Characteristics and management Options for Salt affected soils

The term soil is considered to be a three-dimensional piece of landscape having shape, area and depth. Saline and alkali soils are defined and diagnosed on the basis of EC and SAR determination made on soil samples and the information thus generated contributes substantially to the scientific agriculture based on USDA classification is given in table 4. Saline soils: These soils will have electrical conductivity of the saturation extract more than 4 dS m-1, the exchangeable sodium percentage less than 15 and the pH is less than 8.5. With adequate drainage, the excessive salts present in these soils may be removed by leaching thus bringing them to normalcy. Saline soils are often recognized by the presence of white crusts of salts on the surface. The important soluble salts in these soils are cations sodium, calcium and magnesium with low amounts of potassium and anions, chloride, sulphate and some times nitrate. Owing to the presence of excess salts and the absence of significant amounts of exchangeable sodium, saline soils generally are flocculated and as a consequence the permeability is equal to or higher than that of similar nonsaline soils. Salinealkali soils: These soils will have electrical conductivity of the saturation extract more than 4 dS m-1, the exchangeable sodium percentage greater than 15 and the pH is seldom higher than 8.5. These soils form as a result of combined process of salinisation and alkalisation. As long as excess soluble salts are present, these soils exhibit the properties of saline soils. Leaching of excess soluble salts downward, the properties of these soils will become like that of non-saline alkali soils. On leaching of excess soluble salts, the soil may become strongly alkaline (pH reading above 8.5), the particles disperse and the soil becomes unfavourable for the entry and movement of water and for tillage. Non-saline alkali soils: These soils will have their exchangeable sodium percentage greater than 15, the electrical conductivity less than 4 dS m-1 and the pH range between 8.5 and 10. The exchangeable sodium content influences significantly the physical and chemical properties of these soils. As the ESP tends to increase, the soil tends to become more dispersed. In addition to the parameters proposed by the USDA, Indian scientists considered the nature of soluble salts. Further the pH value of 8.5 is too high, as isoelectric pH for precipitation of CaCO 3 at which sodification starts is 8.2 and mostly the pH is associated with the ESP of 15 or more. The classification according to the Indian system is presented in Table.

Table. Properties of Saline, Saline-Alkali and Non-saline-Alkali Soils Properties Saline s oi ls > 4.0 Saline soils > 4.0 > 8.5 > 15 alkali Non-saline alkali soils < 4.0 > 8.5 > 15

Electrical conductivity (dS m1 ) pH < 8.5 Exchangeable Sodium Per < 15 cent

Table. Indian System of classification Saline soils < 8.2 < 15 > 4 dS m-1 Alkali soils > 8.2

Soil Characteristics pH ESP ECe Nature salts of

> 15 Variable, mostly < 4 dS m-1 soluble Neutral, mostly Cl-, SO42-, Capable for alkaline HCO3- may be present but hydrolysis, CO32- is absent. preponderance of 2+ HCO3 and CO3 of Na

Constraints Excess sodium on the soil exchange complex and/or soluble salts in the soil reduces the productivity of these soils. Soil physical condition, particularly soil structure sets posing problem of water and nutrient availability. These soils show micronutrient deficiency. Reclamation and Management of Salt affected Soils (A) Reclamation and Management of Saline soils Salt Leaching: Reduction in crop yield depends on factors such as crop growth, the salt content of the soil, climatic conditions, etc. In extreme cases where the concentration of salts in the root zone is very high, crop growth may be entirely prevented. To improve crop growth in such soils the excess salts must be removed from the root zone. Leaching is the most effective procedure for removing salts from the root zone. Leaching

is accomplished by ponding fresh water on the soil surface and allowing it to infiltrate and it is effective only when the salty drainage water is discharged through drains out of the area under reclamation. Process may reduce salinity levels in the absence of artificial drains when there is sufficient natural drainage, i.e. the ponded water drains without raising the water table. Leaching should preferably be done when the soil moisture content is low and the groundwater table is deep. Leaching during the summer months is, as a rule, less effective because large quantities of water are lost by evaporation. The actual choice will however, depend on the availability of water and other considerations. In some parts of India for example, leaching is best accomplished during the summer months because this is the only time when water table is deepest, soil is dry and large quantities of fresh water can be diverted for reclamation purposes. The term reclamation of saline soils refers to the methods used to remove soluble salts from the root zone. Methods commonly adopted or proposed to accomplish this include the following: Drainage: Irrigation is the most effective means of stabilizing agricultural production in areas where the rainfall is either inadequate for meeting the crop requirements or the distribution is erratic. Before the introduction of large quantities of water through irrigation to an area, water balance between rainfall on the one hand and stream flow, groundwater table, evaporation and transpiration on the other exists. This balance is seriously disturbed when additional quantities of water are artificially supplied to grow agricultural crops, introducing additional factors of groundwater recharge by seepage from unlined canals, distributors and field channels, and from the irrigation water let on the fields more than the quantities actually utilized by the crops, causing rise in groundwater table. Once the groundwater table is close to the soil surface, its evaporation from the surface causes appreciable movement of groundwater and salts in the root zone. Agronomic Management practices On Farm Management Options: Establishing a good crop stand in saline soils or with saline water irrigation is a challenging task. Unlike normal soils, the agronomic practices for crop production in saline water irrigated soils are different. An ideal package of cultural practices besides soil fertility and irrigation water management can ensure a good crop stand vis--vis good yield. No single management option in isolation can be fully effective in controlling the salinity of irrigated soils, but several practices interact with each other in an integrated manner but for better understanding each option should be understood separately. Irrigation Management: Irrigation should meet both water requirements of crops and the leaching to maintain a favourable salt balance in the root zone for optimum yield. Multi-quality irrigation water, methods of irrigation, frequency and quantity of water applied could be

possible interventions. Successful operation of field application must supply water to the plants at the right time in appropriate quantity and quality with minimum waste and at the place where the plants need it for optimum growth. On-farm water management technology includes proper land leveling and shaping, efficient design and layout of irrigation methods, scientific scheduling of irrigation under both adequate and deficient water supply conditions, irrigation management under high water table depths and crop planning for optimum water use. Pre-Sowing Irrigation: In saline soils or saline water irrigation, salt often accumulate in the top few centimeters of the soil during non-crop periods. Where high water table exists, fallowing may result in excessive salt accumulation in the root zone particularly in arid and semi-arid regions. Under these conditions both germination and yields are adversely affected. A heavy pre-sowing irrigation to leach the accumulated salts from the root zone is very useful and essential to improve germination and early growth. Wherever available, pre-sowing irrigation should be given with good quality canal water. Deep tillage and inversion help to reduce salinity hazard. Irrigation Intervals: During intervening periods between two irrigation cycles, crop evapo-transpiration reduces soil water, matric potential and solute potential at a rate which is governed by rate of ET and soil moisture characteristics causing variable effects on crop yields. These effects are more pronounced and set very aggressively in saline environments, so, irrigation in saline soils should be more frequent to reduce the cumulative water deficits. As the soil progressively dries out due to evapotranspirational losses the concentration of salts in the soil solution and, therefore, its osmotic pressure increases making the soil water increasingly difficult to be absorbed by the plants. Thus infrequent irrigation aggravates salinity effects on growth. More frequent irrigations, by keeping the soil at higher soil moisture content prevent the concentration of salts in the soil solution and tend to minimize the adverse effects of salts in the soil. For these reasons crops grown in saline soils must be irrigated more frequently compared to crops grown under non-saline conditions so that the plants are not subjected to excessively high soil moisture stresses due to combined influence of excess salts and low soil water contents. Irrigation Method: Sprinkler irrigation is an ideal method for irrigating frequently and with small quantities of water at a time which results in leaching of soluble salts more efficiently. The trickle or drip irrigation method is suitable for perennial or seasonal row crops; it has been found particularly useful when irrigating with water of high salinity. The method has the advantage that it keeps the soil moisture continuously high in the root zone, therefore maintaining a low salt level. Although sprinkler and trickle irrigation methods are highly efficient, both from the view of water use and salinity control, their high initial costs often preclude their use.

Mulching: During periods of high evapo-transpiration between the two irrigations and during fallow periods there is a tendency for the leached salts to return to the soil surface. Soil salinization is particularly high when the water table is shallow and the salinity of groundwater is high. Practices that reduce evaporation from the soil surface and/or encourage downward flux of soil water can help to control root zone salinity. Studies on soil salinity changes under bare fallow and straw mulch on fallow have shown that mulch reduced salinity on bare fallow soil. Under straw mulch a significant reduction in soil salinity results in favourable edaphic environments and thus increased crop yields. Periodic sprinkling of mulched soils result in greater salt removal and higher leaching efficiency than flooding or sprinkling of bare soil. Crop Production on Saline Soils Various options suggested for crop production in salt stress environment aim at preventing the salt build up to the levels that limit productivity of soils and control salt balances in the soil-water system and minimizing the damaging effects of salts on crops at plant level or field scale. Soil, crop, climate and social factors are the deciding criteria for adoption of specific agronomic practices adopted and listed in following sections. Choice of Crops and Cropping Sequences Since crops vary in salinity tolerance from very sensitive or semitolerant to tolerant (Table ), so the selection of crops and cropping sequences for saline water irrigation and saline soils is of paramount importance. These inter and intra-generic variations in salt tolerance of plants can be exploited for selecting crops or varieties that can produce satisfactory yields under given salt stress. Table. Soil salinity classes and effects on crop plants Class Non saline Slightly saline Moderately saline Strongly saline Very strongly saline ECe m-1) 0-2 2-4 4-8 8 - 16 > 16 (dS Effect on Crop Plants Salinity effects negligible Yields of sensitive crops may be restricted Yields of many crops are restricted Only tolerant crops yield satisfactorily Only few very tolerant crops yield satisfactorily

(B) Reclamation and Management of Alkali (sodic) soils

The chemical amendment based technology has been developed to reclaim the alkali/sodic soils. Various components of this technology includes; field leveling, bunding, soil sampling to know the sodicity status for working out amendment dose, application of gypsum/pyrite as per requirement of the soil and its mixing in upper 10 cm soil, keeping water ponding for 5-7 days, following rice-wheat rotation for the first 3 to 4 years and growing sesbania during summer as green manure crop after wheat harvest in April. By adopting this technology about 1.3 m ha area has been reclaimed in the states of Punjab, Haryana and western UP. The reclaimed area is contributing 8-10 m tonnes additional food grains to the national food grains pool. In addition to food production and employment generation, the reclamation programmes have helped in minimizing flood hazards, increasing ground water recharge, reducing incidence of malaria and water borne diseases, growth in agro-based and auxiliary industries and increasing forest cover. Some of the constraints being experienced in further adoption of this technology includes; increased cost of amendments and withdrawal of subsidy, requirement of repeat application of gypsum in areas with high residual sodium carbonate waters or with shallow brackish water. Crops differ in their tolerance to soil sodicity. The relative tolerance of crops and grasses to soil exchangeable sodium per cent (ESP) is given in Table. Table. Relative tolerance of crops and grasses to soil ESP
Tolerant (ESP: 35-50) Karnal grass (Leptochloa fusca) Rhodes grass (Chloris gayana) Para grass (Brachiaria mutica) Bermuda grass (Cynodon dactylon) Rice (Oryza sativa) Dhaincha (Sesbania aculeata) Sugarbeet (Beta vulgaris) Teosinte (Euchlaena maxicana) Moderately tolerant (ESP: 15-35) Wheat (Triticum aestivum) Barley (Hordeum vulgare) Oat (Avena sativa) Shaftal (Trifolium resupinatum) Lucerne (Medicago sativa) Turnip (Brassica rapa) Sunflower (Helianthus annus) Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius) Berseen (Trifolium alexandrinum) Linseed (Linum usitatissimum) Onion (Allium cepa) Gralic (Allium sativum) Pearl millet (Pennisetum typhoides) Sensitive (ESP: < 15) Gram (Cicer arietium) Mash (Phaseolus mungo) Chickpea (Cicer arietinum) Lentil (Lens esculenta) Soyabean (Glycine max) Groundnut (Arachis hypogea) Sesamum (Sesamum oriental) Mung (Phaseolus aureus) Pea (Pisum sativum) Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) Maize (Zea mays) Cotton (Gossypium hirsutum)

Crops and Cropping Pattern: Different crops vary widely in their tolerance to soil exchangeable sodium. In general, cereal like rice is more tolerant than legumes as they require less Ca, availability of which is a limiting factor in alkali soils. Crops which can stand withstand excess

moisture conditions are generally more tolerant to alkali conditions. Among the cultivated crops, rice is most tolerant to soil sodicity. It can with stand an ESP of 50 without any significant reduction in yield. It is followed by sugar beet and teosinte. Crops like wheat, barley and oats etc. are moderately tolerant. Legumes like gram, mash and lentil, chickpea and pea etc. are very sensitive and their yield decreases significantly even when the soil ESP is leas than 15. Sesbania is an exception among the leguminous crops as it can grow at ESP up to 50 without any reduction in yield. Due to this it is an excellent crop for green manuring in alkali soils. Some of the natural grasses like Karnal grass and Rhodes grass are very tolerant to soil sodicity, and in fact grow normally under high alkali conditions. Karnal grass likes both water logging and high ESP in its growing environment. Salt Tolerant Varieties: A sizable part of the salt-affected area in India is in possession of small and marginal farmers who are themselves poor. Under such situations, chemical amendments based reclamation technology without government subsidy is not sustainable. Development of salt tolerant varieties of important field crops is an option of great promise for utilization of such areas. As most of these varieties gives significant yield without or with little application of chemical amendments. Several varieties of field crops like rice, wheat and mustard have been developed which have potential to yield reasonable economic return both in high pH alkali soils and also in saline soils (Singh and Sharma, 2006). In case of rice, the most promising varieties include CSR10, CSR13, CSR19, CSR23, CSR27, CSR30 and CSR36. These varieties can be cultivated in soils with pH and EC range from 9.4 to 9.8 and 6-11 dS m -1. For wheat, KRL19, KRL1-4, Raj3077 and WH157 are suitable for soils with pH and EC range from 8.8 to 9.3 and 6-10 dS m -1. Pusa Bold, Varuna, CS52 and CS54 are salt tolerant mustard varieties. Alternate Land Use Systems: Reclamation of salt affected soils in village community lands, lands along the roads, railway tracks and other government lands, offer ample opportunities to raise salt tolerant trees, bushes and grasses to produce fuelwood, fodder and energy. An alternate technology of raising multipurpose forest tree plantation, fruit trees, agroforestry systems and other high value medicinal and aromatic crops seems quite feasible. Several salt tolerant forest and fruit species have been identified which can be grown in highly sodic and saline soils. The promising forest species include Prosopis juliflora, Acacia nilotica, Tamarix articulata and Casuarina equisetifolia. Long term field trials in a highly sodic soil revealed that Emblica officinalis, Psydium guajava and Carissa carandus proved highly promising in terms of growth performance and fruit production. Agroforestry: Several grass species have mechanism to tolerate high salt concentration in the root zone soil. Some of these highly tolerant

grasses either exclude the absorption of salts from the soil and/or deposit the absorbed/translocated salts at points within the plant system which do not allow them to interfere in metabolic processes. Grasses like Leptochloa fusca has the potential to yield high biomass even at pH level of 10.4 and more. Similarly, Bricharia mutica is another salt tolerant grass, which can be grown even under prolonged waterlogged and salt situation. Several experiments have been conducted at CSSRI and elsewhere to study the performance of these grasses in association with salt tolerant trees like Prosopis juliflora and Acacia nilotica in a unified agro-forestry system. The results of the experiments indicated that sodic soils can be reclaimed by growing Prosopis juliflora and Leptochloa fusca for five years. During this period, the surface soil is reclaimed and salt tolerant crops like Berseem (Trifolium alexendrinum), Egyptian clover, oats and senji can be grown without the application of amendments. Medicinal and Aromatic Crops: A number of medicinal and aromatic crops have been screened for salinity and sodicity tolerance in India. Crops like Isabgol (Plantago ovata) and Matricaria can be successfully cultivated in soils having pH of 9.5 and EC between 8-10 dS m-1. Similarly, dill (Anethum graveolens), a spice crop and Salvadora, a non-edible oil tree can be grown in salt affected Vertisols very successfully. Industrial species like Euphorbia and mulethi (Glycyrrhiza glabra) also have good scope for cultivation in salty environments. On-farm Development: For successful adoption of reclamation technology the farm should be properly developed. The onfarm development activities include land shaping (leveling), bunding and making provisions for irrigation and drainage. To ensure proper water management and uniform leaching of salts, the field should be leveled properly. To avoid major earthwork, the big fields should be divided onto small parcels and leveled. Drastic removal of the surface soil will expose the subsoil containing CaCO3, which can pose difficulties in reclamation, and cropping of the area. Best results are achieved when the moisture level in the field is 12 to16% on dry weight basis. Strong bunds are essential to store rainwater for leaching and irrigation in the field and to prevent its loss through surface runoff. These also prevent the entry of salt rich water from the adjoining areas to avoid resodication. Drainage of excess water may be needed under high rainfall conditions to prevent damage to young rice seedlings and to arable crops like wheat. Provision of good quality irrigation water is a must for successful reclamation of alkali soils. For this a shallow cavity tube well should be installed in the area or supply of canal water may be ensured. Application of Amendments: To have successful crops, ESP of the soil must be lowered, which can be achieved by application of amendments. Amendments are materials which i) directly supply Ca for the replacement of exchangeable Na or ii) furnish Ca indirectly by dissolving calcite, natively found in the alkali soils due to their acidulating effect and or iii)

dissolve native CaCO3 by increasing the partial pressure of CO2. The Ca so mobilized is used to replace Na from the exchange complex and this reclaims the alkali soil. Chemical amendments like gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) and calcium chloride (CaCl2.2H2O) directly supply Ca to replace exchangeable Na there by lowering ESP and pH. Mine gypsum is the most commonly used amendment for alkali soil reclamation. Pyrites (FeS2) furnish Ca indirectly by first oxidizing to an acid which in turn reacts with soil lime to furnish soluble calcium. But the efficiency of pyrites is not more that 70 to 80% as compared to gypsum. Similar to pyrites, conversion of mineral sulphur to H2SO4, which also takes place through the biological oxidation is very slow in alkali soils. Due to this reason, the relative efficiency of mineral S is also not high in alkali soil. Sulphuric acid reacts rapidly with soil lime since it does not have to go through the oxidation process. However, it is highly corrosive and dangerous to handle. The agricultural grade gypsum is only 75 to 80 % pure. The amount of amendment needed for reclamation depends upon the amount of exchangeable sodium to be replaced, which in turn is governed by the amount of sodium adsorbed on the soil (ESP & CEC), sodicity tolerance and the rooting depth of the crop to be raised. Alkali soils once reclaimed do not need repeated application of amendments provided these are continuously cropped. This is due to the fact that these soils contain high amounts of CaCO 3, which together with Ca added through fertilizers like CAN and SSP, and irrigation water is sufficient to meet the Ca needs of the plants and to keep Na out of the exchange complex. Addition of crop residues and other organic materials in the soil is beneficial as these help to improve and maintain soil structure, supply needed plant nutrients, prevent soil erosion and hastens reclamation of alkali soils. Most commonly used organic amendments are materials like straw, rice husk, poultry droppings, groundnut and sunflower hulls, farm yard manure (FYM), compost, green manure, tree leaves, saw dust etc. Industrial byproducts like phosphgypsum, pressmud, molasses, acid wash and effluents from milk plants may be used to provide soluble Ca directly or indirectly by dissolving soil lime, for reclamation purposes. As these materials can be cheap and locally available, their use should be encouraged. However, care should be taken not to introduce toxic elements like F, which may be present in large amounts in products like phosphogypsum. (C) Reclamation of Saline Waterlogged Soils Sub-surface drainage technology has been developed to lower the water table in saline waterlogged areas. The system consists of a network of concrete or rigid PVC pipes along with filter installed manually or mechanically at a designed spacing and depth below soil surface to

control water table depth by draining excess water and disposing it out of the area by gravity or by pumping from an open well, called sump. Biodrainage is an effective technique of lowering ground water table in waterlogged areas through the use of raising tree plantations. This technique removes excess soil water through the process of transpiration by trees using solar radiation energy. It is a kind of preventive technique to avoid the development of salinity and water logging problem in canal command areas. The technique is highly useful when the soils are still in the process of salinization due to rise in ground water level. However, if the soils are already salinized it has limited scope. Several species of trees have been screened to study their capacity to transpire water from different salinity and water table depths. The most promising species identified for biodrainage include Eucalyptus, Populus, Casurania and Bambusa. Several programmes are in progress throughout the country to reclaim waterlogged areas in canal commands through biodrainage. (D) Soil Management in Coastal Areas Soil Fertility and Quality Management :Effect of salinity on the microbial and biochemical parameters of the salt affected coastal soils was studied at nine different sites. The study revealed that the average microbial biomass C (MBC), average basal soil respiration (BSR), and enzyme activity were lowest during the summer season, indicating the adverse effect of soil salinity. It was suggested that integrated nutrient management should be very effective for increasing its use efficiency for higher and sustainable yield of crops. Scientists are of the opinion to introduce systems approach involving organic, inorganic and bio-fertilizers compatible with the farmers practice. In coastal soils of India, application of agro-industrial wastes significantly improved soil organic carbon, pH, EC and soil bacteria, fungus and actinomycetes population and enhanced the soil fertility status (macro and micro nutrients) and improved the crop productivity of finger millet. Application of pressmud @12.5 t ha-1 recorded better growth and yield of finger millet followed by composted coirpith @ 12.5 t ha-1. Use of green manure crops like Sesbania spp. (S. aculeata) has been proved very suitable for saline alkali soils. Leguminous green manure and its residue normally are able to meet only partially the N requirement for the following high yielding crop varieties. However, in view of rising energy cost and limited input availability, recycling of organic wastes and use of renewable sources of biofertilizers, viz. rhizobium cultures for pulse or legume may play a significant role in terms of integrated nutrient management for agriculture in coastal saline soils. The soil quality in the coastal plains can be improved through higher soil organic carbon level of the soils. The soil quality is grouped into four categories. These are: Good, Poor, Very Poor and Problem soils. Good and Poor soils represent those with different degrees of weathering but without major constraints; Very Poor represents soils

with multiple chemical constraints (acidity, deficiency of phosphorous, or toxicities of iron and aluminum); while Problem soils represent those with the most frequently cited soil problems, including acid sulphate, peat, saline, and alkaline soils, which partly cause low fertility, and partly soil chemical toxicity. The above classification raises the issue as to whether or not the problem soils should also be scale-dependent with respect to soil quality assessment? A soils quality should be assessed for quality regardless of factors rendering it problematic in nature. Amelioration of a problem soil should therefore be a pre-requisite for quality assessment, and should not form a separate group as such. Detailed characterization of the coastal plains in respect of soil quality should be undertaken in order to plan for improved fertility management practices with a systems approach for higher and sustainable development in India and other countries. Research so far provides strong indication that low lying coastal soils may be a useful sink for higher organic carbon pool for the terrestrial system. Crop management :The coastal areas in countries, in general, are endowed with abundant sunshine, solar as well as wind energy, precipitation, diverse soils, physiography, climate, etc. and therefore, have tremendous opportunities for supporting a host of perennial and annual crops like trees, fruit plants, cereals, root crops, pulses, oilseeds, commercial crops, vegetables, etc. Suitable crop cafeteria should be developed for specific agro-ecologies Several factors, such as temperature, humidity, stage of plant growth, moisture, soil texture type of soil fertility, etc., as well as their interactions, however, influence plant response to soil salinity, which is not uniform and, therefore, present a complex mechanism. Relative tolerance of crops to different levels provide useful selection guidelines for saline soils (Table). A threshold ECe for a crop is defined as the value below which crop growth is generally not affected due to salinity. The threshold ECe varies for different crops. Multi-tier cropping systems involving arable, horticultural and plantation crops, as well as agro-forestry, should be given appropriate attention for better land use in a given location. Several benefits relating to sustainability and profitability accruing from the integrated farming. Future strategy of crop improvement, which is possibly the most important component of crop management programme, lies in the evolution of better varieties using appropriate breeding programme. This should be coupled with improved agro-input management practices suited to harsh agroecological environments, viz. salinity, alkalinity, acidity and flooding, as well as shallow, semi- and deep-water conditions. The objectives of breeding are development/ identification of genotypes with higher genetic yield ceiling and consolidation of the already achieved yield gains.

Table. Relative tolerance of plants

Crop Toleranc e level Electrical conductivity (dS/m), ECe Thres 50% hold Yield, ECe ECe Crop Toleran ce level Electrical conductivity (dSm-1), ECe Thres50% hold Yield ECe ECe

Field crops Barley High Cotton High Sugar beet Sorghum Wheat Cowpea Peas Corn Rice Grasses & forages Wheat grass tall High Moderat e Moderat e Moderat e Low Low Low High

8 9 7 5 9 5 3 2 3 8

18 17 15 12 12 9 5 6 4 19

Bermuda Vetch Alfalfa Clover Veg. & Fruits Broccoli Spinach Tomato Bean Strawberr y Pineapple

High Moderat e Moderat e Low

7 3 2 2

14 8 9 5

Moderat e Moderat e Moderat e Low Low Low

3 2 2 1 1 1

8 9 8 4 3 3

Threshold is the salt level below which crop yields generally are not decreased significantly; 50 % Yield ECe refers to the salt concentration at which crop yield is only 50 % of normal yield attainable at threshold ECe values. 3.2.6. Choice of crops: Crops differ widely in their tolerance to salinity and alkalinity. The relative crop tolerance to exchangeable sodium (%) is given in the table 1. The choice of tolerant varieties within a crop is essential for better production and economic returns for alkali soils. Table 1. Relative crop tolerance to exchangeable sodium (%) in the soil Range of ESP* 10-15 15-20 20-25 25-30 Crops Safflower, Black gram, Peas, Lentil and Pigeon pea Bengal gram, Soya bean and Maize Groundnut, cowpea, onion and pearl millet Linseed, Farlic, Guar, Sugarcane, Cotton, Lemongrass,

Palmarosa 30-50 Wheat, Raya, Sunflower, Berseem, Blue panic 50-60 Barley, Sesbania, Matricaria, Para grass, Rhodes grass 69-70 Rice, Karnal grass *Relative crop yields are only 50 per cent of the maximum in the alkalinity range indicated. 3.2.7. Cropping patterns : As rice-based cropping systems are proved to be beneficial over sorghum-based cropping systems, the following crops have been recommended for cultivation during the post-reclamation phase (Table 2). Table 2. Cropping sequences recommended for alkali soils (postreclamation phase) Soil pH (0-15 cm layer) 9.2 to 9.3 8.9 to 9.0 8.5 to 8.8 Years after reclamati on 3 to 4 5 to 8 8 to 10 Crops Kharif Rabi

Cotton, Sorghum, Pearl- Mustard, Rapeseed millet Sugarcane, Groundnut, Berseem, Sunflower, Arhar, Soyabean gram, safflower, pea, lentil All crops including vegetables, flowers etc.

3.3. Nutrient management Practices followed for the efficient management of nutrients in alkali soils include Soil organic matter status can be improved by growing green manure crop at least once in two years; Nitrogen need be applied 20-25 per cent more than that required for normal soils. 150 kg N/ha through urea or ammonium sulphate need be applied in 3-4 split doses to compensate for higher volatilisation losses; Since alkali soils are generally rich in P and K they need not be applied in the initial three to four years. Zinc sulphate at the rate of 10-20 kg/ha may be applied in the initial two to three years. 3.4. Water management

Water management in saline soils involve irrigation methods, irrigation frequency, rainwater management and drainage. Prevention of water table rise through reduction in seepage from canals, distributaries and watercourses is crucial require cost-effective seepage control techniques. As conventional methods of irrigation result in low application efficiency, irrigation methods and procedures should be designed to increase the efficiency and uniformity of application (Tyagi, 1998). 3.4.1. Salt leaching and Drainage Salinity in the soil root zone is a major concern for farmers of irrigated crops in arid regions. The soil profile may also contain soluble minerals that contribute both to the salinity hazard to crops and to the salt load of agricultural drain water. Salts in the irrigation water are not always carried away in drain water, and some of those salts may be deposited in the soil. Both root zone leaching and chemical precipitation are needed for maintaining favourable root zone salinity. Leaching involves applying enough excess water to translocate some of the salts out of the root zone. The amount of excess water required depends partly on the chemical composition of the water, insofar as that influences salt precipitation and the waters ability to carry salts. Cultivation of Salvadora persica on highly saline black soils Salt affected soils, which constitute a major portion of saline soils present in the Gujarat State, pose serious threat to the economy of the state. While soils with low and moderate salinity have been put under cultivation, highly saline black soils by and large remain either barren or possess some native hardy species. Thus, for the management of moderate to highly coastal saline soils, agro-technology for the cultivation of economically important and salt tolerant halophyte has been evolved. Salvadora persica L. (Meswak), a facultative halophyte which is a potential source for seed oil has been identified as a predominant species in highly saline habitats of coastal and inland black soils. This species is a medicinal plant of great value and its bark contains resins and an alkaloid called Salvadoricine. The seeds are good source of non-edible oil rich in C12 and C-14 fatty acids having immense applications in soap and detergent industry. This species was also found suitable for coastal saline wastelands (Makwana et. al., 1988) Through different field experiments undertaken, the Regional Research Station of CSSRI RRS Bharuch has evolved agro-technology for raising of saplings using saline water; field planting and crop harvest and also worked out cost of cultivation. A bankable Model Scheme on planting of Salvadora persica on saline black soils was developed by NABARD in association with CSSRI Regional Research Station, Bharuch through which the farmers can avail financial assistant

for taking up this crop. The studies indicated that the saplings could be raised using saline water of 15 dS m-1, which is an advantageous feature under limited fresh water available situations. Cost of cultivation indicated that total cost for raising 500 saplings works out to be Rs. 455/-. The cost of cultivation under field conditions including raising of nursery comes to Rs. 2760/- ha-1 in the first year. In subsequent years, recurring costs would be mainly the labour for fertilizer application and harvesting. By fifth year, the plants would yield about 1.8 Mg ha-1, thus giving net returns to a tune of Rs. 8400/- ha-1. Thus, this species, while giving economic returns from the highly saline black soils with salinity values up to 50 dS m-1, also helps in eco-restoration through environmental greening and thus forms a niche for highly saline black soils(Gururaja Rao et al., 2003, 2004).