I The Parts of a Typical Leaf

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The typical green leaf is called a foliage leaf. It usually consists of two basic parts: a petiole and a blade.

The petiole is a stalklike structure that supports the leaf blade on the stem. It also serves as a passageway between the stem and the blade for
water and nutrients. Another function of the petiole is to move the leaf into the best position for receiving sunlight. Most petioles are long,
narrow, and cylindrical.

Many plants, such as grasses and corn, do not have petioles. In these plants the base of the blade is attached directly to the stem—the base
encircles the stem as a sheath. Such leaves are called sessile leaves.

The leaf blade is usually a thin, flat structure. Its margins, or edges, may be smooth, as in the dogwood; jagged or toothed, as in the elm; or
lobed, as in the oak and maple. The surface of the blade may be smooth, fuzzy, sticky, dull, or shiny. In most plants the leaves have a single
blade and are referred to as simple. In other plants, such as clover, the blade is divided into separate leaflets. This kind of leaf is called a
compound leaf. Most of the functions carried on by leaves take place in the blade.

A Epidermis

The blade consists of an upper and lower epidermis and a spongy layer of tissue, called the mesophyll. Running through the mesophyll is a
branching system of veins.

The epidermis is the leaf blade's skin. It is a thin, usually transparent, colorless layer of cells that covers both the upper and lower surfaces of
the blade. The epidermis prevents the leaf from losing excessive amounts of water and protects it against injury.

In most plants the epidermis is covered with cutin, a waxy substance secreted by the epidermal cells. The layer of cutin, called the cuticle, is
responsible for the glossy appearance of some leaves. The cuticle gives the leaf additional protection by slowing down the rate at which water
is lost. Generally, the cuticle is thinner on the epidermis on the underside of the leaf than on the upper epidermis, which is exposed to the sun.

In many kinds of leaves, hairs grow from the epidermis. The soft hairs of plants such as the mullein give the leaves a woolly or feltlike
texture. In some plants the epidermal hairs secrete fluids. For example, in geraniums and petunias the hairs secrete a fluid that gives the
leaves a clammy texture. The strong-smelling oils of the peppermint and spearmint plants come from epidermal hairs. In other plants, such as
the nettle, the epidermal hairs are stiff and contain a poisonous fluid that produces a skin irritation when a person is pricked by them.

B Guard Cells

Scattered throughout the epidermis are pairs of bean-shaped cells, called guard cells. Guard cells contain chloroplasts, which are tiny granules
filled with the green pigment chlorophyll. Chlorophyll gives leaves their characteristic green color. Chloroplasts enable leaves to carry on
photosynthesis because they are able to absorb carbon dioxide and sunlight, which are required for the food-making process. In response to
heat and light, each pair of guard cells pulls apart, and a tiny pore forms between them. The pores, called stomata, open to the outside
atmosphere.

When the stomata are open, carbon dioxide and oxygen pass either in or out—when carbon dioxide enters, it takes part in photosynthesis, the
food-making process that releases oxygen as a waste product. This oxygen passes out of the leaf. At the same time, oxygen also enters the
leaf, where it takes part in respiration, a process that forms carbon dioxide as a waste product. This carbon dioxide passes out through the
stomata. Water also passes out of the open stomata in the form of a vapor. This process is called transpiration. Generally, there are more
stomata on the under surface of a leaf than on the upper surface. This prevents water from evaporating too quickly or in excessive amounts
from the leaf's upper side, which is exposed to the sun. Stomata close at night, providing another level of water conservation.

C Water Pores

In addition to the stomata, many kinds of leaves have large specialized water pores in their epidermis. These pores, called hydathodes, permit
guttation, the process by which a plant loses liquid water. Unlike the stomata, hydathodes remain open all the time.

Guttation takes place only when water is being rapidly absorbed by the roots, such as after a heavy rainfall, and when transpiration slows
down, as on cool, humid nights. When these conditions occur together, droplets of water can be seen on the leaf early in the morning before
they evaporate in the heat of the day. Unlike dew, which condenses on leaves from water vapor in the air and covers the entire leaf surface,
guttation droplets form only on the edges and tips of leaves. Generally, the droplets are noticeable only on the leaves of strawberries and a
few other kinds of plants.

D Mesophyll

The mesophyll, sandwiched between the upper and lower epidermis, consists of many thin-walled cells that are usually arranged in two
layers. The palisade layer is next to the upper epidermis. It consists of cylindrical cells that are packed closely together. Next to the palisade
layer and making up most of the thickness of the leaf blade is the spongy layer. The spongy layer consists of roundish cells that are packed
loosely together and have numerous air spaces between them. In most plants the spongy layer extends down to the lower epidermis. However,
in certain grasses, irises, and other plants whose leaves grow straight up and down, the spongy layer is wedged between two palisade layers
of mesophyll. Like the guard cells, all the cells of the mesophyll contain chloroplasts.

E Veins

Running through the middle of the mesophyll and branching out to all of its cells are veins. The veins extend into the
petiole and connect with other veins in the stem of the plant. A major function of the veins is to help support the leaf
blade. Each type of plant has a characteristic pattern of veins forming lines and ridges in the blade.

Leaf [ Botany ]
Dictionary of botanic terminology - index of names

A leaf is an outgrowth from a node on a plant's stem and come in many shapes and sizes,
they are often green and flattened to maximise their surface area for the capture of
energy from sunlight and exchange gases, that are used for photosynthesis by means of
the chlorophyll pigment contained in chloroplasts.
 Leaves vary greatly from plant to plant and are useful in classification and
identification. Some leaves also store food and water, provide support, or form
new plants. Where high light intensities are harmful, leaves may reduce the
effects of the light by orientating themselves vertically; by becoming thickened
or covered with hairs or wax or by having a highly reflective surface.

Leaf Parts: Any of these parts may be

lacking, modificate or reduced. Lamina:
The expanded portion or blade of a leaf.
Leaf apex: The tip of a leaf opposite to the
petiole
Μ idrib The the central vein of a leaf it is
usually continuous with the petiole.
Vein: The vascular structures on a leaf which
arrangement is called venation.
Petiole: The stalk or stem that connects the
leaf to the plant, frequently with a basal
enlargement called pulvinus (petiole are absent
in sessile leaves)
Axil: The angle between the upper side of the
stem and a leaf or petiole
Stem (also called the axis) from which the
leaves arise.
Stipule: The pair of small, appendages one on
each side at the base of the petiole.

The forms of leaves lamina vary greatly from plant to plant and are useful in classification and identification.

Leaves

Function and structure

The principal function of leaves is to absorb sunlight to

manufacture plant sugars through a process called photosynthesis.
Leaf surfaces are flattened to present a large area for efficient light
absorption. The blade is the expanded thin structure on either side
of the midrib and usually is the largest, most conspicuous part of a
leaf (Figure 11).

A leaf is held away from its stem by a stem-like appendage called a

petiole, and the base of the petiole is attached to the stem at a node.
Petioles vary in length or may be lacking entirely, in which case the
leaf blade is described as sessile or stalkless.

The node where a petiole meets a stem is called a leaf axil. The axil contains single buds or bud clusters, referred to as
axillary buds. They may be either active or dormant; under the right conditions, they will develop into stems or
leaves.
 A leaf blade is composed of several layers (Figure 12a and Figure
12b: click on images to display larger versions.). On the top and
bottom is a layer of thick, tough cells called the epidermis. Its
primary function is to protect the other layers of leaf tissue. The
arrangement of epidermal cells determines the leaf's surface texture.
Some leaves, such as those of African violet, have hairs
(pubescence), which are extensions of epidermal cells that make
the leaves feel like velvet.

The cuticle is part of the epidermis. It produces a waxy layer called

cutin, which protects the leaf from dehydration and disease. The
amount of cutin on a leaf increases with increasing light intensity.
For this reason, when moving plants from shade into full sunlight,
do so gradually over a period of a few weeks. This gradual exposure to sunlight allows the cutin layer to build up and
protect the leaves from rapid water loss or sunscald.

The waxy cutin also repels water. For this reason, many pesticides contain a spray additive to help the product adhere
to, or penetrate, the cutin layer.

Special epidermal cells called guard cells open and close in response to environmental stimuli, such as changes in
weather and light. They regulate the passage of water, oxygen, and carbon dioxide into and out of the leaf through tiny
openings called stomata. In most species, the majority of the stomata are located on the underside of leaves.

Conditions that would cause plants to lose a lot of water (high temperature, low humidity) stimulate guard cells to
close. In mild weather, they remain open. Guard cells also close in the absence of light.

Located between the upper and lower epidermis is the mesophyll. It is divided into a dense upper layer (palisade
mesophyll) and a lower layer that contains lots of air space (spongy mesophyll). Located within the mesophyll cells
are chloroplasts, where photosynthesis takes place.

Internal Structure of the Stem

of a Typical Dicotyledonous Plant
The illustration above shows an herbaceous stem of a dicotyledonous plant. The white stripe between xylem &
phloem is the cambium layer. Note: The diagrams that students will draw should show zones or general
regions. Individual cells need not be illustrated.
Internal structures to know of herbaceous stems:

Pith: Large central area for storage & support.

Cambium: Found as a circle around inner stem & outer surface. Forms woody secondary tissue
for support.

Cortex: Storage area between cambium and epidermis.

Epidermis: Thin layer of skin cells. Protection.

Xylem: Water conduction up.

Phloem: Sap (organic molecules) conduction, usually down to roots.

Note:The diagrams that students will draw should show zones or general regions. Individual cells
need not be illustrated.

Internal Anatomy of Woody Stems:

Pith: Original stem at very center of stem.

Xylem: Water conduction tubes connect leaf to roots. Inner most xylem dies & forms wood.

Phloem: Outer tubes just inside bark to carry food from leaves to roots.

Heartwood: Dead wood (xylem) in center of stem. It is either dry or filled with tars. Frequently
darker than live wood.

Sapwood: Live outer wood conducting water and sap.

Cambium: Special cells that make new wood (xylem) & new phloem & bark to make tree trunk
thicker. Found between xylem & phloem.

Bark: Outer protective (from insects, fire, and injury) and waterproof layer of stem. Made by
cambium. Outer barks is dead, inner is alive.

Springwood: Light colored rings of xylem in wood made when growing season is good (spring &
early summer).

Summerwood: Darker colored tree rings made when growing season is poor (late summer, fall, &
winter).
The upper diagram shows a young woody dicot stem before it has started to grow in width. The
lower diagram shows the stem after several layers of wood have been layed down.
 Flower Structure and Function

Flowering plants are the dominant type of plants on the earth today (there are about 250000 species). Flowers are therefore the
most common plant organs for sexual reproduction.

Flowers produce gametes (sex cells).

Flowers play a key role in pollination. Pollination is the transfer of pollen (containing the male gametes), from the anther of a
flower, to the stigma (receptive surface of the female part of the flower) of the same or a different flower.

Parts of the Flower:

Flower Part Form and Function

Peduncle Flower stalk.
Receptacle Part of flower stalk bearing the floral organs, at base of flower.
Sepal Leaf-like structures at flower base, protects young flower bud.
Calyx All the sepals together form the calyx.

Located in and above the sepals, often large and colourful, sometimes scented, sometimes
Petal
producing nectar. Often serve to attract pollinators to the plant.
Corolla All the petals together form the corolla.

Stamen Male part of the flower, consisting of the anther and filament, makes pollen grains.

Filament The stalk of the stamen which bears the anther.

Anther The pollen bearing portion of a stamen.
Grains containing the male gametes. Immature male gametophyte with a protective outer
Pollen
covering.
Carpel\Pistil Female part of the flower. Consisting of the stigma, style and ovary.
Stigma Often sticky top of carpel, serves as a receptive surface for pollen grains.
Style The stalk of a carpel, between the stigma and the ovary, through which the pollen tube grows.
Ovary Enlarged base of the carpel containing the ovule or ovules. The ovary matures to become a fruit.
Ovule Located in the ovaries. Carries female gametes. Ovules become seeds on fertilization.

The sex of a flower can be described in three ways:

1. Staminate flowers: Flowers bearing only male sex parts. These are sometime referred to as "male flowers".
2. Carpellate\Pistillate Flowers: Flowers bearing only female sex parts. These are sometimes referred to as "female
flowers".
3. Hermaphhrodite\Complete flowers: Flowers bearing both male and female sex parts.

In many cases flowers are borne as a group on a common stalk, called an inflorescence. They are many different types of floral
inflorescences. The type of inflorescence present is sometimes used to aid in classifying flowering plants. Below are a number of
common floral inflorescences.