multimodal, federal/state transport policy and
undertaking new maritime policy developments.
National Bicycle Strategy
8
http://www.minister.infrastructure.gov.au/aa/releases/2008/January/AA004_2008.htm
Australian Transport Council / Standing Committee on Transport Secretariat
The Commonwealth Government last year announced
Transport: 2007-08 Budget initiatives
AusLink 2
The Australian Government will invest $22.3 billion in Australia's land transport system from
2009–10 to 2013–14, under the second stage of its National Land Transport Plan—AusLink 2.
AusLink 2 is the biggest investment in land transport infrastructure ever made by an Australian
Government. It is 41 per cent larger than the current AusLink programme, which runs from 2004
to 2008–09. The Australian Government is now investing $15.8 billion under the current
programme from 2004 to June 2009, including $250 million in extra funding that the
Government will spend on AusLink Strategic Regional projects in 2006-07.
AusLink 2 will include $16.8 billion over five years for projects on the AusLink National Network—
22,500 km of roads and 14,000 km of intercapital rail lines. These projects will make it quicker,
safer and cheaper to travel between our major cities and will make it easier for exporters to get
their products to the docks.
Expenditure on maintenance of the road elements of the Network will increase by one-third to
$400 million a year.
The Government will announce details of AusLink 2 projects in due course. The projects will
reflect the results of 24 AusLink corridor studies that the Australian Government is conducting
with the states and territories. These studies will set out the strategic investment priorities to
make our major transport links work more efficiently.
Under the AusLink 2 arrangements:
the Roads to Recovery Programme will be extended until June 2014 with a 14 per cent
increase to $350 million a year from 1 July 2009;
the Strategic Regional Programme will provide $300 million across the five years of
AusLink 2, building on the $470 million provided under AusLink 1, including the
additional $250 million in the 2006-07 announcement in this budget; and
the Black Spot Programme, which was due to end in June 2008, will now be extended. In
AusLink 2 (from 1 July 2009), its funding will increase by one-third to $60 million a year.
For 2008–09, it will be maintained at the existing annual level of $45 million.
Roads to Recovery Programme
The Australian Government will continue the AusLink Roads to Recovery programme until June
2014 and increase its funding by 14 per cent from June 2009. The programme was scheduled to
end in 2008–09. The Australian Government will increase its funding from $307.5 million per
year at present to $350 million per year, from 2009-10.
The Roads to Recovery Programme provides local councils with extra funding to maintain and
upgrade their road networks. Since the Government established the programme in 2001,
councils have used it to build more than 25,000 projects on the roads that Australians use every
day.
The funding increase will help offset the rising cost of road construction and enable councils to fix
more local roads.
On top of this increased spending, in 2007-08 the Australian Government will provide local
councils around Australia with $537.7 million in grants identified for expenditure on local roads.
These grants are part of the Government's untied funding for local government. Over the next
five years to 2011–12, these local road grants are expected to total more than $2.9 billion.
South Australian councils will also receive an additional $13.5 million in 2007–08 in
supplementary local road grants to compensate for the disadvantage they suffer under the
distribution of the local road grants.
Strategic Regional Programme
The Australian Government increases its spending commitment under the AusLink Strategic
Regional Programme to $770 million. A key element is the fostering of stronger ties between the
Australian Government and regional Australia, local government authorities, regional groups of
councils, the private sector, community organisations and state and territory governments.
The Government has invested $220 million in the programme in December 2006, allowing 107
projects to be funded. The programme received a $250 million boost in 2006-07 in this Budget.
In addition, the Australian Government will provide an extra $300 million through the AusLink
Strategic Regional Programme to help local councils fund transport infrastructure projects that
will boost their local economies and create jobs. Councils have to apply for this funding under the
programme guidelines.
The extra $300 million will be allocated in two $150 million application rounds, held in 2009–10
and 2011–12.
Black Spot Programme
The Australian Government will increase its targeted spending on fixing crash 'black spots' to
save more lives on the nation's roads.
The 2007–08 Budget confirms that the Government will continue the AusLink Black Spot
Programme until June 2014, with a 33 per cent increase in funding from 2009-10. The
programme prevents approximately 500 casualty crashes a year. It had been scheduled to end in
June 2008.
The Government will provide $45 million in funding in 2007–08 and again in 2008–09 as part of
its current AusLink Programme. This will be directed at various safety works such as
roundabouts, crash barriers and streetlights where there have been serious crashes or where
serious crashes are likely.
On 1 July 2009, annual programme spending increases to $60 million a year from 2009–10 to
2013–14.
Funding for Remote Aerodromes
The Australian Government is providing $22 million over four years from 2007-08 to 2010-11
under the Regional and Remote Aerodrome Funding Scheme to upgrade and maintain airstrips in
regional and remote areas. This initiative will improve remote communities' access to essential
services, and increase safety at remote and isolated aerodromes. The programme will also help
the Royal Flying Doctor Service in providing assistance to people in remote areas with limited
access to medical services.
The scheme will provide funding for such projects as:
upgrade of airstrip services;
installation of lighting and navigation equipment; and
fencing projects to keep wildlife and livestock away from airstrips.
The scheme will be a competitive application based programme with most projects to be jointly
funded by the Australian Government, state governments and the local community.
Strengthening regional aviation security
The Australian Government is providing $15.4 million over four years, from 2007-08, to assist 26
regional airports with the introduction of security screening of checked baggage.
The $36.5 million Regional Airport Funding Programme assists up to 150 regional airports to
implement basic security measures required under the Aviation Transport Security regulatory
regime. In 2007-08 work will continue to deliver upgrades to physical security at regional airports
such as fencing, lighting and security alarm systems.
In August 2004 the Australian Government provided $48 million for the Securing Our Regional
Skies package which aims to improve regional airport and airline response preparedness to a
change in aviation threat levels. The package consists of seven measures to enhance regional
aviation security arrangements. The initiatives include:
Australian Federal Police Protective Service Regional Rapid Deployment Teams to
enhance response capacity for airports;
joint training and exercise programmes for state and territory police;
delivery of a metal detection hand-wand capability for 145 airports, to be implemented

in the event of alert levels being raised;
a trial of closed circuit television at selected regional airports;
aviation security training for regional airline and airport staff;
a targeted public awareness campaign to encourage the reporting of suspicious activity

at regional airports; and
funding for the installation of hardened cockpit doors for charter aircraft with 30 seats
or more.
In 2007-08, the Australian Government will continue to work with aviation operators and law
enforcement bodies to develop response capacity, capability and deterrence at regional aviation
facilities.
The ATC has developed the Australian National Road Safety Strategy 2001-20109, National Guidelines
for State and territory transport system management, A National Charter of Integrated Land Use
Planning, A National Level Crossing Safety Strategy, and an Integrated National Strategy for lowering
Emissions from Urban Traffic.
3.1 Victoria
Given the relative geographical and population scale of Australia and New Zealand , New Zealand (2006
pop 4,076,000 area 268,670 sq km) might more properly compare itself with the State of Victoria (2006
pop 4,984,300 area 227,600 sq km) although it should be noted that Victoria’s capital Melbourne with a
population of 3.8 million which, when combined with satellite cities makes the state 88% urbanised. This
is relatively high compared to New Zealand’s 71% spread over five geographically dispersed cities.
The Victoria State Government has published a number of strategic planning documents
“Melbourne 2030 – Planning for Sustainable Growth” in 2002
“Meeting Our Challenges10” in May 2006 (land transport).
“Melbourne Port@L Strategy” in August 2006 (Ports and land use)
“Our Environment, Our Future” – Sustainability Action Statement 2006
9
http://www.atcouncil.gov.au/documents/atcnrss.aspx
10
http://www.doi.vic.gov.au/doi/doielect.nsf/$UNIDS+for+Web+Display/B5BF2C81823E9C87CA25716C001A648F/
$FILE/MOTC_Full.pdf
3.2 Melbourne 2030 – Planning for Sustainable Growth – summary of the Document
Melbourne 2030 is focused on planning for the next 30 years of Melbourne’s development. The plan
contrasts Melbourne in 1972 with 2002 and looks to the future. Interesting it explicitly states the car will
continue to dominate in transport even though one goal of the plan is to develop public transport. The
whole plan is based on nine fundamental ‘directions’:
Direction 1. A more compact city

Direction 2. Better management of metropolitan growth
Direction 3. Networks with the regional cities
Direction 4. A more prosperous city
Direction 5. A great place to be
Direction 6. A fairer city
Direction 7. A greener city
Direction 8. Better transport links
Direction 9. Better planning decisions, careful management
Directions 1&2 are essentially an anti-sprawl strategy for Melbourne with strong town-planning
overtones. An essential justification for this policy is the cost of providing public transport beyond
boundaries. While policies are couched in general terms the document is highly site specific when
referring to the type of development that should occur.
Direction 3 is about concentrating extra-Melbourne development into transport corridors and limiting
the development of small-holdings outside the city fringe.
Direction 4 focuses on Melbourne’s freight and logistics development as well as its ICT infrastructure
provision. There is clear awareness of the importance of these sectors to the State’s economy.
Direction 5 combines walkability, architectural heritage, public safety and environmental amenity goals.
Direction 6 emphasises affordable housing, disabled facilities and access to healthcare.
Direction 7 concentrates on water management, waste minimisation and management and habitat
management. Passing mention is made of air quality considerations and climate change however 72% of
Victoria’s emissions come from energy and industry while 16% come from vehicles. A target of
increasing PT mode share to 20% of all motorised trips from the current 9% is thought to assist this.
Direction 8 sets the target of 20% public transport, 60% private transport and 20% active mode share.
This will require increased investment in all three forms.
Direction 9 recognises the importance of speeding up the planning appeals process, improving
partnerships with local government and increasing public participation.
CONCLUSION: “Melbourne 2030 – Planning for Sustainable Growth” is a relatively detailed city
development plan. It enjoys the advantage of its ability to be site-specific while generalising policy. This
should mean the scope for unintended consequences is reduced.
It should be noted, that as with so many Australian strategies 2030 also has an on-going audit.11 The
results of the latest audit “Findings from the 2006 Census” published last year have found PT mode
share has increased one percentage point while annual GDP growth has averaged 3%. Growth at
Melbourne’s fringe however remains problematic for anti-sprawl strategies. Policy refinement to the
role of “specialised activity centres” has been proposed as a result of the audit.
3.3. “Meeting our challenges” - summary of the Document

“Meeting Our Challenges” begins with welcomes from the State premier, and Minister of Transport.
These state that the horizon for the document is 25 years. This is followed by a Summary and Highlights
which stresses that the plan involves spending an additional A$10.5 billion on new transport facilities for
Melbourne and Victoria including A$70 million for cycling..
The emphasis of the document, from the outset, is to ensure Victoria remains “The Place to Be” because
it is one of the most ‘livable’ places in the world according to the Economist Intelligence Unit12. The
point of state boasting/ competitiveness in the document is therefore ‘livability’.
The rest of section one boasts of Victoria’s transport system providing details on roading network scale,
public transport usage, and road safety performance. Importantly the plan states it is based on
“Melbourne 2030” and its Direction 6 social equity policy “A Fairer Victoria”
Section Two is concerned with the “Future Needs” of Victoria’s transport system. Future Needs is
essentially a ‘predict and provide’ approach to transport planning. Projections for urban growth are in
evidence. Projects for roading, public transport ( esp rail) and cycling are enumerated. It is pointed out
that the bulk of trips in Melbourne occur in the outer suburbs around the ring by car rather than in and
out of the CBD by public transport. It is clear this has been measured.
Section Three is titled “Priorities”. In fact it does not establish any trade-offs for priorities and simply
restates the goal of livability and previously stated plans to invest in public transport and rail.
Section Four is titled “Actions”. This is essentially the “meat” of the document outlining specific
development projects for road, bus, rail and cycling as well as projects for specific groups such as rural
Victorians and the elderly. Each ‘action’ and its funding is detailed as part of the plan.
11
http://www.dse.vic.gov.au/DSE/nrenpl.nsf/LinkView/2D534B884DFD849CCA2573A0000FB36EA880EF1092FE0F07
CA256D19002A0A5D
12
The Economist Intelligence Unit’s Liveability Ranking assesses living conditions in 127 cities around the world by
looking at nearly 40 individual indicators grouped into five categories: stability, healthcare, culture and
environment, education, and infrastructure. Qualitative and quantitative data are combined to give an overall
Quality of Life Index rating.
CONCLUSION: “Meeting our Challenges” is at once general and specific. The sums of money involved are
not particularly large but it appears that this is sufficient to achieve the stated objectives of the plan.
Once again “Meeting our Challenges” is generally part of a single city plan.
3.4 Melbourne Port@L Strategy – Summary of the document

This is a consultation document still under consideration.
The Port of Melbourne annually handle 1.4m TEU (compared to Auckland’s 800,000) which is projected
to increase five-fold by 2030. Freight logistics comprises roughly 10% of the Victorian economy. This
growth can only put more pressure on development and land use within Melbourne.
Section one: ”Victoria’s Freight Task” outlines the nature of growth along with origins and destinations.
Further research on this is available from the Department of Infrastructure.
“Need for a Portal Strategy” and “Principles of a Portal Strategy” describe how the anticipated growth of
the freight task must by necessity switch from the inner city docks to suburban ones while improving the
management of freight around the city. This requires a plan to improve links – especially for rail.
“Key elements of a portal strategy” and “staging of a portal strategy” effectively outline how the
transition from inner city facilities to suburban ones might be achieved.
CONCLUSIONS: The freight task facing Victoria, while large, is simplified through more direct forms of
management and control and a concentrated geographical area compared to New Zealand
3.5 Road Safety Strategy

The Australian Transport Strategy is very much a living document. While the strategy sets long term
targets an action plan is published every two years. This in turn is evaluated with a progress report. The
progress report for 200613 is the latest available from the ATC.
Road deaths are measured in terms of 100,000 population. The 2003 national actual was 8.3, The target
is 5.6 by 2010. The current actual is 7.9. New Zealand’s rate was 11.3 in 2003, the 2007 actual was 10.0
and the five year average was 10.32.
Victoria’s rate has dropped from 8.2 in 2002 to 6.2 by 2006. In general term’s Victoria has enjoyed the
greatest improvement in road safety outcomes of all the Australian states. Victoria has invested A$540
million on blackspots and $120 million on safety retrofitting and is increasing coverage of audio tactile
lane marking. It has worked with the Monash University Accident Research Centre to reduce crashes. It
has reduced urban speeds in built-up areas, issued 3,000 alcohol interlock Court orders, and introduced
tougher penalties for drink-driving in 2006. Victoria has also introduced saliva based testing for drugged
driving and a new graduated drivers licence with penalties for mobile phone use whilst driving in the
probationary stage of licensing.
CONCLUSIONS: Victoria appears to be considerably ahead of New Zealand in terms of road safety
performance, investment and policy.
13
http://www.atcouncil.gov.au/documents/NRSS_progress_report_2006.pdf
3.6 Our Environment, Our Future – Summary of initiatives
This document14 is the principle environment and sustainability policy for the State of Victoria. It is
divided into four main sections:
a. Responding to the challenge of climate change

b. Maintaining and restoring our natural assets
c. Using our resources more efficiently
d. Reducing our everyday environmental impacts
The principle focus in responding to climate change is increasing renewable energy from 4% to 10%.
Means of doing this will involve research into new technologies and development of an emissions
trading scheme. Improved metering technology is intended to assist on the demand side. The State
Government is also working on mitigation in anticipation of climate change. Total Investment A$100
million.
Environmental degradation and in particular the degradation of water resources is the key
environmental issue for Victoria. The State is facing very real challenges and has responded to date with
over A$500 million in investment. The Government intends to spend a further A$600 million on Yarra
River water quality.
The State Government is taking strong action to reduce waste. Among other policies it is banning plastic
supermarket bags by the end of 2008. The State is also introducing packaging stewardship and
electronics recycling centres. The state intends to reduce litter waste by 35% on 2003 levels under its
Zero Waste policy. Plans for forestry, mining and small and medium business are also being developed.
Reducing everyday environmental impacts is very much about the interaction between households and
the State at numerous levels from energy efficiency, through waste minimisation and transport
planning. There are numerous small programs aims at improving the sustainability of households in the
Victorian environment.
Note: Australian Kyoto targets are 1990 levels plus 10%.
3. 7 Evaluation of the Victorian Transport Strategy

In order to evaluate the Victorian policy it is necessary to examine each of the NZTS objectives against
the assessment criteria.

a. The level of funding devoted to achieving the objective (if published)
b. The degree of research support presented in the plan or strategy indicating the policy is
evidence-based.
c. The breadth of considerations raised in considering the objectives (as evidence of broad
thinking)
14
http://www.dse.vic.gov.au/ourenvironment-ourfuture/downloads.htm
d. The apparent strength of the proposed link between the strategy or plan’s objectives and
e. The degree of change required from current level of performance to the plan’s proposed
level.
Assessment
The Victorian strategy documents have two main economic thrusts. First to develop the Port of
Melbourne so that it may continue unfettered growth, and second to maintain the economic health and
well-being of the CBD of Melbourne.
a. The level of funding allocated to this objective is not particularly large (A$10 billion for PT
and roading plus A$2 billion for the Port). This is largely because it is evident that the
planning process reduces costs and because Victoria is already in a relatively strong position
( 2006USDPP$31,264/capita vs NZs 2006USDPPP$27,220/capita) anyway.
b. The supporting strategies show a very strong level of understanding of the logistical flow
around Melbourne. The concentration of so much of the State’s population in one city and
one port makes this a relatively simple task.
c. The breadth of thinking concerning the degree to which transport assists economic
development is taken as read. Transport is largely a logistical problem.
d. The control of the State Government over crucial elements of the transport system makes
linking intent with reality relatively simple. An important exception is the demand for
housing on Melbourne’s fringe which does not seem to be neatly fulfilling planners
expectations.
e. The increase in PT mode share targeted in Melbourne 2030 may yet be out of the city’s
grasp given a one percent change has taken five years and a 50% increase in world fuel
prices. The change projected for the Port of Melbourne is daunting.
2) Assist safety and personal security assessment

a. The State Government has made significant investments in road and transport safety which
have clearly been effective in reducing road deaths. “Melbourne 2030 – A Great Place to Be”
indicates the State is aware of the importance of feelings of security in personal evaluations of
livability.
b. The Monash University Accident Research Centre is an Australasian authority on road safety and
it is evident that its work has been instrumental in achieving improved transport outcomes.
c. The breadth of thinking concerning safety and personal security reflected in enacted safety
initiatives is significantly greater than those in New Zealand to date.
d. The performance of the State to date suggests the linkages to be effective.
e. There is still a significant gap between 7.9/100,000 population and 5.6. It is not clear that the
State is in any position yet to reach the Australian national target.
3. Improve access and mobility assessment

a. The State Government is significantly funding the expansion of the State public transport system
and roading network. It is redeveloping habitation patterns to ensure greater levels of access to
PT and active modes
b. Most of the anti-sprawl policy is based on normative rather than positive evaluation.
c. Because so much of the population is concentrated into a single city planning for access and
mobility is very site specific and therefore detailed.
e. The plans seem to cover a broad range of modes suggesting that aside from the PT mode share
and problems at the fringe the development is not beyond the bounds of ready achievement.
2) Protect and promote public health assessment

a. No particular consideration of public health outside of road safety and the State Environment
Protection Authority is mentioned in the transport strategies.
b. Research from the EPA is cited.
c. Although the Victorian EPA states the bulk of air pollution comes from motor vehicles it also
emphasises that improvements in fuel and vehicle design rules have turned around air pollution
in Melbourne such that the city regards its air quality as relatively good by international
standards..
e. As performance is improving satisfactorily no degree of change is promoted.
5) Ensure environmental sustainability assessment

a. The State is spending significant sums of money on environmental protection particularly of its
rivers. It is also spending A$100 million on climate change including the development of an
emissions trading scheme.
b. Research into Victoria’s pressing environmental issues surrounding its waterways and air quality
is evident. There is less evidence of a comprehensive greenhouse gas inventory.
c. The State has a wide range of policies designed to lead Victorians to more sustainable living in
every sphere of their lives.
d. While the urban initiatives are under direct State influence there must be doubts about the
pressing issue of waterways. The level of degradation is serious and not entirely due to natural
factors.
e. The levels of improvement called for are achievable in most sectors notwithstanding the
difficulties surrounding water management.
3.8 Victorian Transport Policy Critique

If the New Zealand Transport Strategy 2010 had been successful in delivering “an affordable, Integrated,
safe, responsible and sustainable transport system” then it should have delivered Victoria. It didn’t. The
Australian State outstrips New Zealand’s performance on all these criteria to a significant degree. It is
therefore relevant to examine features of the Victorian polity and policy which make this more
achievable in Victoria than New Zealand.
First, as noted in “Getting Auckland back on track”15 by the Ministry for Economic Development it is
clear that agglomeration effect must hugely favour Victoria over New Zealand. With 4/5ths of its
population centralised in a single urban centre planning for Victoria is largely planning for Melbourne.
This allows for a concentration of policy at state and city level which is tantamount to town planning.
However there are some lessons from this reflected in the nature of Victorian policy documents. These
are:
1. Projects. Victorian policy tends to be extremely specific about the outcomes sought and the
means to achieve them. Even relatively long timeframe based policies such as Melbourne
Port@l Strategy are essentially a project rather than a statement of principle. By being specific
about what is sought, where and when uncertainty is reduced.
2. Certainty. Victorian policy is largely about assets under Government control. Once again change
is simplified because the Government can eliminate uncertainty. Review groups have sharply
criticised any vagueness in Melbourne 2030 even though the plan is far more specific than New
Zealand examples.
3. Priority. Victorian policy documents unapologetically put people first. This includes concern
about the human urban environment as well as equity and housing affordability issues.
4. Funding. Victorian policy tends to attach dollars to outcomes – although arguably not enough
dollars. Funding reduces uncertainty of government intentions and makes clear the degree of
commitment of the Government to specific objectives.
5. Goals. The goal of ‘world leading liveability’ in transport systems is inherently politically
uncontentious. No electorate will dispute it because it is inherently in the electorate’s own
interest. This makes the goal stable and certain. It is not as intuitively obvious that being the first
nation to achieve carbon neutrality falls into the same category.
“Getting Auckland back on track” also points out that Victoria uses a discount rate of 6 percent real
compared to the New Zealand rate of 10% real. This is a significant policy differential in favour of
Victoria developing more long-life infrastructural assets than New Zealand.
Melbourne spent most of the 1990s in a period of economic stagnation. Among the measures which
helped it recover were transport projects designed to link up the transport corridors now being refined
by Melbourne 2030. This experience has demonstrated the value of providing roads which is now largely
unquestioned in political discourse.
Political transport debate in Victoria essentially focuses on what, when and how much. There is no
suggestion that transport investment should be minimised.
15
http://www.med.govt.nz/templates/MultipageDocumentTOC____28641.aspx
4.0 Ireland
Ireland as a nation has many attributes similar to those of New Zealand. Its population is roughly the
same. Ireland’s largest city, Dublin, population is almost the same as Auckland’s. Ireland has
proportional representation (STV) although it has two houses and is a republic. Ireland is also, somewhat
obviously a member of the European Union.
The Irish Department of Transport’s 16 role is to ensure the provision, development and regulation of
competitive, safe and secure integrated sustainable transport services and transport infrastructure for
the road, rail, air and maritime transport modes in Ireland.
The Department is responsible for implementing an integrated transport policy within the context of the
Towards 2016 agreement and the National Development Plan.
Specific responsibilities in relation to the national roads and road transport include; delivering on the
national roads programme as part of the national development plan, implementing the Governments
roads safety strategy and related policies for vehicle standards regulation, road haulage licencing, driver
licensing and driver testing.
The Department is responsible for providing a well functioning, integrated public transport system; the
provision of a defined standard of public transport, and for ensuring improved public transport provision
through the timely and cost effective delivery of new public transport infrastructure and facilities.
In respect of aviation policy, the Department is responsible for ensuring that aviation practices and
procedures comply with best international standards; promoting the development of a vibrant,
competitive and progressively regulated aviation sector and the provision of adequate airport
infrastructure and competitive airport services.
In respect of Maritime Transport, the Department is responsible for establishing, promoting, regulating
and enforcing Maritime Safety and Security Standards, providing emergency response services and
safeguarding the Maritime Environment. It is also responsible for ports and shipping policy.
Implementation of some aspects of the above policies have been entrusted to a range of state-
sponsored bodies for which the Department retains overall responsibility.
In short there is a strong structural correlation between the Irish Department of Transport and the New
Zealand Ministry of transport.
Relevant Policies
Towards 2016 – A ten year social partnership framework
National Development Plan – A ten-year €134 billion national investment plan
16
http://www.transport.ie/
Transport 21 – a ten year €33 billion land transport investment package
Irish Climate Change Strategy 2007-2012
Department of Transport Road Safety Strategy 2007 – 2012
It should be noted that both Maritime and Aviation policy is largely framed within the context of the
European Union.
3.1 Towards 201617

Towards 2016 is not just a Government strategy. It is an agreement between government and numerous
stakeholders including: trade unions, employers, farming organisations and the community and
voluntary sector
These include: Irish Congress of Trade Unions (ICTU), Irish Business and Employers’ Confederation
(IBEC), Construction Industry Federation (CIF), Small Firms’ Association (SFA), Irish Exporters’ Association
(IEA), Irish Tourist Industry Confederation (ITIC) and Chambers Ireland, Irish Farmers’ Association (IFA),
Irish Creamery Milk Suppliers’ Association (ICMSA), Irish Co-Operative Organisation Society Ltd. (ICOS),
Macra na Feirme, Irish National Organisation of the Unemployed (INOU), Congress Centres Network,
CORI Justice Commission, National Youth Council of Ireland (NYCI), National Association of Building Co-
Operatives (NABCO), Irish Council for Social Housing (ICSH), Society of Saint Vincent de Paul, Age Action
Ireland, The Carers Association, The Wheel, The Disability Federation of Ireland, Irish Rural Link, The Irish
Senior Citizens’ Parliament, The Children’s Rights Alliance, and Protestant Aid.
This is a level of whole-of-government policy integration and social contract formation beyond any level
dreamt of in New Zealand. Interestingly the Irish Taoiseach Bertie Ahern refused to include
environmental groups in the agreement despite Green Party membership of his Fianna Fail led coalition.
In Part One it addresses the Macro-economy, Infrastructure, Environment and Social Policy through a
life-cycle view of human experience (childhood, youth, working age, older people and people with
disabilities)
In Part Two it addresses Pay, the Workplace, and Employment Rights and Compliance plus the
development of the public sector.
Highlights from Part One
“..An ongoing challenge is to provide for more effective and timely planning decisions and better
coordination across policy, regulatory and implementation agencies while also ensuring robust
analysis of proposals, with due regard paid to environmental and other issues and the views of
the public. In this context, the Planning and Development (Strategic Infrastructure) Bill 2006
which, among other things will provide a mechanism to accelerate planning decisions on
relevant infrastructure, is expected to be passed by both Houses of the Oireachtas before the
17
http://www.taoiseach.gov.ie/index.asp?locID=181&docID=2755
summer 2006 recess. The legislation will facilitate An Bord Pleanála, in essence, becoming a one-
stop shop for planning decisions on strategic infrastructure developments. A parallel initiative is
underway by the President of the High Court to provide greater efficiencies in the handling of
such cases by the High Court.”
The National Spatial Strategy (NSS) provides the strategic and long-term framework within
which to plan for balanced regional development.
The National Development Plan will set out the strategic framework for investment in
infrastructure and enterprise development over the period 2007-2013. It will also address in a
substantive way social inclusion, regional development and environmental sustainability. An
elaborate consultation process on the Plan has been commenced by the Department of Finance
involving inter alia the Social Partners. The Plan will particularly focus on priorities in investment
in public and social infrastructure in the research and development, transport,
telecommunications, energy, the productive sector, environmental services, housing, education,
health, and childcare areas, and on investment in human resources in the education and training
fields. The Plan will take account of the high level framework set out in this ten-year framework
agreement in relevant areas.’
Public Private Partnerships facilitated through the National Development Finance Agency. The
Government has admitted Trade Union representation to the board.
Transport 21 is a package of land transport development projects
Road Safety Strategy to be developed.
“The Government and the Social Partners endorse the important principles set out in the Housing
Policy Framework – Building Sustainable Communities which provides a vision of the kind of high
quality, integrated sustainable communities that are worth building.”
“In this context, the Government will publish an Energy Green Paper in mid 2006 to consider our
energy options for the future. This Paper will set out the challenges facing us in the energy area
as well as outlining policy responses already taken and those being proposed. The Government
believes this will provide clarity and certainty to the sector in terms of a national energy strategy
between now and 2020.”
A renewed National Sustainable Development Strategy to be published by mid-2007
Publication of Consultation Paper on the Review of the Climate Change Strategy by June 2006;
The National Strategy for Rural Development is currently being prepared jointly by the
Department of Agriculture and Food and the Department of Community, Rural and Gaeltacht
Affairs as required by the EU framework on rural development. This will be the basis for a
national rural development programme, commencing in January 2007
3.2 Ireland National Development Plan18
The €184 billion National Development Plan 2007-2013 launched in January 2007 is entitled
Transforming Ireland - A Better Quality of Life for All.
The Plan is claimed to be the largest and most ambitious investment programme ever proposed for
Ireland. It builds on, and consolidates, the previous Plan, and provides €54.6 billion for investment in
economic infrastructure; €49.6 billion for social inclusion measures (children, people with disabilities,
etc.); €33.6 billion for social infrastructure (housing, health, justice, etc.); €25.8 billion for human capital
(schools, training, higher education, etc.), and €20 billion for enterprise, science and innovation.
It is estimated that some €3 billion in EU rural development and structural funding will be made
available over the period 2007-2013. The drawdown of this funding will be the subject of separate
programmes to be agreed between Ireland and the European Commission. This funding is provided for
in the Plan’s overall financial envelope.
Transport
Investment in transport infrastructure over the Plan period will total nearly €33 billion of which:
€13.3 billion will be invested in upgrading and building new national roads
€4.3 billion will be invested in non-national roads, funded by the Exchequer and the Local
Government Fund
€12.9 billion will be invested in public transport, particularly in the Greater Dublin Area, this
investment is a quadrupling of that allocated in the previous Plan
€90 million will be invested in the Rural Transport Initiative
€1.8 billion will be invested in improving air transport facilities at the country’s three national
airports; and €96 million for investment in the six regional airports and City of Derry Airport
€480 million will be invested in upgrading strategic ports facilities and regional harbours.
These sums are allocated to specific projects as part of city and rural development.
3.3 Transport 21
Transport 2119 is a package of land transport development projects. The projects and programmes that
make up Transport 21 will aim to
1. increase accessibility;
2. ensure sustainability;
3. expand capacity;
4. increase use; and
5. enhance quality.
18
http://www.ndp.ie/docs/NDP_Homepage/1131.htm
19
http://www.transport21.ie/
It is notable that aims 1 and 2 above correspond to goals of the NZTS. This interpreted by the Irish in
these words:
“Increasing accessibility is about making it easier for everybody to get to and from work, school,
college, shopping, business and social activities. It is also about making it easier for industry and
business to access raw materials, workers, and above all markets.
Ensuring sustainability recognises that a modern transport system must be sustainable from an
economic, social and environmental perspective. The transport sector is the fastest growing
contributor to our national greenhouse gas emissions. The Department of Transport, as outlined
in its Statement of Strategy, is committed to tackling the adverse environmental impacts of the
transport sector while maximising the efficiency and increasing the mobility of goods and people
on the transport network.
Expanding capacity has two important dimensions:
existing capacity deficiencies which arise from past underinvestment and from the sheer
pace of economic growth over the past decade must be addressed,
appropriate provision for future growth must be made.
Expanding capacity can no longer be based on just a “predict and provide” strategy of predicting
traffic growth and providing the infrastructure to meet it. Use of our transport network needs to
be improved by managing the network itself, making the best possible use of existing
infrastructure before new infrastructure is built.
All trips made have an impact on other transport users, particularly when there is congestion on
the transport network. With this in mind, Transport 21 will seek to increase the use of public
transport, particularly in urban areas and facilitate the better management of the use of the
transport network so as to maximise its capacity to move people and goods, as distinct from just
vehicles.
Enhancing the quality of the transport system has a number of dimensions:
It is about the physical quality of the network, ensuring that it is well constructed,
maintained and operated.
It concerns the speed, reliability and comfort of a journey.
It relates to integration and ensuring that the journey is as seamless as possible.
It concerns making sure that the transport network is safe to use.
It is about the physical accessibility of our transport network for people with mobility,
sensory and cognitive impairments.”
Comment: There is a good deal here with a very familiar ring about from New Zealand transport policy
documents. However there is another key document which underpins Transport 21 and that is the
National Spatial Strategy. Its role is explained as follows:
Key to the strategy is the concept of balanced regional development. To achieve this, a
framework of Gateways, Hubs and other urban and rural areas have been established, which will
open up new opportunities in the regions and give people greater choice in where they live and
work.
The NSS states that, to support balanced regional development, Ireland’s transport networks
must:
build on the radial transport system of main roads and rail lines connecting Dublin to
other regions, by developing an improved mesh or network of roads and public transport
services;
ensure, through building up the capacity and effectiveness of Ireland’s public transport
networks, that increases in energy demand and emissions of CO2 arising from the
demand for movement are minimised;
allow internal transport networks to enhance international access to all parts of the
country, by facilitating effective interchange possibilities between the national transport
network and international airports and sea ports;
address congestion in major urban areas by increasing the use of public transport.
The NSS also sets out a number of policy guidelines, which are particularly relevant to Transport
21 and have been taken into account in its drafting.
Achieving more spatially balanced patterns of development suggests that improved

interaction between the gateways will be required, through enhanced road links
between particular cities and towns, with a primary initial focus on Cork, Galway,
Limerick and Waterford.
Improvements will be needed in the quality of connections between cities and towns
which are developing as linked-centre gateways or development hubs.
It will be important to ensure that rail continues to offer realistic alternatives to road
travel on the key intercity routes – Dublin-Belfast, Dublin-Cork, Dublin-Galway, Dublin-
Limerick and Dublin-Waterford.
Better interconnection between Cork and Galway (via Limerick) would facilitate ease of
interaction and enhancement of critical mass.
Services to other gateways and hubs should be enhanced.

Cities and large towns, particularly the gateways and hubs, require well-developed and
effective internal public transport networks. Outside the Greater Dublin Area, bus
services will be the principal means of providing such networks. However, if it is to
provide an attractive and viable alternative to private car commuting, public transport
must be supported by effective on street bus priority measures, appropriate demand
management measures and complementary land use policy and practice.
Encouraging the development of vibrant towns and villages will enhance the viability of
rural public transport options such as local bus networks.
A new approach should be adopted to freight transport and goods distribution based on
planning that takes into account the way in which the various links in the goods supply
chain are interdependent.
Effective goods distribution strategies should be implemented in major urban areas.
The future role of rail freight in the Irish economy should be determined in the light of
the Strategic Rail Review.
The national and regional benefits of expanded services from Dublin Airport can be
enhanced through improved connections with (i) the integrated public transport network
proposed by the Dublin Transportation Office in A Platform for Change (ii) the national
roads network and (iii) regional airports.
An enhanced role for Cork and Shannon Airports will require effective public and private
transport connections, in order to bring large centres of population within approximately
one hour’s travel time or less of the airports.
Development of shipping facilities or corridor links alternative to those provided by

Dublin Port will need to be accompanied by appropriate surface access.
Comment: The objective of the NSS is essentially to distribute economic growth around the regions by
ensuring that transport erodes the locational benefits of one region over another. This is essentially the
French development model and the Irish in investing as they are in transport are largely following the
same approach.
3.4 Irish Climate Change Strategy20

Ireland’s Kyoto target is 1990 levels plus 13% current emissions are plus 25%.Irish agricultural emissions
were 35% in 1999 and 28% in 2005. This is largely due to growth in other sectors such as transport
which has grown 180% since 1990.
The Irish plan the following savings measures to meet their obligation:
20
http://www.environ.ie/en/Environment/Atmosphere/ClimateChange/NationalClimateChangeStrategy/Publication
sDocuments/FileDownLoad,1861,en.pdf
Naturally Ireland is a party to the EU Emissions Trading Scheme and anticipates a further 2020 EU-wide
obligation to reduce emissions by 20% or 30% on 1990 levels.
Comment: While Ireland’s targets are certainly more generous than New Zealand’s they will still pinch.
It is notable that Ireland expects to meet more than half of its obligation through agriculture and
forestry reform. It is also notable that there is no suggestion of curtailing Transport 21 despite huge
growth in transport emissions.
3.5 Irish Road Safety Strategy21

Ireland’s twelve month road toll from June 2006 to June 2007 was 333. This equates to 7.9 deaths per
100,000 population – much the same as Victoria. It should be noted however that Ireland has roughly
one million fewer motor vehicles on its roads than New Zealand thus per registered motor vehicle the
Irish road toll is proportionately worse than New Zealands.
Ireland’s target is 252 deaths or 6 deaths per 100,000 population – less ambitious than Victorias.
The Irish Road Safety Authority has identified speed, alcohol and safety belts as its main targets for
action. Ireland’s safety belt usage and alcohol involvement rates are notably higher than New Zealand’s.
The RSA notes that Ireland’s road safety performance should also improve due to Transport 21
investment.
Ireland clearly has driver licensing problems:
“In January 2007, the number of people awaiting a test was 140,500 and the average waiting time was
30 weeks.”
“A broader aim of the RSA is to encourage the 425,225 drivers currently holding provisional licences to
become full licence holders by the lifetime of this Strategy and to have in place testing resources to meet
this demand as it arises.”
21
http://www.transport.ie/viewitem.asp?id=9899&lang=ENG&loc=1512
Comment: Ireland is having to step up to the issues of enforcement and licensing as Irish society
becomes more motorised.
3.6 Evaluation of the Irish Transport Strategy
In order to evaluate the Irish policy it is necessary to examine each of the NZTS objectives against the
assessment criteria.

evidence-based.
thinking)
level.
Assessment
a) The level of funding devoted to the objective of assisting economic development is quite simply
jaw-dropping.
b) No direct evidence is adduced that the €134 billion investment will lead to economic
development although this is manifestly obvious.
c) Toward 2016 spans a complete social contract for all ages and sectors of Irish society
d) Spending half of a years GNP over ten years will change behaviour
e) Ireland’s economy is already performing very well. The only question on such a level of
investment is the timeframe over which it is expected to generate a return.
2) Assist safety and personal security - assessment
Ireland’s road safety rate is on a per capita population basis is much better than New Zealand’s but on a
per registered vehicle basis much worse. Ireland’s murder (52 per year) and incarceration rate (3,100) is
roughly half New Zealand’s. Ireland’s crime statistics are poorly reported by the Garda and Ireland’s
statistics office. Ireland appears to be quite reasonably less concerned about crime and safety than New
Zealand.
a) There does not seem to be any particular funding problem associated with safety and personal
security.
b) The degree of evidence presented in the Irish strategy is somewhat less than that adduced by
comparable New Zealand strategies .
c) The breadth of considerations is less than the New Zealand strategy although it it should be
noted within the context of a massive infrastructure investment drive.
d) Ireland has long been criticised for very light enforcement in road safety (including by the Irish
AA) the experience in New Zealand and Victoria suggests that stepping up enforcement will
have an immediate effect on trauma rates.
e) The degree of change from 333 to 252 is not particularly ambitious.
3) Improve access and mobility - assessment

a. Funding of access and mobility for all stages in lifecycle and levels of disability is exemplary
b. The degree of planning for Transport 21 implies a very large research base.
c. Towards 2016’s lifecycle approach is an exemplary approach to planning access and mobility.
d. It is highly unlikely that the level of spending anticipated cannot produce a significant
improvement on access and mobility.
e. The degree of change is matched by the degree of the response.
4) Protect and promote public health - assessment
Context: The Irish EPA22 maintains monitoring of air quality in Ireland’s major cities. However since the
ban on coal based home heating and with the relatively low level of automobility Irish cities have not
reached exceedence levels in PM10 or Ozone.
a. Aside from access improvements no particular consideration of public health outside of road
safety and is mentioned in the transport strategies. This is largely because the problem has no
been allowed to arise.
b. As in Victoria the Irish EPA provides real-time monitoring of air quality in a number of Irish cities.
c. The Irish note that as automobility increases so too does the rising challenge to air quality. The
Irish are also examining transborder issues, although these are not relevant in New Zealand.
d. The performance of the Republic to date suggests the it has effectively handled problem.
e. As performance is satisfactorily no degree of change is promoted.
5) Ensure environmental sustainability - assessment

a. The Irish are have spent €20 million on carbon credits to date an have covered policies to meet
their 1990+13% commitment.
b. Irelands approach to environmental sustainability is thoroughly anthropocentric. National
Development Plan environment impact assessment procedures are being streamlined to
reduce delay. While sustainability is acknowledged as a challenge it is decidedly not central to
core strategies such as Towards 2016.
c. Ireland’s breadth of environmental consideration is significantly less than New Zealand’s.
d. Insofar as Ireland is attempting to move towards sustainability its goals appear to be largely
achievable.
e. Ireland’s sustainability goals are modest and driven for the most part by the European Union.
22
http://www.epa.ie/whatwedo/monitoring/air/reports/pm10/
3.7 Ireland Transport Strategy Critique
According to Gap-minder23 in 1975 Ireland had a population of 3,177,000 and a GNI/Capita of US$8,543
while in 1975 New Zealand had a GNI/Capita of US$15,098. By 1992 Ireland had a population of
3,549,100 and a GNI/Capita of US$16,360 while New Zealand had a population of 3,531,700 and a GNI
per capita of US$16,163 (incidentally Singapore had a population in that year of 3,232,000and a GNI per
capita of US$15615). In 2004 Ireland had a population of 4,068,246 and a GNI/capita of US$35,684 while
New Zealand had a population of 4,061,000 and a GNI/capita of US$21,518 (and Singapore went to a
population of 4240300 and a GNI/capita ofUS$25,804). Thus over the past 25 years Ireland has returned
to the top half of the OECD while New Zealand has not.
Source: MED.
Moreover according to Economic Development Indicators (MED December 2007) the standard of living
in Ireland matches its OECD GNI/Capita ranking
23
http://www.gapminder.org
Ireland’s national debt to GDP ratio is roughly comparable with New Zealand’s (at around 25%) however
where New Zealand is amassing capital in liquid Government investments Ireland is borrowing to invest
heavily in public capital assets.
Ireland’s Towards 2016 agreement is a remarkable political achievement and one which has never been
attempted in New Zealand – even by the fourth Labour Government. Its combination of human lifecycle
consideration and inclusion of disabled people demonstrates a level of consideration not seen in New
Zealand.
Irelands National Spatial Strategy is an important statement of commitment to regional equity that has
never been considered in New Zealand.
Ireland’s Transport 21 is an investment programme for public and private land transport on a scale not
considered in New Zealand since Vogel.
Ireland is making extensive use of Public-Private Partnerships to fund its transport infrastructure
development. EU investment is comparatively modest (€3bn of €134bn),
Ireland’s performance in road safety to date looks better than it actually is. With 1.1 million fewer
licensed drivers than New Zealand its road toll is relatively high. This is probably due to the fact that the
proportion of females (who globally have fewer crashes than males) driving is 54% less than in New
Zealand. That said its plans to increase the size of the Garda from 12,000 to 15,000 and place more
emphasis on enforcement suggests that it will be able to emulate the gains seen in Victoria reasonably
quickly.
Ireland’s philosophy on environmental sustainability is notably different to that of New Zealand. Its
approach is effectively health maximisation and damage limitation. It does not pursue a programme of
leadership and the exclusion of environmental groups from Toward 2016 is significant.
4.0 Japan
Geographically Japan resembles New Zealand in that it comprises four rugged islands (with one third
more land area) on the Pacific “ring of fire”. Economically and socially it is however completely
different with a history of 30,000 years human habitation, a population of 127 million and is the third
largest economy in the world. Japan is also the home of the world’s leading automotive manufacturers.
Under the Kyoto Protocol, Japan has committed to reducing greenhouse gas emissions in the first
commitment period by 6% below base year level.
Japan’s influence on New Zealand transport is largely derived from its role as the predominant supplier
of vehicles. As the Japanese also drive on the left New Zealand tends to inherit its land transport
technology from direct from Japan. Japan is also a major market for New Zealand exports and a
significant source of tourists. Thus maritime and aviation interaction with Japan is also significant.
Access to documents on Japanese policy and planning has for the purposes of this assessment been
limited to those helpfully translated into English by Japanese agencies. These include the Ministry of
Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism24 The Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry25 and the
Ministry for the Environment26.
Relevant Strategies
New Economic Growth Strategy (METI July 2006)
The 5th Comprehensive National Development Plan Grand Design for the 21st Century27
Next Stage for Roads in Japan28
Japanese Automobile Manufacturers Association 2007 Report on Environmental Protection Efforts of

the Japanese Automobile Industry
Building a low carbon society (M.E 2006, Dec 2007 submissions requested)
Council for Transport Policy Report No. 20 Remodelling Transport and Cities
Draft Budget for the FY2006 Kyoto Protocol Target Achievement Plan29
Vehicle Safety Measures for Building a Society Free from Road Traffic Accidents30
24
http://www.mlit.go.jp/english/
25
http://www.meti.go.jp/english/index.html
26
http://www.env.go.jp/en/index.html
27
http://www.mlit.go.jp/kokudokeikaku/zs5-e/index.html
28
http://www.mlit.go.jp/road/road_e/contents00/next_stage.html
29
http://www.env.go.jp/en/press/2006/0131c.html
30
http://www.mlit.go.jp/english/2006/i_road_transport_bureau/2006report(vehiclesafety)english.pdf
4.1 New Growth Economic Strategy
Japan is concerned that it faces a period of population decline and economic eclipse by China and India.
The New Growth Economic Strategy is a broad based discussion on retaining Japan’s competitiveness.
“In a society with a declining population, there is concern about the decrease of and changes in
consumption on the demand side. However, even since the 1990s after the economic bubble
burst, “a virtuous circle” has been functioning, where new innovations produce demand and this
demand produces new innovations, such as in the case of mobile phones, convenience stores,
online shopping and hybrid cars. It is important that this virtuous circle continue in the future.”
Thus
Within these measures, the following “two virtuous circles” should be emphasized.
1) The innovations that continue to emerge in Japan will drive growth in Asian countries, develop
regional specialization in Asia and induce expanded demand and a considerable increase in
income, which lead to the next innovation; “virtuous circle of the growth of Japan and Asia.”
2) The innovations that emerge not only from big cities but also from local areas will create a
number of demands with differing values in Japan. This will create high-quality employment
opportunities and invigorate the economy in local regions; a “virtuous cycle of regional
innovations and demand.”
The expansion of these demands will contribute to the growth of the Japanese economy in spite
of its declining population.
Notable policies
Create new industries that are world leaders
While continuing to foster the prioritized areas positioned in the “New Industry Promotion
Strategy” including fuel cells, robots, and digital consumer electronics (to achieve a 2010 market
scale of about 300 trillion yen), implement research and development of next-generation
industries including batteries for new-generation automobiles, advanced medical equipment and
technology contributing to anti-cancer measures, and next-generation environmental aircraft,
and facilitate the business environment for their commercialization.
Aid industries dependent on the domestic market to develop internationally
Aid the agriculture, food, commodities, fashion, railway and tourism industries to develop
around the world by building brands with the use of regional resources, promoting new Japanese
brands and strengthening international marketing power.
A lot of focus is devoted to revitalising SMEs and regions. Women and older people are seen as a crucial
human resource for future development.
Improve productivity through IT
Japan’s situation of IT utilization is “partially optimum,” meaning that IT utilization cannot be

implemented beyond the “sector wall,” because 70% or more of IT utilization falls under this
category, causing poor visualization and integration of IT utilization. As a result, IT investment’s
contribution to improving productivity is lower than that of the United States.
Human resource: Human resource innovations
Japan’s current human resource development system has reached its limit, due to the restraint
on human resource investment by companies, the fact that university/school education doesn’t
necessarily respond to what society actually needs, the decline of local and home education, and
other reasons.
Thus, in order to maximize individual potential, we need to completely reform the old model of a
single-track education and corporate career path, and build a social framework that flexibly
supports varied approaches to education and work.
In addition, we need to bring together the strengths of businesses, schools, and regions/homes in
order to expand and support practical education that nurtures the skills that society needs.
As global competition for human resources intensifies, it is crucial that we foster human
resources that have a global perspective and create an attractive environment that appeals to
the world’s most gifted students and researchers.
Strategic industry and distribution infrastructure building
Strategically and selectively establish domestic and international distribution networks by

strengthening the functionality of ports as gateways to a more accessible Asia, and airports for
the shipping of advanced parts/materials, and by improving accessibility to roads and railway
systems through coordination with the above-mentioned domestic distribution base and regional
industrial accumulation. Strengthen cooperation between government and industry to enhance
the competitiveness of domestic companies in terms of international distribution (partnerships
for competitiveness in international distribution).
Money: innovation of finance and investment
Expand the frontiers of finance and stimulate the supply of risk money that drives economic
growth. Though poor in natural resources, Japan’s ¥1,500 trillion in household financial capital is
a vital and precious resource for achieving growth. It is crucial to build new financial avenues to
high-risk sectors, recipients besides corporations, Asian countries, etc.
We need to address how to increase the range of mid-risk, mid-level return capital investment
opportunities to meet the diversifying financial needs of household finance. It is also important
to stimulate the supply of capital for risk-taking entities such as venture businesses and for
promising small- and medium-sized businesses.
To summarise
Japan appears to be seeking to become a post-industrial society based on the Californian model by
opening the doors to expertise, making its workforce more flexible and ploughing back risk capital. At
the same time it does not want to neglect its own small to medium enterprises or services sector. It
sees its point of difference as being an innovation leader.
4.2 The 5th Comprehensive National Development Plan Grand Design for the
21st Century
Part 1. Basis of the Planned National Land Development
This provides a meta-level development strategy for Japan’s redevelopment in the light of global trade
and demographic change.
Objectives:
1) Create regions that are independent and that residents can take pride in
2) Make Japan a safe and comfortable place to live
3) Enjoy and nourish sound nature's blessing
4) Build a vigorous economic society
5) Make Japan open to the world
Strategies:
1) Build nature-rich residential areas

2) Renovate metropolitan areas
3) Form regional cooperation corridors
Summary
Japan’s development plan follows from its economic plan. Facing the enormous challenge from China its
fundamental objective is to reinvent itself as a post-industrial society. Thus it seeks to promote quality
of life, very high-tech development, openness to the world and a greater level of dispersion to regional
and more rustic areas. It focuses on providing a high quality of life to its own citizens – especially the
elderly. It also has a high degree of concern for the impacts of natural disasters.
Improvement of Transportation and Communications Systems31
31
http://www.mlit.go.jp/kokudokeikaku/zs5-e/part2chap5.html
Long-term plan for improving the international transportation systems
With the advent of the globalization, the movement of people and materials between Japan and
other parts of the world will dramatically increase both in the commercial sector and in tourism.
To prepare for such increase, international transportation systems must be planned to provide
each region with better access to the world. Exchanges will be encouraged between each region
of Japan and East-Asian countries. Targeting the countries, make a plan to establish an "East-
Asian one-day zone," in which people can arrive at their destination and complete their work
within a day. By promoting the plan, the following transportation systems ("Asian gates" and
"global gates") will be created, and a new domestic transportation network will be built to
provide access to the gates, including the establishment of high-speed transportation systems. A
basis for exchanges between the new national axial zones and the world will thus be created
Long-term plan for improving the domestic transportation systems

Domestic transportation demand will expand until the year 2010, although the growth rate
might slow down, as interregional cooperation and leisure travel increase. For the period after
2010, there are uncertain elements such as socioeconomic changes and transportation demand
will differ by transportation means. As a whole, however, it is predicted that transportation
demand will slightly increase or will show no marked fluctuations. Under such circumstances, as
transportation distances increase and information technology progresses, high-quality services
(high speed, punctuality, etc.) will be demanded at reasonable prices. In response, it is necessary
to improve the domestic transportation systems as explained below and create "nation wide
one-day traffic ranges." As part of these, wide-area regional transportation systems will be
established, which will form regional half-day trip zones so that people can travel to another
region and return within half a day. The "regional half-day trip zones" will be formed in line with
the proper establishment of urban functions. People will be able to travel from their towns to the
prefectural hub cities within about one hour and to the major core city areas and to the major
distribution terminals within about two hours. The formation of these regional half-day trip
zones will equalize opportunities between regions. Based on this plan, the land, marine and air
transportation networks will share roles and provide multiple transportation axes running
through the country horizontally and vertically as well as the regional transportation systems
that support wide-area activities. Japan will be more resistant to natural disasters and the
people will have more transportation options. Thus, a domestic transportation network that links
high-quality national axial zones will be established.
Land transportation networks

Form national high-speed land transportation networks out of integrated automobile networks
and high-speed railway networks. The automobile networks will comprise a 14,000-kilometer
Arterial high standard highway network that will traverse the land both horizontally and
vertically and supplementary local high standard highways that will promote interregional
exchanges. The railway networks will connect the metropolitan areas with the hub cities as
provincial centers, and with the prefectural hub cities. For the local high standard highways,
6,000 to 8,000 kilometers of roads need to be improved, including the effective use of existing
facilities. Through the regional major road and railway networks that directly connect to the
high-speed land transportation networks, citizens of each region will be able to access easily the
land transportation networks. Accordingly, the creation of "regional half-day trip zones" will be
promoted. The transportation networks will support safe, efficient road traffic and high-speed,
convenient, punctual railway travel based on the development and introduction of ITS (intelligent
transport system) by using advanced communications technology, of new traffic systems such as
linear railways, and of high-quality surface cars, as well as the development of new technologies
such as mag-lev systems.
Air and marine transportation networks

Build domestic air networks that connect remote areas via flexible routes and national maritime
transportation networks that connect the Pacific, Seto Inland Sea and the Japan Sea coastal
areas and straits and island areas. The central airports in the metropolitan areas, regional
central airports, airports located in isolated islands, commuter airports and heliports as well as
the three major bays, the bay area in North-Kyushu, regional central harbors and other harbors
that supplement the central harbors will function as the terminals of the networks. The
transportation networks will assist high-speed, comfortable and stable air traffic as well as high-
speed, punctual, high-capacity and reasonably priced maritime traffic, based on the introduction
of less noisy aircraft, high quality facilities for air traffic control, and TSL (Techno super liner).
Roads
Improve the arterial high standard highways and local high standard highways. For the high-
standard principal road networks, at the beginning of the 21st century focus on roads that
connect metropolitan areas and on loop roads within the metropolitan areas to reduce
bottlenecks. In the provinces, promote the improvement of the roads that traverse the regions
both horizontally and vertically to allow wide-area cooperation between regions. In the process,
examine the project methods to ensure profitability under proper pricing systems. According to
the long-term plan improve the local high standard highways with respect to the demand trends.
This will contribute to the national development in the following ways. The loop roads will
function as bases for the development of the hub cities that act as provincial centers and the
prefectural hub cities. Roads will invigorate the nature-rich residential areas by connecting them
to the urban areas. Roads between cities playing a central role in regional development will
promote interregional exchange. Roads that connect the wide-area transportation bases such as
airports and harbors, urban centers and the regional development bases with the arterial high
standard highways network. These roads will play important roles in directly connecting and
merging the national basic transportation systems and the regional transportation systems.
The improvements should be promoted in harmony with the systems being built independently
by each region towards interregional cooperation. For the projects to connect bays and strait
areas, implement measures according to long-term surveys and plans.
For smoother urban transportation, improve the roads and secure spaces for public
transportation facilities including high-quality surface cars. For example, expand the road traffic
capacity, establish more parking lots, and promote multi-level utilization of roads. Also, promote
park and ride systems and examine road pricing to comprehensively promote TDM
(transportation demand management) measures. To support wide-area exchanges, build tunnels
and bridges to provide easier access between neighboring areas that have limited exchanges
with each other due to geographical barriers. Implement both intensive and comprehensive
traffic safety measures. For example, secure safe and comfortable spaces for pedestrians and
take measures to reduce traffic accidents especially at principal road points where many
accidents have occurred.
To dramatically improve road safety and transportation efficiency and comfort, introduce the
VICS (vehicle information and communication system) nationwide and automatic charging
systems at toll roads, promote the use of automatic driving systems to support safe driving, and
research, develop and introduce ITS to optimize road management. To reduce the road
maintenance and to establish roads in harmony with the surroundings, establish common routes
for electric wires, etc. Also, establish information boxes to improve road management.
Promoting measures to reduce the emission of carbon dioxide

Set energy saving targets and pollution controls for each transportation sector and increase
utilization of energy-efficient transportation facilities that impose less load on the environment
through proper competition and free selection by users. To achieve the goals, encourage each of
the transportation facilities to strengthen mutual cooperation to form transportation systems
that impose less load on the general environment regarding air, noise, vibration, etc. Especially
to reduce the emission of carbon dioxide, which is a global issue, implement the following
measures.
For vehicle transportation that consumes most energy among the transportation sectors,
promote measures to improve energy efficiency. For this, implement measures to encourage the
development and use of clean cars such as low fuel consumption cars or electric vehicles.
Besides, to improve energy efficiency by improving road conditions, improve loop roads,
construct continuous multi-level crossings and sophisticate the transport control centers in the
metropolitan areas as well as in the hub cities and prefectural hub cities. By doing this, prevent
the reduction in energy efficiency caused by traffic jams and mitigate the subsequent increase of
environmental load. Also in the provinces, establish bypasses in the congested sections and
reduce traffic jams. Besides, introduce the TDM including the flex time system to level the traffic
density, introduce and diffuse the ITS including the provision of road traffic information such as
the information about traffic jams, and encourage environmentally friendly driving.
It is especially necessary to improve the efficiency of physical distribution, because it is not only
important for the reduction of environmental load but also for promoting economic structural
reform. To improve the transportation efficiency of trucks, build joint collection and delivery
systems, improve the road networks for larger vehicles, and establish facilities for temporary
stopping and handling of goods by freight vehicles. Besides, promote the comprehensive
improvement of roads and wide-area distribution bases around the interchanges of the principal
roads. To expand the utilization of mass transportation facilities, improve the functions of
coastal ferries and container ships, improve the harbors, and improve the railway facilities for
container trains. Thus, implement comprehensive measures for multimodal transportation. Make
and implement plans to improve the principal roads and regional roads, and link terminals such
as harbors and railway stations with the principal road networks for providing better access.
Besides, make and implement plans to establish and improve river ship routes to create an
efficient physical distribution network involving different transportation means.
Also for the movement of people, establish transportation systems that impose less load on the
environment by the cooperation by multiple transportation means. For this, expand the high-
speed railway networks, urban high-speed railway services and bus services. Build more parking
lots for park and ride at railway stations and high-speed bus terminals, and promote TDM
measures for promoting the use of mass transportation facilities such as railways and buses.
Besides, by introducing energy efficient and high-quality surface cars, subways, monorails and
new transport systems, make urban public transportation more convenient. To ensure good
transport in the provinces that suffer from depopulation, rationalize the management of
transportation facilities and implement measures to encourage the use of buses and other
transport methods. In addition, implement new measures such as establishing a network of
sidewalks to encourage people to walk or ride bicycles, improve roads and parking lots for
bicycles, and build a traffic assessment system to evaluate the influence of a development
project on the traffic
4.3 Next Stage for Roads in Japan

The Japanese currently have 18.9 million vehicles32 fitted with the Vehicle Information and
Communication System (VICS) and Electronic Toll Collection (ETC) system. The Intelligent Transport
System is a project which combines in-vehicle navigation systems with toll collection and traffic
information systems. The project is based out of Tokyo.
4.4 Japanese Automobile Manufacturers Association 2007 Report on

Environmental Protection Efforts of the Japanese Automobile Industry
The Japanese automakers’ most significant advances in environmental performance in fiscal 2006
included:
The early achievement of vehicle fuel-economy targets

The average fuel-efficiency performance of new gasoline-powered passenger cars reached 16.0
km/l, exceeding the target of 15.1 km/l established for 2010.
The expanded introduction of low-emission cars

Passenger cars that are certified as low-emission vehicles now constitute 95% of all new cars in
the market. Of that share, 90% comprises models whose emissions are down either by 75% (a 4-
star rating) or by 50% (a 3-star rating) from 2005 emission standards.
32
http://www.mlit.go.jp/road/ITS/
Advances in end-of-life vehicle recycling
The recycling rate of automobile shredder residue (ASR) now stands between 63.7% and 75.0%,
already surpassing the 50% target rate set for fiscal 2010.
Greater environmental protection in manufacturing activities

Automakers have met the latest targets established for the reduction of CO2 and VOC (volatile
organic compound) emissions and waste matter in plant operations
4.5 Council for Transport Policy Report No. 20

Raison d’etre
As we face the failure of various functions and systems implemented after the war to rebuild the
Japanese economy that no longer match the times. Presently, Japan is continuing to explore with
the aim of transferring over to a socioeconomic system appropriate for the 21st century. In order
to make this transition, we are looking change our transport system-one of the major active
components of Japan's economic society as part of the 'growing pains'-to something more
befitting the times. This report looks to pinpoint the current trends and consider what kinds of
transport systems are most suitable in response to the changing needs. It places particular
importance on new policy response that goes beyond the frame of existing policies and indicates
the fundamental direction to be taken for comprehensive transport policy at the beginning of the
21st century.
Origins
On October 19 2000, the Council for Transport Policy submitted a report entitled, "About the
fundamental direction of a synthetic traffic policy in the beginning of the 21st century -
innovation of the mobility urged to a change of economic society-" to the Minister of Transport.
The report indicated the fundamental direction of comprehensive transport policies up until 2010
based on the conditions Japan faced as it approached the 21st century calling for a change in its
economic society.
Themes
The report contains a number of these of consequence. These are:
Universal Access: A transport system should assist mobility and access for all ages and levels of
‘disability’ as an aging society includes more elderly
Public transport from rail, bus and specialist services (eg welfare taxis) will become of growing
importance. City design should be based on concentric rings of steadily slower traffic linked by high
speed transport services.
ITC – the transport system for passengers, freight and craft must become more intelligent. This will
facilitate greater densities (and hence efficiencies) and reduce accidents. The report suggests trucks
travelling in semi-automated road trains or platoons held together telematically.
More efficient ship, aircraft and port (airport) designs will improve economy.
As population declines so too will demand for transport and hence funding sources. The report notes
Japan’s regional roading authorities are heavily indebted.
4.6 Building a low carbon society

Highlights from Public Consultation Document
The efficiency of individual cars due to lighter bodies and widespread use of motor-driven cars
(plug-in hybrid cars, electric cars, fuel-cell cars) will increase substantially. Air pollution caused by
cars will have been overcome.
・Many personal (single-seat) vehicles will be introduced. The choice of transportation means
will be broadened considerably.
・Autonomous travel will be allowed by an intelligent transportation system. Traffic accidents

will be reduced to almost zero.
・Public Transportation services, such as railways, buses, monorails, and LRTs, depending on the
scale of the city, will be selected or combined.
・Physical distribution system will be sophisticatedly managed by advanced ICT (Information &
Communication Technologies),and appropriate mode of transportation, such as railways, ships,
and trucks are selected. With those systems, low carbon distribution systems are formed.
・A compact town convenient for pedestrians and cyclists will be formed (e.g., formation of a
transit mall around a public transportation station).
・Car sharing systems will be widely introduced. People rent an appropriate size of vehicle when
needed.
・Intelligent transportation systems will not only collect and provide traffic information, but they
will also enable an advanced billing method, thereby forming the basis of a low-carbon
transportation system.
4.7 Draft Budget for the FY2006 Kyoto Protocol Target Achievement Plan (Jan
2006)
$5.4 billion Direct measures to achieve 6% reduction commitment under the Kyoto Protocol
$1.44 billion Medium- to long-term measures in reducing GHG emissions
$4.03 billion Other measures with GHG emissions reduction potential
$390 million Basic measures.
4.8 Vehicle Safety Measures for Building a Society Free from Road Traffic
Accidents
The goal of the strategy is to reduce the road toll by 2000 from the current (2003) level of 7,000 by
2010. The 1999 target of reducing fatalites by 1200 was achieved early through the introduction of in-
vehicle collision safety systems. The target was increased due to the early achievement of the initial
target.
A new injury reduction target (from a 2005 baseline) was also set.
Injury reduction target by 2010 2015

vehicle safety measure
(projection)
Rear-end collision measures 20,000 40,000

Pedestrian protection measures 3,000 5,000
Other measures 2,000 5,000
Total 25,000 50,000
Methods of achieving these targets in this report focus on new vehicle standards.
4.9 Evaluation of the Japanese Transport Strategy
In order to evaluate the Japanese policy it is necessary to examine each of the NZTS objectives against
the assessment criteria.

evidence-based.
thinking)
level.
Assessment
f) Given the scale of Japan and the availability of translated data it is not possible to readily
determine the level of funding which will be devoted to achieving its objectives.
g) No research is presented in English translations however the policy seems to be strategically
sound.
h) The Japanese Economic and National Development plans cover everything from demographics
to disasters while fully appreciating the changing economic situation Japan faces.
i) This cannot be assessed although past performance is a (positive) guide.
j) The redevelopment of Japan’s economy from an industrial to a post-industrial one is very
ambitious. Japan is not California.
Japan’s crime rate is very low by New Zealand standards (54 prisoners per 100,000 people compared to
our 16033). Japanese concerns with personal security tend to focus on disasters and issues faced by the
elderly. The Road Transport Bureau has only published in English a report on vehicle design
improvements for dealing with road safety – this however shows the huge effect improved vehicle
standards have in reducing road trauma.
a) There does not seem to be any particular funding problem associated with safety and personal
security. Japanese automotive manufacturers must meet Japanese government standards to get
designs on the road reducing the cost to taxpayers.
b) The degree of evidence presented in the Japanese vehicle is what one would expect from the
world’s leading automotive nation.
33
http://www.nationmaster.com/graph/cri_pri_per_cap-crime-prisoners-per-capita
c) The Japanese are particularly concerned about the impact of an aging society on safety and
security. New Zealand has no shown a similar degree of concern.
d) The performance of the Japanese car industry in meeting earlier targets is compelling.
e) The degree of improvement seems to be based on industry assessment.

f. Funding of access and mobility may be problematic given the financial state of regional
authorities. That said Japan is very wealthy and can probably meet its objectives.
g. The research in the National Development Plan is implicit rather than explicit (in English).
h. The NDP reflects an acute awareness of Japan’s socio-economic position and environmental
aspirations.
i. It is difficult to assess the achievability of the NDP however Japan’s history of redevelopment
since the Meiji era is the best in the world so there is little reason to question it.
j. The transportation component of the Economic and Development Plans are the most achievable
aspects of them.
Context: Japanese pollution levels have been falling rapidly with improvements in automotive efficiency.
Euro-5 equivalent targets are mandated and there is no reason to question why improvement will not
continue.
f. Funding is largely left to auto manufacturers.
g. The evidence base is difficult to assess given translation limitations
h. The Japanese appear to be very concerned tio improve their environmental performance as part
of their post-industrial reformation.
i. Progress to date has been positive.
j. No criteria for improvement are shown (in English).

f. The Japanese are spending over NZ$10 billion on global warming solutions.
g. Japan is clearly aware of the scale of the challenge of achieving -6% on 1990 levels.
h. Japan’s breadth of environmental consideration is similar to New Zealand’s.
i. Japan’s strategy is largely technology driven this anchors it solidly in the market.
j. Japan will almost certainly need recourse to AAUs or CERs to meet its Kyoto commitment.
4.9 Japan Transport Strategy Assessment and Critique
After World War Two Japan’s economy was in shreds. Over the next 40 years it rebuilt it to become the
world’s number two economy. Transport development was crucial to that. Now as Japan faces a
resurgent China it faces new challenges: a declining and aging population; a heritage of insularity and
the need to become a post-industrial economy. Its solution is to adopt the best of the Californian model
while at the same time maintaining the social integrity it is famed for.
Japan’s sheer size and influence precludes any comparison with New Zealand. However the Japanese
strategy reinforces a number of key issues. These include:
1) The importance of a clear national economic strategy

2) A National spatial development plan
3) Recognition of demographic factors, especially an aging economy
4) Recognition of the benefits of technological development
5) A clear vision of the spatial-transport realities sought ( eg the half-day trip boundary).
New Zealand will continue to inherit Japan’s Shaken test reject vehicle fleet. As a result it will always be
possible to visit the future New Zealand fleet simply by travelling to Japan. This fleet will however
continue to evolve. Features will include:
1) Increased fuel efficiency and environmental friendliness

2) Better safety systems
3) Integrated intelligent transport systems
4) New micro-vehicles taking advantage of electric motors and electronics.
New Zealand needs to determine the extent it wishes to be a fast follower of Japanese technical
achievement.
5.0 Norway
While Norway is not an island it shares many features with New Zealand. It has a long coastline, high
mountains and low population density. It has a population of 4.7 million but thanks to being an oil
exporting nation has the third highest GNI/Capita in the OECD. Norway tops a number of lists 34 with
aplomb including having the world’s largest pension fund. Norway is not a member of the European
Union or the Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries but is a member of NATO and the OECD.
Norway is further North than New Zealand is South and therefore colder and darker in winter. The
capital Oslo has a population of half a million, Bergen 250,000 and the third largest city, Trondheim
161,000. These cities are famed in transport circles for their cordon tolls – imposed to pay for public
transport systems in cities which do not charge rates. Norway has high petrol taxes and low car
ownership rates however it also has a large ship-building industry. Norway’s transport consumes 200
petajoules of oil energy per year35 – much the same as New Zealand – although more of this is due to
the marine sector. Norway’s petrol tax is 94 (NZ) cents per litre, its diesel tax is 69 (NZ) cents per litre,
and its CO2 tax is 18 (NZ) cents per litre (i.e $77.6/tonne CO2).
Norway has a reputation for world leadership in a number of areas. Former Prime Minister Gro Harlem
Brundtland led the 1987 World Commission for Environment and Development which defined
‘sustainable development’ and Norway has maintained its world leadership to this day. Norway has a
role in international peacekeeping and Johan Jørgen Holst mediated the Oslo Accords between Israel
and the PLO. Norway is a Member of NATO and an Antarctic Treaty nation. Less sustainably Norway
supports the resumption of commercial whaling.
Norway has declared an ambition to become carbon neutral by 2050. This is assisted by the fact that
Norway’s electricity is supplied by 99% hydro-power. Norway is also a nation long on forests and short
on ruminants. Since 1990 Norways annual emissions have risen from 50mT CO2e to 58mT CO2e in 2003
with 21mT CO2 absorbed by forest sinks. On a net basis Norway’s annual emissions are 37mT CO2e.
Norway’s CO2 tax came into affect in 1999. In 2005 Norway joined the European Emissions Trading
Scheme covering 51 installations totalling 6-8 mT CO2 with allowances of 20mT CO2. Norways climate
change strategy focuses on reinjecting CO2 from the petroleum sector which currently accounts for 12.2
mT CO2. Norwegian Taxation policy has been changed in a number of ways that favour the use of
electric cars in Norway. Electric cars are exempted from the purchase tax, VAT and the annual tax.
Norway is currently researching the use of CNG for marine purposes which produces fewer emissions
than diesel.
New Zealand aims to become carbon neutral in mobile and static energy by 2040 – in theory to become
“the first carbon neutral nation in the world” (excluding methane). New Zealand’s annual emissions
have risen from 61.5mT CO2e in 1999 to 75.3mT CO2e in 2003 with 22mT CO2 absorbed by forest sinks.
On a net basis New Zealand’s annual emissions are 53.2mT CO2e.
34
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norway#International_rankings
35
Norway’s fourth national communication under UNFCC (2005) http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/natc/nornc4.pdf
Relevant Policies
National Transport Plan 2006–201536
5.1 Norwegian National Transport Plan 2006–2015
The Government adopts the following four main goals for transport policy:
Fewer fatalities and serious injuries on the roads and a continued high level of safety in other
modes of transport
More environmentally sound urban transport – with reduced dependence on private cars
and increased public transport
Improved traffic flow in and between regions in order to promote development of viable
districts and growth-oriented housing and labour markets while meeting the transport needs
of business and industry
Α more efficient transport system, increasing the element of competition in order to bring
about the best possible transport provisions for the total investments in transport.
The volume of goods transport measured in tonne-kilometres carried by sea is approximately equal
to that carried by road (respectively, 48 per cent and 46 per cent). There are considerable variations
between corridors and regions and between different markets and types of goods. Distribution and
other short-distance transport is in practice only carried out by road. In the case of long-distance
transport in general and specific types of goods, rail transport has a considerable share of the
market.
Safety
Norway will maintain its Vision Zero Road Safety Target. This aims to achieve zero deaths on the
nations roads. As a result of the measures presented in this report, we estimate a reduction by 330 in
the number of people killed or seriously injured in road accidents in 2016, compared with the
estimated number without these measures.
This includes increased state allocations for more rapid expansion of heavily trafficked trunk roads to
four lanes and increased use of central guardrails on two and three-lane roads. In addition to
measures in relation to the road network, road safety will be enhanced, among other reasons, as a
result of proposals for new and improved driving instruction and development of improved traffic
education in schools.
Control activity on the roads will be strengthened in order to monitor compliance with statutes and
regulations concerning road traffic. The Norwegian Public Roads Administration will make increased
use of risk analyses and systematic revisions throughout the road traffic system. Stricter safety
requirements will be introduced for commercial transport, particularly heavy transport.
There are approximately 100 groundings and collisions between ships along the coast each year. The
probability of major shipping accidents involving the loss of many lives or major damage resulting
from oil spillage or the like is statistically very low, and most accidents along the coast have relatively
slight consequences. However, the accident involving the Rocknes in January 2004 demonstrated
that the consequences of maritime accidents can be extremely serious. This emphasizes the need to
maintain the priority given by the Government to measures to increase safety in shipping lanes.
36
http://www.regjeringen.no/upload/kilde/sd/red/2004/0172/ddd/pdfv/213002-english_summary_ntp.pdf
Urban Transport
The Ministry of Transport and Communications adopts the basic policy that towns that provide for
reduced use of private cars and increased public transport, bicycles and walking shall be rewarded,
among other ways, by means of increased allocations via the incentive scheme for public transport.
Local authorities shall have free use of these funds, and may also use them for operation of public
transport.
The Ministry of Transport and Communications will introduce a new state financing package for
infrastructure for local public transport with reduced requirements regarding the local share of
financing and the possibility of using road toll revenues to finance the local share. Financing will still
be partly based on charging of road users in the towns, with the possibility of varying charges
according to the time of day and application of revenues to improved infrastructure for public
transport. This will help to ensure more efficient use of the road network while strengthening the
financing of the transport system as a whole.
The Government wishes to implement mutually binding agreements between the state and the
urban municipalities based on coordinated land-use and transport plans in order to achieve long-
term, sustainable land-use and transport development. New forms of cooperation and coordination
will also be tested and developed to ensure efficient, safe and environmentally sound urban
transport by means of arrangements such as the Coordinating Body for Public Transport in Central
Eastern Norway and experiments in the other large urban areas. The Ministry will also make
provisions to enable urban municipalities to implement “low emission zones”.
Regional Links
Different regions have different needs for infrastructure and transport provisions. It is the
Government’s intention to secure settlements, economic growth and viable local communities
throughout the country. The Government will pursue a progressive and prospect-oriented rural and
regional policy, and make provisions for creation of lasting and profitable jobs.
In order to strengthen local centres, particularly at a regional level, it is important to strengthen
connections with the surrounding country. This also helps the regions to function better as units. In
this report, the Government describes its plans to reduce the disadvantages of distance between
regions and to countries abroad by increasing investments in development of major transport
corridors in all parts of the country. Transport policy is thus an effective instrument of regional
policy.
Improved road transport

Most of the country’s overland transport goes by road, and the road network also plays an
important role in linking other forms of transport. Most transport goes by road at one or both ends
of its journey.
In the heavily trafficked road network the greatest challenges are associated with transporting in
the most efficient and safe way possible without inflicting unnecessary loads on the environment.
There is a considerable need for development of the heavily trafficked road network. In less
trafficked stretches, development will be based on improvement of the existing road in order to
provide a satisfactory breadth and load-bearing capacity and on improved road safety.
The Government plans a strategy where road toll financing of long, continuous stretches of trunk
road coupled with increased state allocations will provide a basis for a more rapid
development of the trunk road network in central areas while maintaining and strengthening
investments in the rural road network. It is also of major importance for rural areas that safe and
reliable transport is secured by means of increased investment in rockslide and avalanche
prevention and reduction of bottlenecks.
It is therefore important to increase the effectiveness of road transport and to make provisions for
transition to sea and rail transport. The share of the total transport volume represented by sea
transport is greater in Norway than in most other European countries, but there is still room for
growth. The precondition for such a transition is that intermodal solutions (two or more forms of
transport in a transport chain) provide adequate transport quality at a competitive price.
In order to encourage a transition from road to sea and rail transport, provisions must be made for
a concentration of cargo traffic in nodes and corridors, so that there is a sufficient cargo basis to set
up new intermodal transport services.
Investments in railway capacity and quality of infrastructure and development of efficient terminals
are important measures for improving the competitiveness of the railways. In the road sector, this
must be followed up by provisions to enable satisfactory supplies to the terminals.
An important contribution involves providing for information flow between the various transport
sectors and with transport users. In cooperation between users, researchers and the administration,
a joint framework is being developed for data interchange in the transport system (ARKTRANS). The
Ministry of Transport and Communications anticipates that this will be implemented when the
various players develop electronic services in the transport sector.
Through Norwegian participation in the EU Marco Polo programme, it will be possible to make
funds available for measures that can assist in reducing market barriers to intermodal transport.
The establishment of the Shortsea Promotion Centre-Norway (SPC-Norway) is an important element
of the Government’s strategy for enabling the transition of goods transport from road to sea. By
means of networks, SPC-Norway can help to link players, thereby functioning as a catalyst for the
establishment of combined door-to-door transport.
Success in bringing about a transition from road to sea and rail transport is dependent on measures
in the areas of the transport market where there are real competition interfaces. Regard must be
paid to the limitations deriving from commodity composition and transport quality. The Government
is therefore planning a balanced policy where the good qualities of road transport are exploited
while providing for sea and rail transport where appropriate.
Port structure
The Government wishes to provide for development of ports to strengthen sea transport and
stimulate commercial and industrial development and establishment of robust areas. If sea
transport is to gain ground in the competition with land transport as regards both price and quality,
the ports must have a volume of general cargo and containers that provides a basis for frequent and
regular calls by ships. A precondition for success in this is that the handling of general cargo and
containers is mainly concentrated in a limited number of ports. At the same time, a long-term
approach coupled with predictability is important both for the transport and logistical planning of
commerce and industry and for state infrastructure development. The Government will therefore
continue to build on the existing port structure. However, this structure will be adjusted to two
levels, and will consist of national ports and other ports.
In compliance with Report No. 46 to the Storting (1999–2000), the National Transport Plan 2002–
2011 and consideration of this by the Storting, the Government will adopt as a basis that the ports
in Oslo, Grenland, Kristiansand, Stavanger, Karmsund, Bergen, Ålesund, Trondheim, Bodø and
Tromsø will be maintained as national ports. The Government anticipates that the national ports
will be developed in such a way that they have a standard and are able to handle a volume of goods
permitting regular and frequent calls by ships for purposes of general cargo and containers. Other
ports will primarily serve local communities and local commerce and industry.
More Efficient Transport System

In compliance with Report No. 26 to the Storting (2001–2002) Improved public transport, the
Ministry of Transport and Communications is working to establish competition for the state
purchase of passenger transport on the railways. It is planned that competition for state purchase of
services on the Gjøvikbanen Railway will be announced during the course of 2004.
In this report, the Government announces its plans to advertise competition for two major transport
packages: the Bergensbanen Railway package (which consists of all passenger transport on the
Bergensbanen Railway and winter transport on the Flåmsbanen Railway) and the Sørlandsbanen
Railway package (consisting of all passenger transport on the Sørlandsbanen Railway and Arendal
branch line).
Such a division into larger packages will increase interest in taking part in the competition, and will
provide the transport packages with regional centres of focus for the long-term marketing of the
transport companies. This will support the goal that competitive tendering shall result in increased
use of public transport.
The Ministry of Transport and Communications has liberalized express bus policy in order to provide
for collective improvements of public transport provisions, involving increased options. A general
characteristic is that, where express buses have been permitted to operate services in competition
with the railways, there has been an increase in the total number of persons using public transport.
The majority of the new users of express buses are former users of private cars. Liberalization of the
express bus policy has thus helped to strengthen public transport.
The Government also plans a gradual transition to competitive tendering for public road ferry
operation as well as for maintenance and development of the railway network.
Public Private Partnership (PPP)
Public Private Partnership (PPP) is being tried out in three projects in the road sector. The purpose
is to achieve efficiency gains. In the view of the Ministry of Transport and Communications, PPP
shall only be used to the extent that this form of contract involves the transfer of risk and where
the total cost of the project is lower than in traditional development. The Ministry will present an
overall assessment of its experience of PPP when the procurement process is complete for all trial
projects.
Taxation policy and user financing in the transport sector
It is necessary to maintain a balance between the desire to provide transport services to commerce
and industry and the general public and the damage to society brought about by transport use. The
Government views taxation and fee policy as an important instrument in maintaining such a
balance. The Government wishes to ensure equal framework conditions for the various transport
sectors. Socio-economically appropriate tax and fee structures are an important element of such a
policy. This will ensure better correspondence between prices and social transport costs.
Development of the infrastructure of the transport sector is partly financed directly via the fiscal
budget, i.e. via the ordinary taxation policy, and partly via user fees. In this area too, the
Government wishes to make provisions for the most efficient arrangements.
Firm costs constitute the largest cost component in the transport system, whereas, in many cases,
use-dependent costs are small. Once investments are made, it is important that the capacity is
exploited well. Too high a price for the use of infrastructure, for example to ensure full cost
absorption, may be inexpedient.
The choice of the form of financing may have major effects on the competitiveness of the various
means of transport. Financing should be viewed in connection with tax policy in relation to the
various transport sectors. The Government plans to prepare better analyses with a view to the
consequences of the choice of financing structure for infrastructure and services in the transport
sector. The work will form part of an overall strategy for meeting the various objectives in the
transport area.
In the road sector, user fees are levied for road infrastructure services by means of road tolls and
payment for use of public road ferries. Road tolls have made it possible to accelerate a number of
projects that would otherwise have been postponed for many years if they had been financed purely
by means of ordinary allocations.
Different principles have been established in connection with road toll financing. In the view of the
Government, there is a need for a critical review and enforcement of the principles of road toll
financing. The aim is a simplified and more user-friendly system that will result in greater equality
and equity. Emphasis will be placed on enforcing the requirement that projects are planned to be
financed at least 50 per cent by road tolls before approval of road toll projects. In addition to this,
great emphasis will be placed on correspondence between benefit and payment. Road tolls will
normally be collected retroactively, while simultaneous collection may be appropriate to a limited
extent, primarily in urban packages.
Cleaner Environment and Better Accessibility

The Ministry of Transport and Communications is in process of drawing up a strategy for increased
use of zero-emission technology in the transport sector in order to facilitate less dependence on
fossil fuel in Norway over time.
As one of very few countries, Norway has introduced CO2 tax on domestic aviation as part of its
environmental policy, and is involved in international efforts to introduce climate measures for
international aviation as well.
The Ministry of Transport and Communications and the Ministry of Fisheries are also planning to
implement measures to reduce NOx emissions by transport, particularly in the ferry sector and other
coastal transport. Work on preventive measures and strengthened oil pollution contingency plans
associated with coastal oil transport will be continued.
New measures will be implemented to comply with regulations pursuant to the Pollution Control Act
concerning threshold values for noise pollution and local air quality. In order to improve the air
quality in towns, the Ministry of Transport and Communications will place greater emphasis on
reducing emissions by means of permanent measures directed at the sources of emission rather
than limiting itself to emergency measures. In this connection, a policy limiting the growth of motor
vehicle traffic in towns plays an important role.
Accessibility for all
Transport infrastructure is not designed and adapted to serve everyone’s needs equally well. The
Government will make provisions to reduce the number of obstacles met by functionally disabled
persons in the transport system.
The Government will increase the accessibility of transport by strengthening the requirements and
guidelines for accessibility in the design of infrastructure, in the granting of transport licences and in
public purchase of passenger transport services. In addition to this, the Government will prepare a
new accessibility programme in order to improve transport accessibility for everyone in the
transport sector. The programme will include infrastructure, rolling stock and transport logistics.
Economic frameworks and main priorities

Table 1.1 Framework allocation of state funds. Annual average. 2004 NOK-millions
Allocated 2002– NTP 2006–2015

20041
Norwegian National Rail 4 575 4 700

Administration2
(NZD1.1 billion)
Norwegian Public Roads 12 000 12 250

Administration
(NZD 2.8 billion)
Norwegian National Coastal 600 600

Administration (NZD 120 million)
State purchase of regional airport 234 300

services
(NZD 60 million)
Purchase of passenger train 1 418 1 400

services
(NZD 328 million)
Total 18 827 19 250

5.2 Evaluation of the Norwegian Transport Strategy
In order to evaluate the Norwegian policy it is necessary to examine each of the NZTS objectives
against the assessment criteria.
1) Assist economic development

b. The degree of research support presented in the plan or strategy indicating the
policy is evidence-based.
c. The breadth of considerations raised in considering the objectives (as evidence of
broad thinking)
d. The apparent strength of the proposed link between the strategy or plan’s
objectives and the behaviour of those in the economy (realism)
e. The degree of change required from current level of performance to the plan’s
proposed level.
Assessment
a) The level of funding devoted to the objective of assisting economic development is modest
even by comparison with New Zealand. Use of PPPs is being considered.
b) No direct evidence is cited in this English summary translation however the Norwegian
Institute of Transport Economics37 is significantly larger than any New Zealand equivalents.
c) The summary policy is similar to New Zealand examples
d) Norway’s economy is driven largely by oil and gas. Transport investment is mature.
e) Norway’s transport plan is larger than previous years but not large by local standards.
Norway is a world leader in transport safety policy and development. Its road toll per vehicle and per
capita is half New Zealand’s38. Norway has 40% of New Zealand’s incarceration rate and half our
murder rate.
a) There does not seem to be any particular funding problem associated with safety and
personal security.
b) The evidence presented in the English summary is limited however Norway’s reputation
precedes it .
c) Norway’s focus on road improvement is notable.
d) Norway’s goals will be harder to achieve simply because Vision Zero may be impossible
however its rate of progress since 1995 is proportionately similar to New Zealand’s despite
starting from the point we have now arrived at.
e) Vision Zero is a laudable if idealistic goal and Norway seems to have a better chance than
many of achieving it.

a. There is no evidence in the English summary of special funding for this goal
b. There is no evidence of any particular evidence in the English summary.
37
http://www.toi.no
38
Motor Vehicle Crashes in New Zealand 2006 (p152)
c. The concern for access and mobility is mentioned in the transport strategy but only in
regards to the disabled.
d. It is impossible assess the plans feasibility from the English Summary.
e. It is impossible to assess the plan’s challenges from the English summary.
Context: The Norwegian Ministry for the Environment tracks exceedences in air pollutants similar to
those monitored by NIWA. Exceedences have been recorded in Oslo, Bergen and Trondheim.39
Exceedences are similar to New Zealand largely from transport and wood smoke.
a. No particular funding is attached to the environment in the English summary transport
policy however there is a strong pressure for public transport, and mention of increasing
vehicle emission standards – including for ferrys.
b. Evidence is collected as in NZ.
c. There is more awareness of transborder issues evident .
d. It is surprising that Norway has the problem it does. The Ministry plans to work with urban
authorities to create low emissions zones
e. The Norwegians do not seem to stress this aspect of transport policy as much as one might
expect.

a. The Norwegians are particularly motivated by climate change, they are focusing on carbon
reduction through PT and more efficient links funded by taxation and PPPs.
b. Norways environmental plans appear to be partly ideologically driven but also because
Norway can achieve carbon neutrality more readily than other nations.
c. Norways transport sustainability is based on a combination of high fuel taxes, cordon tolling,
extensive public transport, and changing maritime technology.
d. Norway has implemented cordon tolls in its three largest cities despite local opposition. To
date its methods appear to be working.
e. Achieving carbon neutrality will be very difficult in transport. However Norway has
significant advantages for electric vehicles including deep hydro reserves, and wealthy
consumers.
39
http://www.environment.no/templates/MaalNokkeltallForside____3777.aspx &
http://www.environment.no/templates/themepage____2749.aspx
5.3 Critique of the Norwegian Transport Strategy
Norwegian policy remains somewhat opaque due to the shortage of documents translated into
English. That said the policy has published indicates that the three main driving forces in Norwegian
transport policy are economic development, safety and sustainability. It is difficult to say whether as
much emphasis has been placed on access and mobility and local environmental effects but these
may well be addressed at a local level.
Given the scale of Norwegian oil revenues Norwegian transport ambitions are very modest. Plans to
improve road capacity are as much driven by road safety concerns as they are by economic issues.
The use of Public-Private Partnership instruments appears to be driven more by curiosity as to the
efficiency gains than due to the need to source funds. The role of sea transport at both regional and
inter-regional levels is obviously more important in Norway than in New Zealand. That said Norway
is investing more in land and sea transport than previously and is certainly continuing to improve its
road network.
Norway’s concern for transport safety is world leading and it is notable that the policy focuses on
creating a fail-safe environment for the nations road users. There is also concern for reducing the
risk of active modes users and improving maritime transport safety.
Norway’s ambition to achieve carbon neutrality by 2050 is remarkably modest given its inherent
advantages. In fact given its advantages in electricity supply, the state of technology for carbon
sequestration in the oil industry and its existing policy and outcome lead it seems highly unlikely that
in any world where New Zealand achieves carbon neutrality by 2040 that Norway would not have
done so first.
6.0 United Kingdom
The United Kingdom (England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland) is an island nation with a land
area of 244,820 square kilometres (10% smaller than New Zealand) but with a population of 60
million and is the 6th largest economy in the world. While the United Kingdom’s trade and influence
over New Zealand is far less than it was last century New Zealand is still attached to the United
Kingdom through its constitutional and legal legacy. London-Heathrow is Air New Zealand’s only
European destination airport and the main European destination for Qantas as well. While there is
now almost no trade in vehicles between the two nations both drive on the left.
Transport policy in the United Kingdom is administered by the Department for Transport.
The Department for Transport was set up to provide a stronger focus on delivering the
Government's transport strategy. The role of the centre of the Department is to set strategy
and policy context, and to establish and manage relationships with the organisations that
are responsible for delivery. The centre of the Department has been structured to reflect this
role with a strong central strategy, delivery, communications and finance group.
The Department's Board has also been configured to support delivery. Members of the Board
include the Directors General of the:
Rail and National Networks Group;
City and Regional Networks Group;
Corporate Resources
Safety, Service Delivery and Logistics Group
Relevant Documents
Towards a Sustainable Transport System: Supporting Economic Growth in a Low Carbon World40
The Eddington Transport Study41
The King Review of low-carbon cars42
The Future of Transport - White Paper CM 623443
The Future of Air Transport44
Tackling crime on public transport45
Tomorrow’s Roads – Safer for Everyone46
40
http://www.dft.gov.uk/about/strategy/transportstrategy/hmtlsustaintranssys
41
http://www.dft.gov.uk/about/strategy/transportstrategy/eddingtonstudy/
42
http://www.dft.gov.uk/about/strategy/king initial report from
http://www.hm-treasury.gov.uk/media/9/5/pbr_csr07_king840.pdf
43
http://www.dft.gov.uk/about/strategy/whitepapers/fot/
44
http://www.dft.gov.uk/about/strategy/whitepapers/air/
45
http://www.dft.gov.uk/pgr/crime/tacklingcrimeonpublictransport
46
http://www.dft.gov.uk/pgr/roadsafety/strategytargetsperformance/tomorrowsroadssaferforeveryone
Ports Policy Review – an interim report47
Planning for a Sustainable Future48
6.1 Towards a Sustainable Transport System: Supporting Economic Growth

in a Low Carbon World
The following clips are from the Executive Summary. The document is in five parts:
1. History and context

2. Clarifying goals
3. Our plans to 2013-14
4. Planning for 2014-15 and beyond
5. First Steps
The document summarises findings from the Eddington and King Reviews and the other transport
white papers.
“This document has three aims. Firstly, it describes how the Government is responding to the
recommendations made in the Eddington study to improve transport’s contribution to
economic growth and productivity, and how it is ensuring that transport will play its part in
delivering the overall level of reductions in carbon emissions recommended by the Stern
Review of the Economics of Climate Change. Secondly, it sets out the Department for
Transport’s ambitious policy and investment plans for the period to 2013-14.”
1. Goal 1 is to maximise the competitiveness and productivity of the economy.

2. Goal 2 is to address climate change,
3. Goal 3 is to protect people’s safety, security and health.
4. Goal 4 is to improve quality of life,
5. Goal 5 is to promote greater equality of opportunity.
Our plans to 2014
We are also strongly arguing for an emissions trading policy which would mean that
every extra tonne of carbon from aviation growth above 2005 levels would need to
be matched by a tonne saved somewhere else – a saving over and above existing
targets. (p11)
On our urban rail networks, the recent rail White Paper, Delivering a Sustainable
Railway, committed the Government to implementing substantial investment to
reduce crowding around major cities by ordering 1,300 new carriages between now
and 2014. There will also be significant new infrastructure, for example at Reading
and Birmingham New Street stations. The Thameslink project will be completed
by 2015. We are also looking at how we can transform the rail network around
Manchester to unlock more of the region’s economic power and address long-term
47
http://www.dft.gov.uk/pgr/shippingports/ports/portspolicyreview/portspolicyreviewinterimreport
48
http://www.communities.gov.uk/publications/planningandbuilding/planningsustainablefuture
capacity issues.(p12)
We have concluded a funding deal for the £16 billion Crossrail project, which will
bring an estimated 1½ million more people to within 60 minutes of London’s key
business areas and is expected to carry 200 million passengers a year by 2017.
It will provide relief to hard-pressed commuters, support 30,000 jobs and sustain
the City’s role as a world financial centre, which is critical to our national economy.(p12)
We do not need a roads programme anything like as ambitious as planners envisaged at the
height of ‘predict and provide’ in the 1980s, but we do need targeted increases
in capacity. We are spending £1.3 billion a year on this, with 23 schemes under
construction now, and a further six (including key stretches of the M1, M25 and
M62) due to start by April 2008.(p13)
Urban congestion charging, backed by investment in public transport, is our priority.

Therefore, whilst it is possible that road pricing could have the potential to be
extended to include parts of the national networks, that is a decision for the future,
to be informed by the development of local schemes, including London, and clear
answers to the technological and system challenges. (p14)
the King Review of low-carbon cars concluded in its interim analytical report that average per
kilometre CO2 emissions from new cars could be 30 per cent lower than in 2000 within the next
10 years. By 2030, combined with greater use of biofuels and changes in consumer choices, this
could help achieve a 50 per cent reduction in average per kilometre carbon emissions from cars
across the UK fleet (p14)
Eddington concluded, the current planning system for nationally significant infrastructure
projects of this kind has often proved unpredictable and costly, and acted as a barrier to delivery.
For this reason, the Government has published a White Paper, Planning for a Sustainable Future,
with proposals to make the planning process for transport and other major infrastructure
projects quicker, more efficient and more predictable, and to improve the accountability
and transparency of the system. (p15)
A new approach to strategic transport planning
The introduction of 10-year funding guidelines for transport in 2000 gives the Department and its
partners the ability to plan ahead with confidence.
We must therefore make sure that we achieve the greatest possible benefits from the public
funding that is available. To do this, having set out our goals, we need to engage with
stakeholders at an earlier stage than ever before to help identify the key transport challenges on
local, national and international networks and the full range of potential options to address
them.
…We are therefore updating our economic appraisal tool to ensure that it captures as many of
the positive and negative impacts of transport as possible, giving each its due weight. Eddington
was clear that improvements can be achieved through pricing, regulation and making better use
of existing capacity..
.. Infrastructure investment will sometimes be needed – but only if other options cannot solve the
problem. He also stressed the importance of considering potential solutions across a range of
transport modes. Government has to look at rail and road options for inter-city corridors, such as
Manchester-Birmingham-London, alongside one another.
..And the benefits of joined-up planning at the city level have been clearly demonstrated by
London..
.. Finally, making the taxpayer’s pound go further will also mean giving fresh impetus to looking
at ways of bringing in private sector funding..
6.2 The Eddington Transport Study

The study is subtitled: Transport’s role in sustaining the UK’s productivity and competitiveness
The Eddington Study comes in four Volumes:
Volume 1 - Understanding the relationship: how transport can contribute to economic success (PDF
279kb
Volume 2 - Defining the challenge: identifying strategic economic priorities for the UK transport
system (PDF 6,589kb)
Volume 3 - Meeting the challenge: prioritising the most effective policies (PDF 1,834kb)
Volume 4 - Taking action: enabling the system to deliver (PDF 3,551kb)
And is structured as per this
diagram
6.2.1 Volume One
Volume one is a combination of a short history of British industrial development and a literature
review from around the world on the relationship between transport and economic growth.
It concludes:
Transport matters for the economic performance of countries and regions.
• Historically, step changes in transport connectivity have been pivotal in supporting periods
of rapid growth of economies as they developed, and critical in driving past phases of
globalisation.
• Today, in mature economies like the UK, with well-established networks and where
connectivity between economic centres is already in place, the evidence suggests that there
is considerably less scope for transport improvements to deliver the periods of rapid growth
seen historically.
• Instead, the debate for such countries should be focused on the performance of the existing
network, particularly where capacity is stretched, as demonstrated, for instance, through
congestion or unreliability.
• Increasingly, studies are suggesting that the efficiency with which existing transport
networks are used is just as important as the underlying investment.
• The relationship between transport and the economy in a developed economy is therefore
likely to be an incremental one.
• However, economic success can itself generate higher demand for transport and where
there is a lack of adequate capacity, transport can start to constrain that success.
• But a ‘one-size-fits-all’ approach to transport policy, in terms of the type of intervention,

the modal solution or indeed the level of expenditure, is not appropriate. Shaped by their
different social, economic, environmental and geographic characteristics, different countries
and regions have different transport needs.
• Equally, in some circumstances, transport is not the answer; there are times when countries
have enjoyed economic success without significant improvements to transport; and history
highlights that transport does not always deliver expected economic benefits.
• The Stern Review has demonstrated powerfully that tackling climate change is the pro-
environment, pro-growth strategy. Transport will need to be part of this response.
Of these the critical messages are:
Shaped by their different social, economic, environmental and geographic characteristics, different
countries and regions have different transport needs.
The Eddington Report is concerned with Britain with established links and connectivity. The same
could not be argued for New Zealand when one considers examples such as the Auckland motorway
network or State Highway two.
The Study also examines transport from the ground up and notes the following factors are important
to transport users:
1. Network provision – i.e the connections between places exist

2. Network reliability – i.e the network’s performance is predictable
3. Affordability – the system makes economic sense to users
4. Comfort – people enjoy using the system
5. Safety and security – people have reduced expectations of traumatic events
Of these the New Zealand Strategy Update concentrates only on 2 and 5.
The Study examines the benefits of agglomeration and also looks at the issue of transport system
efficiency on the labour market (in cities). The ability of people to afford housing within commuting
distance is linked into the availability of workers.
The study then outlines the criteria for a successful transport strategy. This is reprinted here due to
its direct relevance to the task of the New Zealand Transport Ministry.
A transport strategy needs to be sufficiently forward looking to anticipate (as far as possible),
49
and deal proactively with, some very long-term, far-reaching issues. A clear vision on the
future of the UK economy is essential to help define the future problems and transport needs.
These challenges include:
• the strong growth in transport demand forecast as a consequence of economic success,

which without action is expected to lead to increased congestion (see Volume 2 for further
details), alongside growing expectations concerning the quality of infrastructure and
transport services;
• transport’s role in responding to the challenges and opportunities of the knowledge

economy and globalisation, which will continue to shape the economic geography of the UK.
Change is happening faster than has historically been the case;
• transport’s key role in responding to the global challenge of climate change, as well as to
more local impacts, such as air quality and biodiversity;
• responding to new technological advances, both general purpose technologies, for example
the use of the internet and real-time information influencing demand for transport and its
provision, and more transport specific technology; and
• Demographic, social, environmental and scientific trends, and their implications for
transport policy objectives and pressures.
A further challenge is that transport lead times are often long (years and often decades) and
decisions can involve significant investments in some very long-lived assets, many of which,
such as railway lines and airports, are quite inflexible once they are established.
49
Volume 1 pages 42-44
3.9 Taken together this suggests that a long term strategic outlook for transport policy in the
UK must extend over a 20 to 30 year time horizon. This would allow early identification of
issues to be addressed, including where transport may contribute to productivity and to other
government objectives, as well as consideration of the full range of appropriate policy
options. It would also allow sufficient time for preparatory action by the government, and
others affected by decisions, and the securing of funding for agreed priorities.
3.10 This strategic outlook could include, or be supported by, medium-term strategies for
achieving particular strategic transport objectives, analysing the problem to be solved and
setting out the range of policy options that could be pursued, and identifying those that were
likely to be most effective. However, transport policy must be responsive to the changing
shape of the economy. Logically, this can involve changing course, and even stopping doing
some things, as well as doing more.
3.11 Governments need to be sufficiently forward looking in order to commit to

implementing such long-term strategies, which will not necessarily come to fruition for many
years. Furthermore, government decisions on transport can also have significant impacts on
related private sector operations, investment and location decisions. As a result, providing
certainty about near-term actions and transparency about long-term strategy can increase
the impact that transport improvements have on economic success and environmental goals.
3.12 Hence, accompanying the long term strategic outlook and medium term strategies
should be a short to medium term 5-10 year statement of commitment, that clarifies the
policies to be implemented over this period of time.
The recommended Approach to developing a strategy is further developed in Volume Four.
6.2.2 Volume 2
Most of Volume Two is a detailed assessment of the UK Transport Network which is of exemplary
interest only. However it does include one map which clearly illustrates why British planners
discount the possibility of building their way out of congestion through ‘predict and provide’.
It is fairly obvious from this map that there really is

nowhere left for Britain to expand its roading
networks. The Island is criss-crossed with roads to
form an extremely dense network – as one might
expect of a nation with a land area smaller than New
Zealand but supporting 15 times the population.
As such extrapolating the conclusions of the

Eddington Report vis-à-vis infrastructure provision
versus capacity management to New Zealand must be
taken in the context of Britain’s very mature
infrastructure compared to New Zealand’s relatively undeveloped state.
The Eddington Report then continues on to develop plans under a number of scenarios50 :
Such scenario planning would be a welcome addition to any New Zealand transport strategy.
The scenarios examine various levels of demand under changes in costs and technology but produce
conclusions of what investments will be required for Britain regardless.
6.2.3 Volume 3
The following is Eddington’s conclusion for the volume
Headlines
The case for targeted transport intervention is compelling, even after taking account of
environmental effects. Some transport interventions offer very high overall returns on
government spending.
• Transport schemes can deliver overall benefits averaging £4 per £1 of government

expenditure.
• These figures have added in estimates of the missing GDP impacts identified in Volume 1
that are not captured in recent appraisals. Such impacts can be very significant, adding up to
50 per cent to the benefits in some cases.
• Environmental effects often reduce the returns available, but overall returns remain
remarkably high in most cases once they have been factored in; and such effects increase the
benefits of some urban public transport proposals. A sophisticated policy mix of better use,
carbon and congestion pricing and targeted infrastructure offers strong benefits.
50
Volume 2 page 102
• There is a strong economic and environmental case for ensuring users across all modes face
the true costs associated with their journeys, be they environmental or congestion-related, in
line with the Stern Review of the economics of climate change.
• Better use options – especially better pricing on the roads – have very considerable
potential; infrastructure options are not always the most cost effective solution.
• But some infrastructure schemes do offer very high returns:
• Interventions targeted on the worst problems and bottlenecks caused by competing

demands on the transport system, such as surface access links and corridors close to major
urban areas, are likely to offer some of the highest returns;
• Small can be beautiful: small-scale interventions such as walking and cycling schemes, and
junction improvements, are often the most cost-effective solutions. Although on their own
they may not always be able to tackle the true scale of the problem faced; and
• GDP returns from the interventions in urban areas on which evidence is available are
surprisingly low, leading to concerns that high-return options may not be being generated.
• Even in a world with carbon pricing and widespread congestion-targeted road pricing there
seems to be a good case for more transport infrastructure. Beyond 2015, without road
pricing there would be an economic case for a rate of strategic road capacity enhancement
over 50 per cent higher than the baseline rate; with road pricing, there would still be a case
for additional investment but significantly below current rates of build.
• Step-change measures intended to provide a transformation to the transport system are

unlikely, in a world of constrained resources, to be a priority especially when they use new
and untested technologies.
But it is not only through government funding that transport delivers strong welfare and GDP
benefits: private sector investment has a key role to play.
Of significant interest to officials in New Zealand is the methodologies used to determine these
outcomes. The methodologies include:
Conventional benefit: cost ratio (NATA BCR): the benefit:cost ratio set out in DfT’s appraisal
guidance. Captured and monetised within this BCR are: changes to the overall costs of travel,
the value of changes to travel times, safety benefits, and the financial costs of doing the
project including impacts on taxation revenues. This does not yet include a number of GDP
impacts, and here does not put a monetary valuation on environmental benefits.b Instead,
the BCR sits within a broader assessment framework that uses qualitative estimates of
environmental and social impacts.
• GDP per pound: the contribution to GDP that can be achieved per pound of government
money spent on the intervention. It is a narrower metric than welfare because it only focuses
on the impacts on the economy. It does not therefore include benefits for non-work/leisure
travel, for example. In addition to the GDP impacts already captured in appraisals, such as
changes in the costs of travel to business and freight, this assessment also includes impacts
on the wider economy that are not currently estimated as part of conventional appraisals,
such as agglomeration, labour market effects, competition impacts and reliability. Such
effects have been indicatively estimated for this study based on developing ‘state of the art’
guidance on how to assess these impacts from DfT.
• Wider benefit:cost ratio (BCR): this adds the ‘missing’ GDP effects into the conventional
NATA BCR.
Value for money (VfM) BCR: the most complete metric used in this analysis.For decision
making, all impacts on society should be considered but only some can be presented in
money terms. The value for money assessment goes broader than the three previous metrics
by incorporating most significant environmental effects into the monetised assessment by
relying on recent valuation evidence. Environmental effects estimated in this way are carbon
(using current Defra guidance), air quality, noise and landscape (all from published academic
and government research).
This is of particular significance for New Zealand where evaluation methodologies have become
subject to political and thus legal uncertainty raising costs and delays.51 Most of the rest of this
volume is highly UK centric.
6.2.4 Volume 4
Volume four of the Eddington Report is a critique of the UK Department for Transport and its
planning processes. It outlines a strategy for developing a transport planning strategy which is
commended to the Ministry of Transport.
6.3 King Review of Low Carbon Cars

The Review is a broad-based assessment of the future developments likely in the technology used in
cars.
In 2000, cars and vans accounted for 7 per cent of global carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions.
This proportion is rising as economic growth brings the benefits of widespread car use to the
world's emerging and developing economies. Under a business-as-usual scenario, global road
transport emissions would be projected to double by 2050. Page 3
BUT
This Review's analysis indicates that, by 2030, emissions per kilometre could be around 50
per cent below 2000 levels. This would be partly offset by the projected increase in distance
travelled, implying an overall reduction in UK emissions from car use of approximately 30 per
cent by 2030. Page 4
Biofuels, in moderation, offer potential advantages over conventional fuels and can occupy
part of the transport fuels market over the medium term. But an over-reliance on biofuels,
51
Ministerial Advisory Group On Roading Costs (p5) “The development of a national strategy for land
transport, together with a more detailed roading strategy, is required to provide better direction for the
agencies, with clearly defined and measurable national objectives against which roading projects can be
evaluated.” (Our emphasis)
particularly in these early stages, could be counter-productive, putting the world's
environmental resources under pressure. Page 4
In the long term, carbon-free road transport fuel is the only way to achieve an 80-90 percent
reduction in emissions, essentially “decarbonisation”. Given biofuels supply constraints, this
will require a form of electric vehicle, with novel batteries, charged by “zero-carbon”
electricity (or, possibly, hydrogen produced from zero-carbon sources). Page 4
The Review undertakes a long and involved recapitulation of the importance of improving vehicle
emissions and looks at the challenges of energy density of alternatives to petrol and diesel. It also
points out that the CO2 emissions of fuel extraction are problematic as the world moves to
unconventional sources such as shale and tar.
Vehicle technologies are reviewed from page 43. It notes:
4.15 Recent improvements in engine technology such as direct fuel injection have helped to
achieve increased fuel economy and reductions in CO2 without sacrificing performance, cost
or convenience to the car buyer. Despite a 20 per cent weight gain of midsize vehicles in the
past 20 years, a long-term trend of 0.6 per cent fuel efficiency improvement per year has
been observed3, as a result of technical improvements. In addition, as the performance of
diesel engines has improved, many buyers have switched from petrol to diesel vehicles. UK
market penetration of diesel cars has more than doubled since 1997 to 38 per cent in 20064.
4.16 However, some recent trends and requirements in vehicle design have worked against
the objective of reducing CO2 emissions. Additional weight and less efficient aerodynamics,
arising for example from requirements for improved safety and to reduce NOX emissions,
have offset some of the increase in vehicle efficiency that could otherwise be achieved.
Consumer preference for increases in engine size, power and additional electrical equipment
has further increased the weight of vehicles, slowing progress in reducing CO2 emissions.
It notes propulsion and transmission technologies in the near future offer considerable scope for
carbon emission improvement
It also notes non-propulsion technologies offer gains as well
It notes however that manufacturers make more money selling ‘performance’ than economy.
In the medium term King sees more future in hybrids and plug-in hybrids
There are limits to decarbonisation through developments of conventional petrol and diesel
engines. In the medium term, particularly between 2015 and 2030, further efficiency gains
are likely to come increasingly from the use of electric hybrid propulsion systems. Page 48
Longer term King says the future is electric
Fully electric, battery-powered vehicles – if using zero or low-carbon electricity – offer the
most direct opportunity to decarbonise road transport over the longer term. In addition to
CO2 and running cost benefits, electric vehicles do not emit any regulated pollutants at the
point of use, and can offer other advantages such as good low speed acceleration. Recent
developments in battery technology raise the expectation that, in the longer term, batteries
could offer acceptable range, performance and recharging time.
4.48 Electric vehicles are more expensive to purchase than petrol or diesel equivalents, but
when their lower running costs are taken into account they are cost-effective for some types
of user. Battery-electric vans such as the Modec and the Smith are already available, and are
suited to environments where daily mileages are 100-150 miles or less, such as urban
deliveries. The G-Wiz vehicle sold by GoinGreen offers suitable range and performance for
low-speed urban motoring, and it is cost-effective for motorists in supportive environments,
such as some London boroughs where it is exempt from congestion and parking charges.
King however points out that technology benefits can be lost if there is no market for them. The
Review looks at UK research into the awareness of fuel efficiency and their motoring costs and says
that UK consumers have a very poor understanding of the relationship.
The amount of CO2 emitted depends directly on the amount of fuel consumed so, from an
environmental perspective, it is encouraging that fuel consumption is identified as one of the
most important factors when deciding what car to buy. However, in practice, purchase
decisions suggest that consumers take a very short-term view when weighing up vehicle
purchase costs. On average, consumers apply a very high discount rate (60 per cent), which
implies that they are looking to an 18-month payback period for fuel costs . Moreover, the
average motorist underestimates their car running costs by around a factor of two. Greater
awareness of the link between CO2 emissions and fuel use, and of the real cost of running a
car, has potential to enable choices (both in choosing and using a vehicle) that would be
better for both the motorist and the environment. (page 60)
In general terms the King review is focused entirely on technological solutions toward the problem
of reducing emissions. It does not question whether consumers want to buy reduced emissions. The
interest of the public in reducing emissions (both through vehicle choice and vehicle use) will
fundamentally guide how and when these technologies will be adopted.
6.4 The Future of Transport

This is the British Labour Government’s ten-year transport strategy. It is in many respects very
similar to New Zealand strategies (or perhaps vice-versa). It begins by detailing what a terrible job
the preceding Government did, what a great job the current job is doing and the presents a plan the
public can look forward to.
The contents are as follows:

Foreword by the Prime Minister CM 6234
Preface by the Secretary of State CM 6234
Executive Summary CM 6234
Chapter 1 - The challenge: demand for travel and under-investment CM 6234
Chapter 2 - What we have achieved CM 6234
Chapter 3 - Roads: smarter travel CM 6234
Chapter 4 - Transforming our railways CM 6234
Chapter 5 - Buses: better services, easier access CM 6234
Chapter 6 - Walking and cycling: a positive choice CM 6234
Chapter 7 - Aviation and shipping: delivering sustainable growth CM 6234
Chapter 8 - Freight: moving goods more efficiently CM 6234
Chapter 9 - Making choices locally and regionally CM 6234
Chapter 10 - Protecting the environment CM 6234
Chapter 11 - Safety and security: protecting people and networks CM 6234
Annex A - Spending Review 2004 CM 6234
Annex B - Department for Transport Public Service Agreements CM 6234
Annex C - Glossary CM 6234
Acknowledgements CM 6234
Highlights
Chapter 3: Road pricing is the key focus. Road safety has improved.
Chapter 4: Further restructuring of the rail industry and more investment in infrastructure
Chapter 5: Intends to reverse decline in bus patronage through new contracts scheme
Chapter 6: Focus on very localised policies to assist walking and cycling
Chapter 7: Regards airports and ports as key elements of national infrastructure planning, emphasis
on economically responsive development and meeting environmental costs.
Chapter 8: Seeks to transfer freight to rail where possible to reduce congestion
Chapter 9: Devolves centralised decision-making to regions, reforms Department

Chapter 10: Introduces climate change measures and seeks to lock in air-quality improvements
particularly for PM10 and Nox.
Chapter 11: Raise awareness of transport safety and vastly increase surveillance of the transport
system for road safety, crime and terrorism suppression reasons
6.5 Future of Air Transport

This is effectively an airport development plan. It proposes a range of changes to airports within the
United Kingdom as well as limits due to noise, pollution and “blight”.
It reinforces the British view that air operators should meet the full carbon costs of operations.
6.6 Tackling Crime on Public Transport

Considering the number of journeys made on public transport in the UK - some six billion
journeys are made by bus, coach or rail each year - actual incidences of crime against other
passengers are extremely rare. And this is borne out in a recent survey (see below) whereby
two-thirds of respondents felt that the level of security on public transport was either 'good'
or 'very good'.
However, the same survey found that 11.5% more journeys would be made on public
transport if passengers felt they were more secure
The Whitepaper includes a report on Young People and Crime on Public Transport52
The white-paper acknowledges that a principal deterrent to the use of public transport in the UK is a
perceived threat of crime.
It claims that reducing the risks and the perception need not be expensive.
6.7 Tomorrow’s Roads Safer for Everyone

This document is a comprehensive road safety strategy. It includes a number of elements certainly
not considered in New Zealand’s equivalent strategy which are of interest.
The targets are by 2010 we want to achieve, compared with the average for 1994-98:
a 40% reduction in the number of people killed or seriously injured in road accidents;
a 50% reduction in the number of children killed or seriously injured; and
a 10% reduction in the slight casualty rate, expressed as the number of people slightly
injured per 100 million vehicle kilometres.
Like Norway Britain is essentially starting at the point we have only just reached. While its progress
in deaths per 100,000 population or 10,000 vehicles are not as good as Norway’s it has managed to
achieve a 20% improvement in both measures over the past half decade.
Britains strategy is a mixed one with measures for engineering, education and enforcement
52
http://www.dft.gov.uk/pgr/crime/youngpeopleandcrimeonpublict3010
Contents of Safer Roads for Everyone.
Foreword
Chapter 1 - Introduction
o Road accidents
o The new targets
o Working in partnership
o The strategy
o Implementation timetable - Strategy
Chapter 2 - Safe for children
o Introduction
o Summary of the strategy
o Background
o Action plan
Chapter 3 - Safer drivers - training and testing
o Introduction
o Background
o Action plan
o The theory test
o Hazard perception testing
o The practical driving test
o Post-test driving improvements
o Better driving standards for lorries and buses
Chapter 4 - Safer drivers - drink, drugs and drowsiness
o Introduction
o Drink-driving
o Drugs and driving
o Drowsiness
Chapter 5 - Safer infrastructure
o Introduction
o Background
o Action plan
Chapter 6 - Safer speeds
o Introduction
o Background
o Action plan
Chapter 7 - Safer vehicles
o Introduction
o Background
o Action plan
o Longer-term developments
o Intelligent speed limiters
Chapter 8 - Safer motorcycling
o Introduction
o Background
o Action plan
Chapter 9 - Safety for pedestrians, cyclists and horseriders
o Introduction
o Background
o Action plan
Chapter 10 - Better enforcement
o Introduction
o Background
o Action plan
Chapter 11 - Promoting safer road use
o Introduction
o Background
o Action plan
Points of emphasis worth noting
Child safety is dissembled into age-groups and activities

Driver safety begins with a robust driver training programme
Professional driver safety is a core responsibility of the Health and Safety Executive (HSE)
Drowsy driving has an action plan
Drunk driving remains a problem
Drugged driving is considered legally problematic (the UK is behind Victoria in this respect)
Safety retrofitting benefits recognised
Speed limits are not respected nor understood
Motorcycle death and injury rates high but still environmental benefits
Emphasis on “home zones” for traffic calming for peds and cyclists
Equestrian road users recognised
Penalties may need review
Enforcement laws and technology dated
Publicity broader than speed, alcohol and seatbelts
Conclusions:
The British strategy addresses many of the same issues as the Australian (Victorian) and Norwegian
strategies. Like Ireland Britain appears to be a good way behind on enforcement. Britain is however
well ahead on education, infrastructure and broad-based and localised safety programmes. The role
of the Health and Safety Executive is particularly notable.
6.8 Ports Policy Interim Report

Ports in Britain are a growing and profitable business attracting considerable investment though the
private sector. The Report sees no reason to intervene in the market other than to streamline the
process of planning and development. Ports are expected to see 3-4%p.a growth for the foreseeable
future.
6.9 Planning for a Sustainable Future
This is the plan for the future of UK planning law. It outlines what needs to change with UK planning
law and why. The motivations for change are intriguing as they are not commonly raised by
Government documents in this country.
Our vision is for a planning system which supports vibrant, healthy sustainable communities,
promotes the UK’s international competitiveness, and enables the infrastructure which is
vital to our quality of life to be provided, in a way that is integrated with the delivery of other
sustainable development objectives, and ensures that local communities and members of the
public can make their views heard.(p1)
People and organisations making planning applications are getting speedier decisions. Many
more local authorities are meeting the targets for dealing with planning decisions. We have
halved the time ministers take to make decisions on town and country planning applications.
The planning system has also become more efficient and effective and customer-focused
with the introduction of e-planning services.(p8)
We have also taken steps to improve the planning system for key national infrastructure
projects. We have introduced new rules to speed up and enhance public inquiries into major
infrastructure applications that go through the town and country planning process.(p9)
[planning] can help us to meet our targets for the reduction of emissions of greenhouse
gases by, for example:
– supporting the building of zero-carbon homes and business premises that are low energy
and produce lower carbon emissions;
– locating development to reduce the need to travel;
– making walking and cycling accessible, attractive and essential components of new
development;
– supporting integrated public transport.(p11)
Supporting sustainable economic development: The global economy is changing rapidly,

with new technology, production and trading patterns emerging. Globalisation is bringing
more intense cross-border economic competition. This means new opportunities for growth
and jobs, but also increasing competition from fast growing economies, such as China and
India. It is also leading to a much more dynamic and global network of market places. To be
competitive, business needs to respond much more quickly to changes in market conditions.
Planning can help by being responsive and efficient, and supporting vital economic
development in a way which ensures (p11)
These demographic shifts are putting pressure on the stock of available housing, pushing up
prices. It is imperative that we support housing growth so that people’s aspirations for good
quality, affordable housing can be met. If we do not increase the supply of housing from
currently planned rates, the proportion of 30 year old couples able to afford their own home
would drop from around 50 per cent to around 30 per cent by 2026. (p12)
If we do not ensure the right infrastructure is in place at every level, our quality of life –
individually and collectively – will diminish. Improving infrastructure provision is also vital for
unlocking housing growth. (p12)
A particular challenge is maintaining the security of our energy supplies. We need investment
in about 25-30 gigawatts of new electricity generation capacity over the next two decades –
equivalent to about one third of our existing capacity. If we do not do this in a timely fashion,
then we may not have enough capacity to meet our energy demands.(p12)
The document further examines why planning law needs to change
Over the years we have built up, incrementally, a body of national planning policy which is
too voluminous, complex and unwieldy for those that use it. National planning policy on
economic development is out of date. The result is that local authorities and others can find it
difficult to take account of all the relevant policy considerations or may adopt an overly
cautious approach rather than one that positively encourages sustainable economic
development or the development of renewable energy sources.
1.17 Neither do we have clear policy frameworks for all areas of nationally significant
infrastructure. The result is that fundamental issues such as whether there is a need for
additional capacity or whether a technology is proven and safe are addressed from scratch in
each individual application. This can make the process of preparing applications for
individual project proposals more onerous and uncertain, and mean that many months have
to be spent at the inquiries into these proposals debating high level issues such as need.
The process for dealing with major infrastructure projects, from submission of the proposal
to decision in particular, is too slow and complicated. It took seven years to get to a decision
on Heathrow Terminal 5; more than six years to get to a decision on the North Yorkshire
Power Line upgrade; nearly four years to get to a decision on Dibden Bay container terminal;
and two and a half years to reach a decision on Staythorpe C gas-fired power station.
Prolonged procedures of this sort rarely result in better decision making but they do impose
high costs, not only on promoters but also on other participants in the process. Delays can
also result in years of blight for individuals and communities during which people are unable
to move house or receive compensation. And they can put at risk the country’s economic and
environmental well-being if, as a consequence, good development is delayed or investment
and jobs go overseas rather than wait for modern infrastructure that is needed to support
efficient business logistics.(p14)
For key national infrastructure projects – such as major airport and port projects,
improvements to the Strategic Road Network, major new power generating facilities and
facilities critical to energy security, and major reservoir and waste water plant works – we
propose to replace the multiple existing consent regimes with a new system. This will enable
us to take decisions on infrastructure in a way that is timely, efficient and predictable. It will
also improve the accountability and transparency of the system by strengthening the role of
ministers in setting policy and establishing an independent body to take decisions fairly and
improve the ability of the public and communities to participate effectively in the process.
Our new system needs these characteristics because, while the infrastructure concerned
benefits us all and will help prevent problems such as energy shortages, congestion and
increased pollution, the impacts tend to fall disproportionately on a relatively few people
living close to the development. The new system will ensure that their interests are also
taken into account in decisions on infrastructure. Local authorities, in particular, will have a
strong part to play in representing their communities and helping shape national
infrastructure in their area.
1.37 Five core principles underpin our proposals:
_ planning must be responsive, particularly to longer term challenges such as increasing

globalisation and climate change, and properly integrate our economic, social and
environmental objectives to deliver sustainable development;
_ the planning system should be streamlined, efficient and predictable;
_ there must be full and fair opportunities for public consultation and community
engagement;
_ the planning system should be transparent and accountable; and
_ planning should be undertaken at the right level of government – national, regional and
local.
Rather than examine the rest of document it is enough to capture the tenor of the White Paper. The
UK has included sustainability in its planning legislation but is anxious to improve the responsiveness
and adaptability of local government. It is also keen to ensure that national level infrastructure
projects are not delayed by protracted planning processes. This was very much an important feature
of the Next Steps Review.
6.10 Evaluation of the UK Transport Strategy
In order to evaluate the UK policy it is necessary to examine each of the NZTS objectives against the
assessment criteria.
1 Assist economic development

b. The degree of research support presented in the plan or strategy indicating the
policy is evidence-based.
c. The breadth of considerations raised in considering the objectives (as evidence of
broad thinking)
d. The apparent strength of the proposed link between the strategy or plan’s
objectives and the behaviour of those in the economy (realism)
e. The degree of change required from current level of performance to the plan’s
proposed level.
Assessment
a) While the Eddington report emphasised management over construction, construction
budgets have, in fact increased.
b) The Eddington Report is exemplary
c) The Eddington report demonstrates a keen awareness of Britains economic challenges.
d) The NATA assessment process seems to be more advanced than New Zealand’s
e) There is a medium level of change required. The King review demonstrates that technology
can be relied on to deliver most of the sustainability goals.
2 Assist safety and personal security - assessment
Britains road safety rate starts from the goals our 2010 strategy aspires to. Progress to 2005 shows a
20% improvement. Britain has a dedicated public transport police force and a long history of
counter-terrorism surveillance linked to its transport system.
a) There is no evidence of a funding problem

b) There is extensive evidence of study.
c) The breadth of concern in road safety and security exceeds New Zealand’s by some degree.
d) Britain’s objectives appear to be achievable.
e) The British have a long history of incremental improvement.
3 Improve access and mobility - assessment
a. The British are investing heavily in non-road transport modes

b. Investment appears to be based more on a lack of alternatives.
c. There is extensive research and planning guidelines.
d. The Eddington Study in particular suggests the objectives are well considered. The inclusion
of Eddington in the planning law review is significant
e. There is a need for change but this seems to be within Britain’s grasp.
4. Protect and promote public health – assessment
Britain claims to have largely solved its air pollution problems but is watching the rise of PM10
and NoX levels.
5 Ensure environmental sustainability - assessment
a. Britain has incorporated sustainability into its planning law and climate change must also be
considered under the Climate Change Act.
b. Britain funded the Stern Review.
c. Britain is the world’s leader in environmental thought
d. The Eddington and King Reviews show a very large degree of realism to do with transport.
e. Britain has set itself some tough but not unachievable targets.
6.11 British Transport Strategy Assessment and Critique

The British transport strategy is the most complete of those assessed in this paper. Practically every
element under review is dealt with completely and thoroughly. It is particularly notable that while
Britain rejects “predict and provide” it does so for the very sensible reason that its network is largely
complete. Eddington is the first to point out that the circumstances of each country differ and that
what works for Britain will not translate to other nations.
While Britain has put considerable effort into addressing issues of climate change it in fact devotes
more of its transport planning and strategising toward improving and maintaining its economic
performance. This is particularly evident in its planning law changes which are motivated toward
speeding the planning and consents process.
Britain’s road safety performance is already significantly ahead of New Zealand. It is notable that its
enforcement procedures – for example the inadmissibility of breathalyser evidence – are well
behind those of Victoria and New Zealand.
Although Britain does not have a spatial policy for Britain in to-to it does have a regional spatial
policy. It will be intriguing to see how this develops in the absence of an overall national strategy.

A Comparative Assessment of Five National Transport Strategies

Transféré par

Informations du document

Copyright

Formats disponibles

Partager ce document

Partager ou intégrer le document

Options de partage

Avez-vous trouvé ce document utile ?

Ce contenu est-il inapproprié ?

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

A Comparative Assessment of Five National Transport Strategies

Transféré par

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

A Comparative Assessment of Five

National Transport Strategies/Plans

New Zealand Ministry 9

The nations selected are:

1. Assist economic development

1. The level of funding devoted to achieving the objective (if published)

The Assessment reveals a number of important themes. These are:

1.1.1 Economic Competitiveness1

1. 1.4 Political Consensus

1. 1.5 Planning Efficiency and Jurisdiction

1. 1.6 Build vs Manage

1. 1.8 Urban Quality of Life

1. 1.9 Public Transport

1. 1.10 Public Private Partnerships

1.2 Lessons from International Experience

1.2.1 Policy Completeness and Government Integration

1.2.2 Outcome Desirability

1. No economic strategy context

1. The practicality of such an ambition given Norway’s enormous lead

2.2 Importance of Transport

2.3 Decoupling Transport and the Economy

2.4 Role of Governments in Transport

Examples of historical changes in transport include:

Refrigerated shipping (1880s)

2.5 National competitiveness through transport policy

Military competitiveness (eg German Autobahn construction in the 1930s)

2.6 Competitiveness of Transport Policy

These nations are selected because they:

These are the degree with which they:

1. Assist economic development

1. The level of funding devoted to achieving the objective (if published)

infrastructure planning and coordination

Subsidiary to the Department are:

Auslink, the national roading funding agency

However there is no Australian national Strategic Transport Policy document.

Strategic Transport Policy

National Bicycle Strategy

The Commonwealth Government last year announced

Transport: 2007-08 Budget initiatives

Under the AusLink 2 arrangements:

Roads to Recovery Programme

Strategic Regional Programme

Black Spot Programme

Funding for Remote Aerodromes

The scheme will provide funding for such projects as:

upgrade of airstrip services;

installation of lighting and navigation equipment; and

fencing projects to keep wildlife and livestock away from airstrips.

Strengthening regional aviation security

delivery of a metal detection hand-wand capability for 145 airports, to be implemented

a trial of closed circuit television at selected regional airports;

aviation security training for regional airline and airport staff;

a targeted public awareness campaign to encourage the reporting of suspicious activity

“Melbourne 2030 – Planning for Sustainable Growth” in 2002

“Meeting Our Challenges10” in May 2006 (land transport).

“Melbourne Port@L Strategy” in August 2006 (Ports and land use)

“Our Environment, Our Future” – Sustainability Action Statement 2006

Direction 1. A more compact city

Direction 6 emphasises affordable housing, disabled facilities and access to healthcare.

3.3. “Meeting our challenges” - summary of the Document

3.4 Melbourne Port@L Strategy – Summary of the document

3.5 Road Safety Strategy

a. Responding to the challenge of climate change

Note: Australian Kyoto targets are 1990 levels plus 10%.