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Course Outline
1. Utility Thevenin Equivalent Circuit 2. Load Models 3. Generator Models 4. Transformer Models 5. Transmission and Distribution Line Models
Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering
Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering
Thevenins Theorem
Any linear active network with output terminals AB can be replaced by a single voltage source Vth in series with a single impedance Zth A Linear Active Network B Vth B + A Zth
The Thevenin equivalent voltage Vth is the open circuit voltage measured at the terminals AB. The equivalent impedance Zth is the driving point impedance of the network at the terminals AB when all sources are set equal to zero.
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Customer Facilities
Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering
Fault MVA3
Single Line-to-Ground Fault
X/R3 X/RLG
Fault MVALG
I TPF =
Z1
S TPF
= V f I TPF =
[V ]
f
Z1
Z1 =
Where, Z1 and Z2 are the equivalent positive2 sequence and kV = Z 2 negative-sequence Fault MVA 3 impedances of the utility
[ ]
Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering
I SLGF =
3V f Z1 + Z2 + Z0
S SLGF = V f I SLGF =
3Vf
[ ]
2Z 1 + Z 0
2Z1 + Z0 =
3 Vf
[ ]
Z1 = Z2
Resolve to real and imaginary components then solve for Zo
Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering
SSLGF
10
Z1 = Z2 =
In Per Unit,
[kV ]
Fault MVA 3
[69 ]
3500
= 1.3603
or
11
(22 )]
V f 10
-
p.u. = X 2
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12
SLGF P .U . = Voltage
= 30 p .u .
P .U .
2Z 1 + Z 0 =
3Vf
[ ]
S SLGF
3[1.0 ] = = 0 .1 30
2
[ } = 0.1sin [tan
] (20 )] = 0.099875
p.u. p.u.
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13
+
0.0013+j0.028571
+
0.003694 + j0.042733
V f 10
-
Positive Sequence
Negative Sequence
Zero Sequence
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Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering
15
r + Eg
-
R1 +jX1 R2 +jX2
-
R0 +jX0
-
Positive Sequence
Negative Sequence
Zero Sequence
16
Load Models
Types of Load Customer Load Curve Calculating Hourly Demand Developing Load Models
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Types of Load
An illustration:
Sending End Line Receiving End
VS = ?
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Types of Load
An illustration:
Sending End Line Receiving End
VS = ?
19
Types of Load
Sending End Line
Receiving End
VS = ?
VR = 13.2 kVLL Load 2 MVA, 3Ph 0.85 pf, lag 13.2 kVLL
r r r r VS = VR + I SR ( Z line )
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Types of Load
Sending End Line
Receiving End
VS = 13.51 kVLL
VR = 13.2 kVLL Load 2 MVA, 3Ph 0.85 pf, lag 13.2 kVLL
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21
Types of Load
Sending End Line
Receiving End
VS = 13.51 kVLL
VR = 13.2 kVLL Load 2 MVA, 3Ph 0.85 pf, lag 13.2 kVLL
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Types of Load
Sending End Line
Receiving End
VS = ?
What happens if the Voltage at the Receiving End drops to 90% of its nominal value?
VR =11.88 KVLL
We will again analyze the power loss (Ploss) and Voltage Regulation (VR) for different types of loads
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23
Types of Load
Case 1: Constant Power Load 2 MVA = 1.7 MW + j1.0536 MVAR r 1.7 j1.0536 MVA I SR = 311.88KV = 97.1979 31.79o
r r r r VS = VR + I SR ( Z line )
24
Types of Load
Case 1: Constant Power Load 2 MVA = 1.7 MW + j1.0536 MVAR
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Types of Load
Case 2: Constant Current Load I = 87.4773 -31.79o A
r r r r VS = VR + I SR ( Z line )
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26
Types of Load
Case 2: Constant Current Load I = 87.4773 -31.78o A
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Types of Load
Case 3: Constant Impedance Load Z = 87.12 31.79o = 74.0520 + j 45.8948
r VR r VS
28
Types of Load
Case 3: Constant Impedance Load Z = 87.12 31.79o = 74.0520 + j 45.8948
29
Types of Load
Case 3: Constant Impedance Load Z = 87.12 31.79o = 74.0520 + j 45.8948
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Types of Load
Load
Constant
VS* 12.224
VR 2.9 %
Ploss 28.72 kW
Power
Constant
Current
Constant Impedance
12.190
2.6 %
25.33 kW
12.159
2.34 % 18.84 kW
31
Types of Load
DemandReA= (PA+ IReA Va + Z DemandImA=(QA+ IImA Va + Z
-1 -1 ReA
Va2 ) Va2 )
ImA
DemandReB= (PB+ IReB Vb + Z -1ReB Vb2 ) DemandImB = (QB+ IImB Vb + Z -1ImB Vb2 ) DemandReC= (Pc+ IReC Vc + Z DemandImC= (Qc+ IImC Vc + Z
Where: -1
-1
P,Q are the constant Power components of the Demand IRe,IIm are the constant Current components of the Demand Z-1Re,Z-1Im are the constant Impedance components of the Demand
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32
Time Demand (A) 13:00 20.88 14:00 19.80 15:00 19.08 16:00 19.20 17:00 23.04 18:00 30.72 19:00 38.00 20:00 35.00 21:00 34.00 22:00 27.60 23:00 24.84 24:00 22.32
Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering
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PU = 15.567
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34
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
Time
Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering
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250
D and (W) em
0.8
50 0
0.6
0.4
0.2
36
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38
Demand (W)
200 150 100 50 0 1:00 3:00 5:00 7:00 9:00 11:00 13:00 15:00 17:00 19:00 21:00 23:00
39
Qt = Pt tan cos pf t
Qt = hourly Reactive Demand (VAR) Pt = hourly Real Demand (W) Pft = hourly power factor
Example:
Real Demand (W) = 150.11 W, PF = 0.96 lag Reactive Demand = P tan (cos-1 pf) = 150.11 tan (cos-1 0.96) = 43.78 VAR
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40
41
42
Data Requirements
Customer Data; Billing Cycle Data; Customer Energy Consumption Data; and Load Curve Data. Distribution Utility Data Tables and Instructions
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43
Generator Models
Generalized Machine Model Steady-State Equations Generator Sequence Impedances Generator Sequence Networks
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44
Axis of c
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45
d-axis
vQ
iQ + F iF
D
-+
v
D
e
iD
-
a ia
+ Va -
m
+V c
phase a
ic c
phase c
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d v = Ri + dt
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dt
= v Q = 0 ).
abc p FDQ
= Li
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or
LaD LaQ ia LbD LbQ ib LcD LcQ ic LFD LFQ iF LDD LDQ iD LQD LQQ iQ
abc [L SS ] = FDQ [L RS ]
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48
L bb = L s + L m cos( 2 e + 120 o )
Lab = Lba = M s + Lm cos(2 e 120o ) Lbc = Lcb = M s + Lm cos2e Lca = Lac = M s + Lm cos(2e + 120o )
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49
L FD = L DF = LFD L FQ = L QF = 0 L DQ = L QD = 0
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50
LaF = LFa = LaF cos e LbF = LFb = LaF cos( e 120o ) LcF = LFc = LaF cos( e + 120 )
o
LaD = LDa = LaD cose LbD = LDb = LaD cos(e 120o ) LcD = LDc = LaD cos(e + 120o )
LaQ = LQa = LaQ sin e LbQ = LQb = LaQ sin( e 120 o ) LcQ = LQc = LaQ sin( e + 120 o )
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51
F ic c m a
+ V c-
iF iD + vF - + vD + Va a-axis
ia
d-axis
c-axis
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52
- i
Q
- i
q
i
d
+ vd -
d = L dd i d + L dF i F + L dD i D q = L qq i q + L qQ iQ
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53
ib c-axis
m
q i q d-axis id
ic ia
d d-axis
Note: The d and q windings are pseudo-stationary. The O axis is perpendicular to the d and q axes.
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a-axis
54
55
56
K q sin ( e 120 )
The constants Ko, Kd and Kq are chosen so that the transformation matrix is orthogonal; that is
[P ] 1
K =
[P ]T
1 3
2 Kd = Kq = 3
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[P ] =
[P ]1
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i odq = [P ]i abc
or
i abc = [P ] iodq
1
v i
T abc abc
=v
T odq odq
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T abc
[P]
i odq = v
T odq
T odq odq
=v
T abc
[P]
v odq = [P ]v abc
1
v abc = [P ] v odq
Note: Since voltage is the derivative of flux linkage, then the relationship between the flux linkages must be the same as that of the voltages. That is,
odq
= [P ]
abc
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60
i abc = [P ] iodq
1
v abc = [P ] v odq
1
odq = [P ] abc
abc = [P ] odq
1
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or
LQb LQc
LaF LaD LaQ ia LbF LbD LbQ ib LcF LcD LcQ ic LFF LFD LFQ iF LDF LDD LDQ iD LQF LQD LQQ iQ
abc [L SS ] = FDQ [L RS ]
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62
where
( (cos 2
) )
) )
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cos(2 e 120 ) cos(2 e + 120 ) cos 2 e cos 2 e + Lm cos(2 e 120 ) cos(2 e + 120 ) cos(2 e + 120 ) cos 2 e cos(2 e 120 )
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[P ] abc
or
65
3 Ls + M s + Lm 2
3 Ls + M s + Lm 2
Let
L oo = L S 2 M L dd = L S + M L qq = L S + M
S S
3 Lm 2 3 Lm 2 +
[P ][Lss ][P ]
Loo =
Ldd
Lqq
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LdD
where
LdF =
3 LaF 2
LdD =
3 LaD 2
L qQ =
3 L aQ 2
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and [P ][LSR ]
1
68
[LRS] =[LSR]
69
[LSR ]T
LFd LDd
LQq
L Fd =
3 L aF 2
L Dd =
3 L aD 2
L Qq =
3 L aQ 2
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71
q-axis vQ +
Q i
Q
q iq vq + d F iF
D
LdD LFD LDD
Q io i d LqQ iq iF iD LQQ iQ
id
+ vd -
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d + abc dt
i odq = [P ] i abc
v odq = [P ] v abc
odq
= [P ]
abc
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[P ]v abc
= [P ]R a [u 3 ][P ] i odq
1
d + [P ] dt
{[P ]
odq
Simplify to get
d d 1 odq + [P ] [P ] odq dt dt
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2 d 1 [P] = 3 dt
where
0 0 0
sine
cose
d e = e = m dt
P = m 2
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75
0 d 1 [P] [P] = 0 dt 0
Finally, we get
0 0 m
0 m 0
d v o = R aio + o dt d v d = R a i d + d m q dt
d v q = R aiq + q + m d dt
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vF vD vQ
d = R F iF + F dt d = R D iD + D = 0 dt d = R Q iQ + Q = 0 dt
77
[v ] = [R ][i ] + [L ] p [i ] + m [G ][i ]
Resistance Voltage Drop Transformer Voltage Speed Voltage
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79
vo = Ra io + p o vd = Ra id + p d m q vq = Ra iq + p q + m d vF = RF iF + p F vD = Rd iD + p D = 0 vQ = RQiQ + p Q = 0
o = Looio d = Ldd id + LdF iF + LdDiD q = Lqqiq + LqQiQ F = LFd id + LFF iF + LFDiD D = LDd id + LDF iF + LDDiD Q = LQqiq + LQQiQ
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80
Te = [i] [G][i]
T
= io id iq iF iD
We get
Te = ( q id + d iq )
0 q d iQ 0 0 0
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SteadyState Equations
At steadystate condition, 1. All transformer voltages are zero. 2. No voltages are induced in the damper windings. Thus, iD = iQ = 0
Voltage Equations
vo = Ra io
82
SteadyState Equations
Cylindrical-Rotor Machine
If the rotor is cylindrical, then the air gap is uniform, and Ldd = Lqq. Define synchronous inductance Ls LS = Ldd = Lqq when the rotor is cylindrical Voltage and Electromagnetic Torque Equations at Steady-state v = R i L i
d a d m s q
83
SteadyState Equations
For Balanced Three-Phase Operation
ia = 2 I cos (t + )
io = 0
id = 3 I cos iq = 3 I sin
Note: 1. ia, ib and ic are balanced three-phase currents. 2. id and iq are DC currents.
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84
SteadyState Equations
A similar transformation applies to balance threephase voltages. Given
va = 2 V cos(t + ) vc =
vb = 2 V cos t + 120
We get
( ) 2 V cos(t + + 120 )
o o
vo = 0 vd = vq = 3 V cos 3 V sin
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85
SteadyState Equations
Inverse Transformation Given id and iq, and assuming io = 0,
i abc = [P ] i odq
1
We get
2 ia = id cos t iq sin t 3
)]
Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering
86
SteadyState Equations
Recall the phasor transformation
2 I cos ( t + ) I
Using the transform, we get
1 Ia = id 0o + iq 90o 3
iq id Ia = + j 3 3 I a = I d + jI q
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87
SteadyState Equations
Similarly, given vd and vq with vo = 0
In phasor form,
vq vd Va = + j 3 3
=Vd + jV q
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88
SteadyState Equations
Steady-State Operation-Cylindrical Recall at steady-state
vd = Ra id m Ls iq vq = Ra iq + m Ls id + m LdF iF
Divide by 3
Vd = Ra I d m Ls I q 1 Vq = Ra I q + m Ls I d + m LdF iF 3
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89
SteadyState Equations
Xs = mLs = synchronous reactance 1 E f = m LdFiF = Excitation voltage 3 Phasor Voltage V a
Define
V a = Vd + jVq
= Ra I d X s I q + j (Ra I q + X s I d + E f ) = Ra (I d + jI q ) + jX s (I d + jI q ) + jE f
(motor equation)
V a = Ra I a + jX s I a + E m
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Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering
90
SteadyState Equations
For a generator, current flows out of the machine
V a = Ra I a + jXs I a + E g E g = Ra I a + jXs I a + V a
R a + jX
+
AC
( )
( )
+
Eg
-
Ia
Va
-
91
SteadyState Equations
Salient-Pole Machine
If the rotor is not cylindrical, no equivalent circuit can be drawn. The analysis is based solely on the phasor diagram describing the machine. Recall the steady-state equations
Vd = Ra I d X q I q Vq = R a I q + X d I d +
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration
m LdF iF
3
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92
SteadyState Equations
where
Xd =mLdd =
Xq =mLqq =
Define:
Ef =
m LdF
3
iF
= excitation voltage
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93
SteadyState Equations
We get
Vd = Ra I d X q I q Vq = Ra I q + X d I d + E f
Va =Vd + jV , we get q V a = Ra Id Xq Iq + j(Ra Iq + Xd Id + Ef )
= Ra (Id + jIq ) Xq Iq + jXd Id + jEf
From
or
V a = Ra I a X q Iq + jXd Id + jEf
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94
SteadyState Equations
Steady-State Electromagnetic Torque
At steady-state
saliency cylindrical torque torque The dominant torque is the cylindrical torque which determines the mode of operation. For a motor, Te is assumed to be negative. For a generator, Te is assumed to be positive.
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95
SteadyState Equations
Since the field current iF is always positive,
I a = Id + jIq
Note: The imaginary component of Ia determines Whether the machine is operating as a motor or a Generator.
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96
SteadyState Equations
What about Id? Assume From we get
Iq = 0
Vd = Ra I d X q I q Vq = Ra I q + X d I d + E f
Vd = Ra I d Vq = X d I d + E f
V a = V d + jV q
= R a I d + j (X d I d + E f j (X d I d + E f )
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Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering
97
SteadyState Equations
If the magnitude of Va is constant,
Vq = X d I d + E f = constant
Recall that
Ef =
m L dF
3
iF
Thus, the excitation voltage depends only on the field current since m is constant. For some value of field current iFo, Ef = Va and Id = 0.
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SteadyState Equations
Operating Modes
q-axis Over-excited Motor Id < 0, Iq > 0 Id < 0, Iq < 0 Over-excited Generator Under-excited Motor Id > 0, Iq > 0 d-axis Id > 0, Iq < 0 Under-excited Generator
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98
SteadyState Equations
Over-excitation and Under-excitation
1. If the field current is increased above iFo, then Ef > Va and the machine is over-excited. Under this condition, Id < 0 (demagnetizing). 2. If the field current is decreased below iFo, then Ef < Va and the machine is under-excited. Under this condition, Id > 0 (magnetizing).
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100
SteadyState Equations
Drawing Phasor Diagrams
A phasor diagram showing Va and Ia can be drawn if the currents Id and Iq are known. Recall
I a = I d + jI q V a = Vd + jVq V a = Ra I a X q I q + jX d I d + jE f V a = jE f X q I q + jX d I d + Ra I a
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101
SteadyState Equations
Over-excited Motor
Id < 0 Iq > 0
Ra I a
X q Iq
q-axis
jEf
Va
jXd Id
jIq
Ia
Id
Leading Power Factor
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d-axis
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102
SteadyState Equations
Under-excited Motor
Id > 0 Iq > 0
Ra I a
jX d I d
Va
q-axis
XqIq jIq
Lagging Power Factor
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jEf
Ia
Id
d-axis
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103
SteadyState Equations
Over-excited Generator q-axis XqIq
jEf
Id < 0 Iq < 0
jXd Id
Ra I a
Id
Va
Actual Current
jIq
Lagging Power Factor
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d-axis
Ia
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104
SteadyState Equations
Under-excited Generator
Id > 0 Iq < 0
jXd Id
jEf Xq Iq
Ra I a
Va
Actual Current
Id
jIq
d-axis
Ia
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105
SteadyState Equations
Observations
1. The excitation voltage jEf lies along the quadrature axis. 2. V a leads jEf for a motor V a lags jEf for a generator The angle between the terminal voltage Va and jEf is called the power angle or torque angle . 3. The equation
V a = Ra I a + jXd Id X q Iq + jEf
applies specifically for a motor.
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106
SteadyState Equations
4. For a generator, the actual current flows out of the machine. Thus Id, Iq and I a are negative.
V a = Ra I a jXd Id + Xq Iq + jEf
or
jEf = V a + Ra I a + jXd Id Xq Iq
5. Let
jE f = E m jE f = E g
107
SteadyState Equations
The generator equation becomes
E g = V a + Ra I a + jXd Id X q Iq
For a motor, the equation is
V a = Em + Ra I a + jXd Id Xq Iq
6. No equivalent circuit can be drawn for a salient-pole motor or generator.
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108
SteadyState Equations
Example 1: A 25 MVA, 13.8 kV, 3600 RPM, Y-connected cylindrical-rotor synchronous generator has a synchronous reactance of 4.5 ohms per phase. The armature resistance is negligible. Find the excitation voltage Eg when the machine is supplying rated MVA at rated voltage and 0.8 jXs power factor. Single-phase + + equivalent circuit Ia
Eg
AC
Va = 13.8 kV = 7.97 kV
line-to-line line-to-neutral
Va
-
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109
SteadyState Equations
Pa = 25(0.8) = 20 MW, three-phase = 6.67 MW/phase Qa = Pa tan = 15 =5
Let MVar, three-phase MVar/phase
Pa + jQa = V I
Ia = Pa jQa V
* a
* a a
110
SteadyState Equations
We get Ia = 837
j628 A
= 1,046 36.87o A
Apply KVL,
Eg = jXS I a + V a
= 10,791 + j3,766 = 11,42919.24o V
111
SteadyState Equations
Example 2: A 100 MVA, 20 kV, 3-phase synchronous generator has a synchronous reactance of 2.4 ohms. The armature resistance is negligible. The machine supplies power to a wye-connected resistive load, 4 per phase, at a terminal voltage of 20 kV line-to-line. (a) Find the excitation voltage
X S = 2.4
+ +
Eg
-
AC
Ia
Va
-
112
SteadyState Equations
V a = 11,5470o V, the reference V a 11547 , o Ia = = = 2,8870 Amps R 4 Applying KVL, E g = jXS I a + V a
Let
113
SteadyState Equations
(b) Assume that the field current is held constant. A second identical resistive load is connected across the machine terminal. Find the terminal voltage, Va. Since iF is constant, Eg is unchanged. Thus, Eg = 13,466 V, line-to-neutral.
Req = 4 // 4 = 2
Va 1 o Ia = = Va0 Req 2
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114
SteadyState Equations
Apply KVL,
E g = jX s I a + V a 1 = j 2.4 Va + Va 2 = Va + j1.2Va
2 2 2
We get Eg = Va + (1.2Va )
13 , 466 = 2 . 44 V a
2 2
115
SteadyState Equations
(c) Assume that the field current iF is increased so that the terminal voltage remains at 20 kV line-to-line after the addition of the new resistive load. Find Eg.
116
R a + jX
+
Ia
Eg
-
Va
-
Three-Phase Equivalent
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Single-Phase Equivalent
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117
Ia1 Va1
-
Ia0 Z0
Z1
+
E
-
V a1 = E I a1 Z 1
V a2 = - I a2 Z 2
V ao = - I ao Z o
Zero Sequence
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118
119
120
121
122
123
C
++ ++ + ++
Line A
+ + + +
+ +
Curve A
20 30 40 50 60
10
Time in half-cycles
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124
Phase 2 Phase 3 Ave 1.0 1.4 9.1 10.5 5.6 16.1 1.4 8.6 10.0 4.4 14.4 14.67 0.0682 10.07 0.0993
13.5
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125
126
=Negative Sequence Reactance, p.u. Note: The test produces abnormal heating in the rotor and should be concluded promptly.
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127
Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering
128
129
Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering
130
r + Eg
-
jZ1 jZ2
N1 N2
jZ0
N0
Positive Sequence
Negative Sequence
Zero Sequence
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131
r + Eg
-
jZ1 jZ2
N1 N2
jZ0 3Zg
N0
Positive Sequence
Negative Sequence
Zero Sequence
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132
r + Eg
-
jZ1 jZ2
N1 N2
jZ0
N0
Positive Sequence
Negative Sequence
Zero Sequence
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133
Transformer Models
Two Winding Transformer Short-Circuit and Open-Circuit Tests Three Winding Transformer Autotransformer Transformer Connection Three Phase Transformer Three Phase Model
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134
Two-Winding Transformer
Ideal Transformer
The voltage drop from the polaritymarked terminal to the non-polaritymarked terminal of the H winding is in phase with the voltage drop from the polarity-marked terminal to the non-polarity-marked terminal of the X winding. N N Voltage Equation:
r VH NH r = NX VX
r VH
_
r IH
r + IX r VX
_
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135
Two-Winding Transformer
r VH
_
r IH
NH N X
r IX
r VX
_
Current Equation:
r r NH IH = N X IX
The current that enters the H winding through the polarity-marked terminal is in phase with the current that leaves the X winding through the polarity-marked terminal. Note: Balancing ampere-turns satisfied at all times.
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must
be
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136
Two-Winding Transformer
Referred Values
From therTransformation Ratio,
VH a= r VX
r IX a= r IH
r r V H = aV X
r IH r IX = a
Dividing VH by IH,
r r VH 2 VX r =a r IH IX
ZH = a2 Z X
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137
Two-Winding Transformer
Practical Transformer
1. 2. 3. 4. The H and X coils have a small resistance. There are leakage fluxes in the H and X coils. There is resistance loss in the iron core. The permeability of the iron is not infinite.
iH
+
m
+
iX eX
-
vH
eH
-
NH
NX
vX
iron core
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138
Two-Winding Transformer
Equivalent Circuit v RH + jX H I ex
N H N X R X + jX X
r VH
-
r IH R c
H winding
jX m
v EH
-
+ -
v EX
r IX
r VX
-
Ideal
X winding
RH, XH =resistance and leakage reactance of H coil RX, XX =resistance and leakage reactance of X coil Rc, Xm =core resistance and magnetizing reactance
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139
Two-Winding Transformer
Referring secondary quantities at the primary side, RH + jX H a 2 R X + ja 2 X X NH N X v
r VH
-
I ex r IH R jX m c
r IX a
r v aV X EH
-
+ -
v EX
RH + jX H
r VH
-
r IH R c
v I ex
a 2 R X + ja 2 X X jX m
r IX a
r aV X
-
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140
Two-Winding Transformer
The transformer equivalent circuit can be approximated by
Req + jX eq
r VH
-
r IH R c
v Iex
jX m
r + 1 a IX r
-
R eq = R H + a 2 R X X eq = X H + a 2 X X
v Iex
aV X
+
r r IH V H Rc
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Req + jX eq
1 a
r IX
jX m
r aV X
-
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141
Two-Winding Transformer
For large power transformers, shunt impedance and resistance can be neglected
R eq + jX eq
jX eq
r VH
-
r r 1 IH = a IX
r aV X
-
r VH
-
r r 1 IH = a IX
r aV X
-
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142
Two-Winding Transformer
Tap-Changing Transformer
a:1 q s p r
1 y pq a
The equivalent circuit of transformer with the per 1 a y pq 2 unit transformation ratio: a
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a 1 y pq a
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143
H2
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x2
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I SC
Rc
I1
jX m
VSC
-
Ie 0 I sc = I 1
PSC Req = 2 I SC
Z eq
VSC = I SC
X eq = Z R
2 eq
2 eq
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145
H1
x2
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration
H2
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146
I OC
Rc
VOC
-
jX m
I OC = I e
V Rc = POC
2 OC
I OC 1 1 = 2 Xm Rc VOC
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147
Determine the Series and Shunt Impedance of the transformer. What is %Z and X/R of the transformer?
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148
R eq ,H =
Z eq ,H
Rcq ,L
(240 )2 =
= 310 ohm
X m ,L = 45 ohm
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149
Rc ,H = a 2 Rc ,L = 30 ,968 ohm
X m ,H = a 2 X m ,L = 4 ,482 ohm
%Z and X/R
Z BASE =
[2.4 ]2
50 / 1000
= 115.2 ohm
1.82 X /R= = 1.28 1.42
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150
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151
Three-Winding Transformer
r VH
_
r IH
NH
NX
r IX r IY
r VX
_
NY
r VY
_
r VH NH r = NX VX
r VH NH r = NY VY r r r NH IH = N X IX + N Y IY
r VX NX r = NY VY
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Three-Winding Transformer
From 3 short-circuit tests with third winding open, get ZHX=impedance measured at the H side when the X winding is short-circuited and the Y winding is open-circuited ZHY=impedance measured at the H side when the Y winding is short-circuited and the X winding is open-circuited ZXY=impedance measured at the X side when the Y winding is short-circuited and the H winding is open-circuited Note: When expressed in ohms, the impedances must be referred to the same side.
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153
Three-Winding Transformer
ZH ZX
+ r +
r VH
-
ZY
r VX
-
VY Z HY = Z H + Z Y
Z HX = Z H + Z X
Z XY = Z X + Z Y
or
Z H = 1 ( Z HX + Z HY Z XY ) 2 1 Z X = 2 ( Z HX Z HY + Z XY ) Z Y = 1 ( Z HX + Z HY + Z XY ) 2
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154
Three-Winding Transformer
Example: A three-winding three-phase transformer has the following nameplate rating: H: 30 MVA 140 kV X: 30 MVA 48 kV Y: 10.5 MVA 4.8 kV Short circuit tests yield the following impedances: ZHX = 63.37 @ the H side ZHY = 106.21 @ the H side ZXY = 4.41 @ the X side Find the equivalent circuit in ohms, referred to the H side. 140 2
Z XY = (
48
) ( 4.41 ) = 37 .52
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155
Three-Winding Transformer
With all impedances referred to the H side, we get
1 Z H = 2 ( 63.37 + 106.21 37.52 ) = 66.03
66.03
2.66
+ + r -
r VH
-
40.18
r VX
-
VY
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156
Transformer Connection
Transformer Polarity
V1 H1 H2 H1 V1 H2
V
Less than V1 x1 x2 Greater than V1
x2
x1
Subtractive Polarity
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Additive Polarity
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157
Transformer Connection
H1 Subtractive X1 X2 X2 H2 H1 H2 Additive X1
Single-phase transformers in sizes 200 kVA and below having high-voltage ratings 8660 volts and below (winding voltage) shall have additive polarity. All other single-phase transformers shall have subtractive polarity. (ANSI/IEEEC57.12.001993)
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158
Transformer Connection
Parallel Connection
H1 H2 H1 H2
x1
x2
x1
x2
LOAD
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159
Transformer Connection
Parallel Connection
same turns ratio Connected to the same primary phase Identical frequency ratings Identical voltage ratings Identical tap settings Per unit impedances within 0.925 to 1.075 of each other
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160
Transformer Connection
H1 H2 H1 H2 H1 H2
x1
x2
x1
x2
x1
x2
WYE-WYE (Y-Y)
161
Transformer Connection
H1 H2 H1 H2 H1 H2
x1
x2
x1
x2
x1
x2
DELTA-DELTA (-)
162
Transformer Connection
H1 H2 H1 H2 H1 H2
x1
x2
x1
x2
x1
x2
WYE-DELTA (Y-)
163
Transformer Connection
H1 H2 H1 H2 H1 H2
x1
x2
x1
x2
x1
x2
DELTA-WYE (-Y)
164
Transformer Connection
H1 H2 H1 H2
x1
x2
x1
x2
165
Transformer Connection
H1 H2 H1 H2
x1
x2
x1
x2
166
Three-Phase Transformer
167
Three-Phase Transformer
Angular Displacement
ANSI/IEEEC57.12.00-1993: The angular displacement of a three-phase transformer is the time angle (expressed in degrees) between the line-to-neutral voltage of the high-voltage terminal marked H1 and the the line-to-neutral voltage of the low-voltage terminal marked X1. The angular displacement for a three-phase transformer with a - or Y-Y connection shall be 0o. The angular displacement for a three-phase transformer with a Y- or -Y connection shall be 30o, with the low voltage lagging the high voltage.
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Three-Phase Transformer
Vector Diagrams
H2 X2 H2 X1 H1 X2 H2 H3 X3 X2 X2
X1 H1 H2 H3
X3
- Connection
Y- Connection
X1
X1 H1 H3
X3 H1 H3
X3
Y-Y Connection
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-Y Connection
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169
Three-Phase Transformer
IEC Designation
0
10
8 6
Note: The first letter defines the connection of the H winding; the second letter defines the connection of the X winding; the number designates the angle.
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170
Three-Phase Transformer
IEC Designation
IEC Designation for Y- Yd1 Yd5 Yd7 Yd11 IEC Designation for -Y Dy1 Dy5 Dy7 Dy11
7 5 9 11 1 3
Note: The first letter defines the connection of the H winding; the second letter defines the connection of the X winding; the number designates the angle.
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171
Three-Phase Transformer
PositiveSequence Voltages
B H2 N X1 X2 b
A C
r VBN1
H1
H3
X3
(A-B-C) r
r Vab1 r Vca1
Van1
r Vbn1
r VAN1
r VCN1
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172
Three-Phase Transformer
PositiveSequence r Currents
B r
H2
Iba1
X1
H3
r Iac1
r IB1
(A-B-C)
r Icb1
r Ib1
r IA1
r IC1
r Ia1 r Iba1
173
Three-Phase Transformer
Positive Sequence Impedance
Whether a bank of single-phase units or a threephase transformer unit (core type or shell type), the equivalent impedance is the same. Using per-unit values, the positive-sequence equivalent circuit is
Z1 = R1 + jX1
r VH
-
r r IH = IX
r VX
-
174
Three-Phase Transformer
NegativeSequence Voltages
B H2 N H1 X1 X2 b
H3
r C
VCN2
(A-C-B)
r Vcn2
X3
r Vac2 r Van2
r VAN2
r VBN2
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175
Three-Phase Transformer
NegativeSequence Currents r
B r
IB 2 r IA2 A r H IC2 1
H2
Iba2
X1
H3
r IC 2 r IB 2
r Ic 2
r Iac2
r Iac2
(A-C-B)
r IA 2
r Iba2
r Ia2
r Icb2
r Ib 2
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Three-Phase Transformer
Positive & Negative Sequence Networks
Z1
+
Primary Side
Z2
+
Secondary Side
r I1
+
Primary Side
r I2
+
Secondary Side
Z1 = Z2
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177
Three-Phase Transformer
Transformer Core
178
Three-Phase Transformer
Three-Legged Transformer Core
The 3-legged core type three-phase transformer uses the minimum amount of core material. For balanced three-phase condition, the sum of the fluxes is zero. Note: For positive- or negative-sequence flux,
a + b + c = 0
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179
Three-Phase Transformer
Zero Sequence Flux
The 3-legged core type three-phase transformer does not provide a path for zero-sequence flux. On the other hand, a bank of single-phase units, the 4-legged core type and the shell-type three-phase transformer provide a path for zero-sequence flux.
30
Note: The zerosequence flux leaks out of the core and returns through the transformer tank.
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180
Three-Phase Transformer
Zero Sequence Impedance*
Transformer Connection Zero-Sequence Network
Z0 = Z1
VH
-
+ r
VX
-
+ r
Z0 = Z1
VH
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+ r
VX
-
+ r
181
Three-Phase Transformer
Zero Sequence Impedance*
Transformer Connection Zero-Sequence Network
Z0 = Z1
VH
-
+ r
VX
-
+ r
Z0 = Z1
VH
+ r
VX
-
+ r
182
Three-Phase Transformer
Zero Sequence Impedance*
Transformer Connection Zero-Sequence Network
Z0 = Z1
VH
-
+ r
VX
-
+ r
Z0 = Z1
VH
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+ r
VX
-
+ r
183
Three-Phase Transformer
Example: Consider a two-winding three-phase transformer with the following nameplate rating: 25 MVA 69 -13.8YG kV (Dyn1) Z=7%. Draw the positive and zero-sequence equivalent circuits. Use the transformer rating as bases. Positive/Negative Sequence impedance Z1=j0.07
+ r + r -
VH
VX
VH
VX
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184
Three-Phase Transformer
Example: A three-winding three-phase transformer has the following nameplate rating: 150/150/45 MVA 138zG-69zG-13.8 kV (Yy0d1). H-X @ 150 MVA = 14.8% H-Y @ 45 MVA = 21.0% X-Y @ 45 MVA = 36.9% Draw the positive and zero-sequence equivalent circuits. Use 100 MVA and the transformer voltage ratings as bases. At the chosen MVA base,
Z HX = 0.148 ( 100 / 150 ) = 0.10 p.u. Z HY = 0.21( 100 / 45 ) = 0.47 p.u. Z XY = 0.369 ( 100 / 45 ) = 0.82 p.u.
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Three-Phase Transformer
We get
1 Z H = 2 ( 0.10 + 0.47 0.82 ) = 0.125 p.u. Z X = 1 ( 0.10 0.47 + 0.82 ) = 0.225 p.u. 2 1 Z Y = 2 ( 0.10 + 0.47 + 0.82 ) = 0.595 p.u.
ZH
ZX ZY
+ r -
VH
-
+ r
r VX
-
ZH
ZX ZY
+ r -
VY
VH
-
+ r
r VX
-
VY
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186
Secondary
abc T
Core Loss
a b c
Admittance Matrix
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187
( (
) )
|V| in per unit
A = 0.00267 D = 0.00167
C = 13.5 F = 22.7
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188
+ V1 + V2 + V3 + V4 + V5 + V6
Primitive Coils
-
z25 z26
Primitive Impedances
189
Transformer Model
Three Identical Single-phase Transformers in Bank z11 z21 z12 z22 z33 z43 z34 z44 z55 z65 z56 z66
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I1
z11 z12 z22
I2
I3
z33 z34 z44
I4
I5
z55 z56 z66
I6
190
[V123456] = [C][VABCabc ]
Matrix C defines the relationship of the Primitive Voltages and Terminal Voltages of the Three-Phase Connected Transformer
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Transformer Model
VA IA 1 3 5 IB 6 Ic Vc 2 Ia 4 Ib Vb Va VC IC
VB
[V123456]
[C][VABCabc ]
V3 V4 V5 V6
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Transformer Model
VA IA 1 3 5 IC 4 Ic Vc 6 2 Ib Vb Ia Va
VC VB
IB
[V123456] = [C][VABCabc ]
V3 V4 V5 V6
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193
Transformer Model
R1
M
1 L1
R2
a
L2 2 R2
R1 R1 N
3 L1
M L2 4 M L2 6
b
R2
5 L1
Z 1 = R1 + jL1 = Z 3 = Z 5 Z 2 = R2 + jL2 = Z 4 = Z 6 Z M = Z 12 = jM = Z 34 = Z 56
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194
Transformer Model
V1 V2 V3 V4 V5 V6 Z1 ZM ZM Z2 Z1 ZM ZM Z2 Z1 ZM ZM Z2 I1 I2 I3 I4 I5 I6 Z2 -ZM -ZM Z1 Z2 -ZM -ZM Z1 Z2 -ZM
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1 Z1 Z2 ZM2
-ZM Z1
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195
Transformer Model
YBUS = [C][ Yprim][CT]
A
Z2 Z2
a
-ZM
b
ZM -ZM
c A
ZM -ZM
B C a b c
YBUS =
Z2 ZM
-ZM
-Z1
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196
Transformer Model
The Bus Admittance Matrix
Z2 -ZM
1 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1
1 1 1 1 1 -1 1 -1 -1
1 Z1 Z2 ZM2
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197
z2 yt = 2 z1 z 2 z m
yt yt
n1 a= n2
-ayt ayt -ayt yt ayt 2a2yt -a2yt -ayt -a2yt -a2yt 2a2yt -a2yt ayt -ayt -a2yt -a2yt 2a2yt
YBUS =
ayt
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198
n1 1 = a= n2 3
yt yt yt
1 3 1 3
1 3
yt
1 3 1 3
yt yt
1 3 1
z2 yt = 2 z1 z 2 z m
yt yt
yt yt
1 3 1 3
1 3
yt
yt yt
1 3
yt
3 2 yt 3 1 yt 3 1 yt 3
yt
3 1 1 yt yt 3 3 2 yt 1 yt 3 3 2 1 y yt 3 t 3
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199
YAa
Yab
YAc
YBa YBb YBc YCb Ycc Yab Ybb Ycb Yac Ybc Ycc Yaa Yba Yca
[Ybus] =
YPP YPS YSP YSS
YCC YCa
a b c
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200
SEC
Wye-G Wye Delta Wye-G Wye Delta Wye-G Wye Delta
YPP
YI YII YI YII YII YII YII YII YII
YSS
YI YII YII YII YII YII YI YII YII
YPS
-YI -YII YIII -YII -YII YIII YIIIT YIIIT -YII
YSP
-YI -YII YIIIT -YII -YII YIIIT YIII YIII -YII
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201
YI =
YII = 1/3 -yt 2yt -yt -yt -yt 2yt -yt yt -yt yt -yt
yt
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202
[Ybus] =
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203
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204
Transformer Equations
Consider the winding-to-winding relationship between primary and secondary:
From transformer equations,
VPRI =a VSEC
Z PRI 2 =a Z SEC
N PRI a= N SEC
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I PRI 1 = I SEC a
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205
ZT = Z P + Z S '
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206
Z S = aZ P
Referring ZS to primary side ,
ZS ' = a ZS = a ZP
2 3
Substituting,
ZT = Z P + a Z P
3
= (1 + a3 ) Z P
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207
1 ZP = ZT 3 (1 + a )
a ZS = ZT 3 (1 + a )
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0 1 a 0
211
1 0 0 VPr i _ Winding _1 If not in PU: VSec _ Winding _1 a V VSec _ Winding _ 2 = 0 1 0 Pr i _ Winding _ 2 VSec _ Winding _ 2 = 0 VSec _ Winding _ 3 0 0 1 VPr i _ Winding _ 3 V
Sec _ Winding _ 3
0 1 a 0
Van 1 0 0 VSec _ Winding _1 I Sec _ Winding _1 * Z Sec _ Winding _1 V = 0 1 0 V I Sec _ Winding _ 2 * Z Sec _ Winding _ 2 bn Sec _ Winding _ 2 Vcn 0 0 1 VSec _ Winding _ 3 I Sec _ Winding _ 3 * Z Sec _ Winding _ 3
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If not in PU:
0 1 a 0
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1 VSec _ Winding _1 1 0 0 VPr i _ Winding _1 VSec _ Winding _1 a VSec _ Winding _ 2 = 0 1 0 VPr i _ Winding _ 2 VSec _ Winding _ 2 = 0 VSec _ Winding _ 3 0 0 1 VPr i _ Winding _ 3 VSec _ Winding _ 3 0 Secondary Winding to Secondary
If not in PU:
0 1 a 0
1 3 0 3 V a V = 1 1 5 0 b 3 V c 1 3 0 3
0 0 0
0 0 1
V S e c _ W in d in g _ 1 V S e c _ W in d in g _ 2 V S e c _ W in d in g _ 3
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Transmission Line
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Distribution Line
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+
VR
A B C
Zaa Zba Zca Yaa Yba Yca Yab Ybb Ycb Yac Ybc Ycc
Zac Zbc Zcc Yaa Yba Yca Yab Ybb Ycb Yac Ybc Ycc
a b c
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Copper is preferred over Aluminum as a material for distribution lines due to lower resistance to reduce system losses.
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Hard-Drawn Copper
(Cu)
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(ACSR)
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L R= A
220
Strands 6/1 6/1 7/1 6/1 6/1 7/1 6/1 6/1 6/1 6/1
O.D. (Inches) 0.19800 0.22300 0.25700 0.25000 0.28100 0.32500 0.31600 0.35500 0.39800 0.44700
GMR Resistance (feet) (Ohm/Mile) 0.00394 3.98000 0.00416 3.18000 0.00452 2.55000 0.00437 2.57000 0.00430 2.07000 0.00504 1.65000 0.00418 1.69000 0.00418 1.38000 0.00446 1.12000 0.00510 0.89500
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1
12
r I2
z 22
V 1 1' = I 1 z 11 + I 2 z 12
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222
Local Earth
REF
Va
-
+ r
z aa
r Ia
r V =0 d
r Id
z ad
zdd
The current returns through a fictitious earth conductor whose GMR is assumed to be 1 foot (or 1 meter) and is located a distance Dad from the overhead conductor.
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223
r r r r r Vaa ' = Va Va ' = zaa I a + zad I d r r r r r Vdd ' = Vd Vd ' = zad I a + zdd I d
224
225
= 9.869 x 10-4 f
/km
rd = 0.09528
/mile /km
= 0.059214
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= r
= 0.78 r
Bundle of Four
Ds = Dsc d
Ds = 1.09 4 Dsc d 3
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We get
/unit length
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228
De = 2160 / f
Return Earth Condition
Sea water Swampy ground Average Damp Earth Dry earth Sandstone
feet
De (ft)
27.9-279 882-2790 2790 8820 8.82x106
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b
+r
Va
Vb +r Vc
-
r Ia r Ib r Ic
z aa zbb z cc z ad zbd
zab z ca b zbc z cd
d c All wires grounded here
REF
r V =0 d
d
r Id
zdd
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r r r Vaa ' Va Va ' r r r Vbb ' Vb Vb ' r = r r Vcc ' Vc Vc ' r r r Vdd ' Vd Vd '
r Ia r Ib r Ic r Id
Since all conductors are grounded at the remote end, we get from KCL or
r r r r I a + Ib + Ic + I d = 0 r r r r I d = ( I a + I b + I c )
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r Va r Vb r Vc
r Ia r Ib r Ic
V/unit length
Self Impedances:
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232
z ab = z ab z ad z bd + z dd z bc = z bc z bd z cd + z dd z ac = z ac z ad z cd + z dd
Primitive Impedances:
2s 1) z xx = rx + j k (ln Dsx
2s z xy = j k (ln 1) Dxy
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/unit length
xy=ab,bc,ca,ad,bd,cd
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233
234
10 a b
10 c
De z aa = z bb = z cc = ( ra + rd ) + jk ln Ds 2790 = ( 0.278 + 0.095 ) + j0.121 ln 0.01668 /mile = 0.373 + j1.459 Z aa = 14.93 + j 58.38
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235
/mile
14.93+ j58.38 3.81+ j27.33 3.81+ j23.97 Zabc= 3.81+ j27.33 14.93+ j58.38 3.81+ j27.33 3.81+ j23.97 3.81+ j27.33 14.93+ j58.38
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Va +r z ww z ad Vb +r w r Vc + zbd Vw z cd z wd r V =0 d REF
d r Id
Ia r Ib r Ic r Iw
z aa
zbb z cc
zab z ca zbc
zdd
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237
zaa zba
=
r Ia r Ib r Ic r Iw r Id
V/unit length
r r r I a + Ib + Ic + I w + Id = 0 r r r r r I d = ( I a + Ib + Ic + I w )
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Vw
r Va r Vb r Vc r
Iw
r Ia r Ib r Ic r
where
Vw = 0
De zxx = ( rx + rd ) + jk ln Dsx
De z xy = rd + j k ln Dxy
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xx=aa,bb,cc,ww
xy=ab,ac,aw,bc,bw,cw
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239
V1
Z1 Z2 = Z3 Z4 0
I1 I2
240
We get
z aa z Z 1 = ba z ca
z ab z bb z cb
z ac zaw z z bc Z2 = bw zcw z cc
z aw z wb z ab z ww z bw z wb z bb z ww z cw z wb z cb z ww
Z 4 = z ww
z aw z wc z ac z ww z bw z wc z bc z ww z cw z wc z cc z ww
z abc
z aw z wa z aa z ww z z bw z wa = ba z ww z ca z cw z wa z ww
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15 10 a b 10 c
z ww
De = ( rw + rd ) + jk ln Dsw
Z ww
2790 = ( 4.0 + 0.095 ) + j0.121 ln 0.001 = 4.095 + j1.8 /mile = 163.8 + j72
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De /mile = rd + jk ln Daw
14.93+ j58.38 3.81+ j27.33 3.81+ j23.97 3.81+ j27.33 14.93+ j58.38 3.81+ j27.33 Z1= 3.81+ j23.97 3.81+ j27.33 14.93+ j58.38
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Z 4 = 163.8 + j72
244
Phase b s2
s3 Section 3
Section 2
245
Section r Z 12 1 Z 13 1 I a r I Z 22 1 Z 23 1 b r Z 32 1 Z 33 1 I c r Z 12 2 Z 13 2 I c r I Z 22 2 Z 23 2 a r Ib Z 32 2 Z 33 2 r Z 12 3 Z 13 3 I b r I Z 22 3 Z 23 3 c r I a Z 32 3 Z 33 3
volts
volts
volts
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Va = ( f 1 Z 11 + f 2 Z 22 + f 3 Z 33 )I a r
r Vb r Vc
r + ( f 1 Z 13 + f 2 Z 21 + fr3 Z 32 )I c = ( f 1 Z 21 + f 2 Z 32 + f 3 Z 13 )I a r + ( f 1 Z 22 + f 2 Z 33 + f 3 Z 11 )I b r + ( f 1 Z 23 + f 2 Z 31 + f 3 Z 12 )I c r = ( f 1 Z 31 + f 2 Z 12 + f 3 Z 23 )I a r + ( f 1 Z 32 + f 2 Z 13 + f 3 Z 21 )I b r + ( f 1 Z 33 + f 2 Z 11 + f 3 Z 22 )I c
+ ( f 1 Z 12 + f 2 Z 23 + f 3 Z 31 )I b
s1 f1 = s s2 f2 = s s3 f3 = s
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Z k 1 = f 1 Z 12 + f 2 Z 23 + f 3 Z 13 Z k 2 = f 1 Z 13 + f 2 Z 12 + f 3 Z 23 Z k 3 = f 1 Z 23 + f 2 Z 13 + f 3 Z 12 Z s = Z 11 = Z 22 = Z 33
r V a Z s r Vb = Z k 1 r Vc Z k 2
Substitution gives
Z k1 Zs Zk3
r Z k 2 I a r I Z k 3 b Volts r Z s I c
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De De De = rd s + jks f 1ln + f 2 ln + f 3 ln D31 D12 D23 De De De = rd s + jks f 1ln + f 2 ln + f 3 ln D23 D31 D12
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250
10 a b
10 c
Section 1
14.93 + j58.38 3.81+ j27.33 3.81+ j23.97 Zabc = 3.81+ j27.33 14.93 + j58.38 3.81+ j27.33 3.81+ j23.97 3.81+ j27.33 14.93 + j58.38
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Z k 1 = f 1 Z 12 + f 2 Z 23 + f 3 Z 13 = 0.2( 3.81 + j 27.33 ) + 0.3( 3.81 + j 27.33 ) + 0.5( 3.81 + j 23.97 ) = 3.81 + j 25.65
Similarly, we get
Z k 2 = f 1 Z 13 + f 2 Z 12 + f 3 Z 23 Z k 3 = f 1 Z 23 + f 2 Z 13 + f 3 Z 12
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14.93+ j58.38 3.81+ j25.65 3.81+ j26.66 Zabc= 3.81+ j25.65 14.93+ j58.38 3.81+ j26.32 3.81+ j26.66 3.81+ j26.32 14.93+ j58.38
For comparison, the impedance matrix of the untransposed line is
14.93+ j58.38 3.81+ j27.33 3.81+ j23.97 Zabc= 3.81+ j27.33 14.93+ j58.38 3.81+ j27.33 3.81+ j23.97 3.81+ j27.33 14.93+ j58.38
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Zs Zm
ra I Z m b r Volts Z s I c
m
De Z s = ( ra + rd )s + jks ln Ds
Z m = ( Z 12 + Z 23 + Z 13 )
1 3
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De = rd s + jks ln Dm
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23
D12
Dm = 3 D12D23D31
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The GMD is
We get the average of the mutual impedances. The impedance of the transposed line is
14.93+ j58.38 3.81+ j26.21 3.81+ j26.21 Zabc= 3.81+ j26.21 14.93+ j58.38 3.81+ j26.21 3.81+ j26.21 3.81+ j26.21 14.93+ j58.38
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256
or
r Va Z aa r Vb = Z ab r Vc Z ac
Z ab Z bb Z bc
r Z ac I a r I Z bc b r Z cc I c
volts
r r Vabc = AV012
r r I abc = AI 012
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257
Z 012 = A 1 Z abc A
Performing the multiplication, we get
Z 0 Z s 0 + 2 Z m0 Z = Z Z m1 1 s1 Z 2 Z s 2 Z m 2
Z s2 Z m2 Z s0 Z m0 Z s 1 + 2 Z m1
Z s 1 Z m1 Z s 2 + 2Z m 2 Z s 0 Z m0
258
Z m 0 = 1 ( Z ab + Z bc + Z ca ) 3 Z m 1 = 1 ( a 2 Z ab + Z bc + aZ ca ) 3
1 Z m 2 = 3 ( aZ ab + Z bc + a 2 Z ca )
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259
Z s0 = Z s Z s1 = Z s 2 = 0
Z 0 Z s + 2 Z m Z = 0 1 Z 2 0
Z m0 = Z m
Z m1 = Z m 2 = 0
0 Zs Zm 0 0 0 Zs Zm
260
V a0 Z 0 r V a1 = 0 r 0 Va2
0 Z1 0
0 I a0 r I 0 a1 r Z 2 I a2
where
3 2
Ds Dm
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10
10
Z s = 14.93 + j 58.38
Z m = 3.81 + j 26.21
The sequence impedances are
262
263
D1
P1 D2 P2
v 12
D2 = ln 2 D1 q
Volts
r a
r r D = E=
q 2 x
ar
264
v ab
qa D ln = 2 ra
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265
v ba
qb D ln = 2 rb
or
v ab
qb qb rb D ln = = ln 2 rb 2 D
Applying superposition, we get the total voltage drop from charge qa to charge qb.
v ab
qa rb qb D ln + = ln 2 ra 2 D
qa D2 ln = 2 ra rb
Volts
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v ab
266
v ab
D = ln r
qa
Volts
C an = C bn = 2C ab
2 = D ln r
Farad/meter
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267
Dab
+qb
Daw Dac
+qc
+qw
Haa Hab
Hac
Haw
-qc -qw
-qa
-qb
268
269
v a Paa v P b = ba M M v n Pna
270
[v ] = [P ][q ]
Since, q = Cv, ,then
[C ] = [P ]
C ac Cbc M C nc
+ C aa C ba C= M C na
C ab + Cbb M C nb
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Ybus
+ j C aa jC ba = j C na
j C ab + jC bb j C nb
j C ac j C bc j C nc
The difference between the magnitude of a diagonal element and its associated off-diagonal elements is the capacitance to ground. For example, the capacitance from a to ground is
C ag = C aa C ab C ac ... C an
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qa qb qc
1 3
1 3
1 3
Section 1
Section 2
Section 3
C an = C bn = C cn
qa 2 = = Dm v an ln r
Farad/meter, to neutral
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Dm 2.862 9 x 10 ln xc = f r Dm 1.779 6 xc = x 10 ln f r
Note: To get the total capacitive reactance, divide xc by the total length of the line.
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r r r r I abc = jCabcVabc I abc = YabcVabc r r r r From Vabc = AV012 and I abc = YabcVabc, we get r r A I 012 = j C abc A V012 r r or 1 I 012 = jA Cabc AV012
Thus, we have
C012 = A 1C abc A
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C012 or
276
40
277
Farad/meter
Similarly, we get
278
86.29 19.66 12.39 P = 19.66 86.29 19.66 x 106 mi/F 12.39 19.66 86.29
Using matrix inversion, we get the C matrix.
12.34 2.54 1.19 2.54 12.75 2.54 x 10-9 F/mi C= 1.19 2.54 12.34
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x 10-7 F
Cag = Caa Cab Cac = 0.43 F Cbg = Cbb Cab Cbc = 0.38 F Ccg = Ccc Cbc Cac = 0.43 F
Since the line is transposed,
280
C0 = C s0 2C m0
= 0.41 F
a Cg0
Cm0
b Cm0 Cm0 c
C1 = C 2 = C s 0 + C m0
= 0.725 F
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Cg0
Cg0
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IiABC ViABC
Yaa Yba Yca Yab Ybb Ycb Yac
Zac Zbc Zcc Yaa [Y]/2 Yba Yca Yab Ybb Ycb
Ikabc Vkabc
Yac Ybc Ycc
[IiABC] [Ik
abc]
-[Z]-1 [Z]-1+[Y]/2
6x1
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1 B
3 C 4
A Phase Conductor 336,400 26/7 ACSR Neutral Conductor 4/0 6/1 ACSR Length: 300 ft.
24
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Data Requirements
Phasing Configuration System Grounding Type Length Phase Conductor Type, Size & Strands Ground/Neutral Wire Type, Size & Strands Conductor Spacing Conductor Height Earth Resistivity
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284
Ha
Hb
Hc
Hg
Hg
Hc Hb Ha
285
D12 Circuit No. 1 Horizontal Two Ground Wires (d) Triangular Two Ground Wires (e) Circuit No. 2
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A B C N
B C A N
C A B N
3-Phase (ABC)
A B B
3-Phase (BCA) A B N N N
A
3-Phase (CAB) A B A N Hg
Note:
N Consider the grounded neutral as Ground Conductor for Hg
V-Phase (AB)
V-Phase (BA)
1-Phase (A)
287
Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering