Countries by Continents

COUNTRIES OF AFRICA
Africa is the second-largest continent in the world in both area and population.
Area: about 30 244 000 km2 (11 700 000 mi2) including its adjacent islands it covers about 20
percent of Earth's total land area.
Population: 1,030 million human inhabitants, about 20 percent of the world's population.
Highest Point: Mount Kilimanjaro - Uhuru Peak on the volcano Kibo, 5 895 m (19 340 ft) in
Tanzania.
Largest Lake: Lake Victoria or Victoria Nyanza; 68 870 sq. km.
Longest River: Nile; 6 695 km.
Languages of Africa: about thousand languages classified in four major language families:
Afro-Asiatic (e.g. Berber lang), Nilo-Saharan, Niger-Congo (Bantu), and Khoi-San.
Related Categories:
Map of Africa
Map of North Africa, the Middle East, and the Arabian Peninsula
Flags of Africa
Capital Cities of Africa
keywords: countries of africa, population of africa, destination africa, travel africa, capitals africa,
central africa, north africa, south africa, eastern africa
List of African Countries

(as used by the United Nations when categorising geographic subregions)
Eastern Africa
Country
Burundi
Population
6,200,000
Capital City
Bujumbura
Comoros
727,000
Moroni
Djibouti
700,000
Djibouti
4,400,000
Asmara
Eritrea
Ethiopia
72,400,000
Addis Ababa
Kenya
32,400,000
Nairobi
Madagascar
17,500,000
Antananarivo
Malawi
11,900,000
Lilongwe
1,200,000
Port Louis
Mauritius
Mozambique
19,200,000
Runion
800,000
Rwanda
8,400,000
Seychelles
100,000
Maputo
Saint-Denis
Kigali
Victoria
Somalia
8,300,000
Mogadishu
Tanzania
36,100,000
Dodoma, Dar es Salaam
Uganda
26,100,000
Kampala
Zambia
10,900,000
Lusaka
Zimbabwe
12,700,000
Harare
Central Africa (Middle Africa)
Country
Population
Capital City
Angola
13,300,000
Luanda
Cameroon
16,100,000
Yaound
Central African Republic
3,700,000
Bangui
Chad
9,500,000
N'Djamena
Congo, Rep. (Brazzaville)
3,800,000
Brazzaville
Congo, Dem. Rep. (Kinshasa)
58,300,000
2
Kinshasa
Equatorial Guinea
Gabon
So Tom and Prncipe
500,000
Malabo
1,400,000
Libreville
200,000
So Tom
Northern Africa
Country
Population
Capital City
Algeria
32,300,000
Algiers
Egypt
73,400,000
Cairo
5,600,000
Tripoli
Morocco
30,600,000
Rabat
Sudan
39,100,000
Khartoum
Tunisia
10,000,000
Tunis
Libyan Arab Jamahiriya
Western Sahara
300,000
---
Southern Africa
Country
Population
Capital City
Botswana
1,700,000
Gaborone
Lesotho
1,800,000
Maseru
Namibia
1,900,000
Windhoek
South Africa
Swaziland
46,900,000
1,200,000
Pretoria, Bloemfontein, Cape Town

Mbabane, Lobamba
Western Africa
Country
Benin
Burkina Faso
Cape Verde
Cte d'Ivoire
Population
7,300,000
13,600,000
500,000
16,900,000
3
Capital City
Porto-Novo, Cotonou
Ouagadougou
Praia
Yamoussoukro, Abidjan
Gambia, The
1,500,000
Banjul
Ghana
21,400,000
Accra
Guinea
9,200,000
Conakry
Guinea-Bissau
1,500,000
Bissau
Liberia
3,500,000
Monrovia
Mali
13,400,000
Mauritania
3,000,000
Niger
Nigeria
12,400,000
137,300,000
Saint Helena
Senegal
6,000
10,900,000
Bamako
Nouakchott
Niamey
Abuja
Jamestown
Dakar
Sierra Leone
5,200,000
Freetown
Togo
5,600,000
Lom
COUNTRIES OF THE AMERICAS AND THE CARIBBEAN

Area: North America (Canada, USA): 20 000 000 km2 (7 700 000 mi2);
Central America and the Caribbean: 20 720 000 km2 (8 000 000 mi2);
South America: 17 900 000 km2 (6 900 000 mi2)
Population: 929 million
North America: 344 million (Canada and USA); Central America and the Caribbean (incl.
Mexico): 195 million; South America: 391 million.
Highest Point: Aconcagua, 6959 m (22,831 ft), Mendoza, Argentina.
Largest Lake: Lake Superior, surface area 82,000 km2 (32,000 mi2), larger than Panama.
Longest River: Rio Amazonas (Amazon), 6 296 km (3 912 mi), South America.
Languages of the Americas: English, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Dutch, various native Indian
languages, French patois, Creole.
Maps
Map of Central America and the Caribbean
Reference Map of Central America and the Caribbean.
Political Map of North America
Reference Map of North America.
Relief Map of North America
Physical Map of North America.
Map of South America
Reference map of South America.
Map of the United States
Map of continental USA.
Maps of the U.S. States
Index of Reference Maps of the 50 U.S. States.
Flags
Flags of the Americas and the Caribbean
Flags of the 50 U.S. States
keywords: countries of the americas, population of the americas, capitals of the americas,
countries of the western hemisphere, caribbean islands, central america, north america, south
america, latin america
States and Territories of the Americas and the Caribbean
Caribbean
Country
Population
5
Capital City
Anguilla
13 000
The Valley
Antigua and Barbuda
100 000
Saint John's
Aruba
103 000
Oranjestad
Bahamas
307 000
Nassau
Barbados
300 000
Bridgetown
Bermuda
65 000
COUNTRIES OF ASIA
Asia is the largest continent in the world in both, area and population, constituting nearly one-third of the landmass,
lying entirely north of the equator
except for some Southeast Asian islands. It is connected to Africa by the Isthmus of Suez and borders
Europe (part of the same landmass) along the Ural Mountains and across the Caspian Sea.
Area: about 49 700 000 km2 (19 189 277 mi2) it covers about 60 percent of Earth's total land area.
Population: more than 4 billion human inhabitants (4,157 million), about 60 percent of the world's population.
Seven out of ten of the most populated countries are in Asia (2010).
Highest Point: Sagarmatha (Chomolungma; known as Mount Everest) 8848m (29 028 ft) Nepal.
Largest Lake: Caspian Sea (salt lake) 371 000 km2 (143 250 mi2),
Ozero Baykal, Lake Baikal 31 500 km2 in Siberia is the world's largest freshwater lake by volume.
Longest River: Yangtze (Yngz Jiang, or Chang Jiang (simplified Chinese: ) China, 6380 km (3 964 mi).
Languages of Asia: Arabic, Chinese, Hindi, Japanese, Korean, Malay, Russian, Thai, Turkic, Vietnamese and other.
Maps
Reference Map of Asia
Political Map of Asia.
Map of Central Asia
Political Map of Central Asia and the Caucasus region.
Map of South East Asia
Political Map of South East Asia.
6
Map of Southwestern Asia

Map of Southwestern Asia and the Middle East region.
Countries and Areas of Asia
Eastern Asia
Country
China
Population
1 300 100 000
China, Hong Kong SAR
6 800 000
China, Macau SAR
473 000
China Tibet
Japan
Capital City
Beijing
Macau City
2 620 000
Lhasa
127 700 000
Tokyo
Korea (North)
22 800 000
P'yongyang
Korea (South)
47 925 000
Seoul
Mongolia
2 500 000
Taiwan (Republic of
22 600 000
China)
Ulaanbaatar
Taipei
Northern Asia
Country
Russian Federation
Population
145 000 000
Capital City
Moscow
South-Central Asia
Country
Population
7
Capital City
Afghanistan
28 500 000
Kabul
Bangladesh
141 300 000
Dhaka
Bhutan
India
1 000 000
1 086 600 000
Thimphu
New Delhi
Iran
67 400 000
Tehran
Kazakhstan
15 000 000
Astana
Kyrgyzstan
5 100 000
Bishkek
Maldives
Nepal
300 000
Male
24 700 000
Kathmandu
Pakistan
159 200 000
Islamabad
Sri Lanka
19 000 000
Colombo
Tajikistan
6 600 000
Dushanbe
Turkmenistan
5 700 000
Ashgabat
26 400 000
Tashkent
Population
Capital City
Uzbekistan
South-East Asia
Country
Brunei Darussalam
400 000
Bandar Seri Begawan
Cambodia
13 100 000
Indonesia
218 700 000
Lao PDR
5 800 000
Malaysia
25 600 000
Kuala Lumpur
Myanmar (Burma)
50 100 000
Yangon (Rangoon)
Philippines
83 700 000
Manila
Singapore
4 200 000
Singapore
Thailand
63 800 000
Bangkok
Timor-Leste
Viet Nam
800 000
81 500 000
Western Asia and Middle East
Phnom Penh
Jakarta
Vientiane
Dili
Hanoi
Country
Population
Capital City
Armenia
3 200 000
Yerevan
Azerbaijan
8 300 000
Baku
Bahrain
700 000
Manama
Cyprus
793 100
Nicosia (Lefkosia)
Georgia
Iraq
4 500 000
25 900 000
T'bilisi
Baghdad
Israel
6 800 000
Jerusalem (claimed)
Jordan
5 600 000
Amman
Kuwait
2 500 000
Kuwait (City)
Lebanon
4 500 000
Beirut
Oman
2 700 000
Muscat
Palestinian territories
3 800 000
Jerusalem (claimed)
Qatar
700 000
Doha (Al-Dawhah)
Saudi Arabia
25 100 000
Riyadh
Syria
18 000 000
Damascus
Turkey
71 300 000
Ankara
United Arab Emirates

Yemen
4 200 000
20 000 000
Abu Dhabi
Sanaa
COUNTRIES OF AUSTRALIA AND OCEANIA

The "continent" of Australia/Oceania is a somewhat artifical construct, designed to link
together the continental landmass of Australia with the huge number of widely scattered
islands across the Pacific Ocean.
Area: 8 600 000 km2 (3 300 000 mi2)
Highest Point: Puncak Jaya (Carstensz Pyramid 4884 m/16 023 ft), Papua Province,
Indonesia
Largest Lake: Lake Eyre, Australia (if there is some water)
Longest River: Murray-Darling river system 3750 km (2300 mi)
Map of Australia/Oceania
Reference Map of the Australia/Oceania region.
Languages of Oceania: Melanesian pidgin, Melanesian-Polynesian Languages, English,
French.
Flags of Australia and Oceania
keywords: countries of Australia and oceania, population of Australia and oceania,
capitals of Australia and oceania, australia, new zealand, the Pacifics, melanesia,
micronesia, polynesia
States of Australia and Oceania
Australia/New Zealand
Country
Population
Capital City - Largest City
Australia
20 100 000
Canberra - Sydney
New Zealand
4 100 000
Wellington - Auckland
Melanesia - the islands in the southwestern part of Oceania.
Country
Population
Capital City
Fiji
800 000
Suva
New Caledonia
200 000
Nouma
Papua New Guinea
5 700 000
10
Port Moresby
Solomon Islands
Vanuatu
500 000
200 000
Honiara
Port-Vila
Map of Melanesia
Reference Map of Melanesia.
Micronesia, the islands in the northwestern part of Oceania.
Country
Guam
Population
200 000
Capital City
Hagta (Agana)
Hawaii
1 300 000
Kiribati
100 000
Tarawa
Marshall Islands
100 000
Majuro
119 000
Palikir
Micronesia (Federated States

of)
Honolulu
Nauru
12 000
---
Northern Mariana Islands
78 000
Saipan
Palau
20 000
Ngerulmud, Melekeok
Map of Micronesia
Reference Map of Micronesia.
Polynesia, the islands in the eastern part of Oceania.
Country
Population
Capital City
American Samoa
68 000
Pago Pago
Cook Islands
20 000
Avarua
300 000
Papeete
French Polynesia (Tahiti)

Niue
2 000
Alofi
Pitcairn
>100
Adamstown
Samoa
200 000
Apia
Tonga
100 000
Nuku'alofa
11
Tuvalu
10 000
Funafuti
European Flag in
COUNTRIES OF EUROPE
Area: 23 million km2 (8 876 000 mi2)
Highest Point: 1. El'brus in Russia, (5 642 m/18 510 ft);
2. Mont Blanc, France-Italy: 4 807m (15 771 ft).
Largest Lake: Lake Balaton Hungary, largest lake of Central Europe, 592 km2.
Longest Rivers: 1. Volga (3,690 km (2,293 miles), 2. Danube 2850 km (1770 miles)
Languages of Europe: English, French, German, Greek, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese,
Nordic Languages, East European languages.
keywords: countries of europe, european nations, travel europe, destination europe, visit
europe, population of europe, capitals of europe, central europe, north europe, southern
europe, eastern europe
States and Territories of Europe
(as used by the United Nations when categorising geographic subregions)
12
Eastern Europe
Country
Population
Belarus
9 800 000
Minsk
* Bulgaria
7 800 000
Sofia
* Czech Republic
10 200 000
Prague
* Hungary
10 100 000
Budapest
Moldova
4 200 000
Chisinau
* Poland
38 200 000
Warsaw
* Romania
21 700 000
Bucharest
144 100 000
Moscow
Russian Federation
* Slovakia
5 400 000
Bratislava
Ukraine
47 400 000
Kiev
Population
Northern Europe
Country
* Denmark
5 400 000
Copenhagen
* Estonia
1 300 000
Tallinn
Faroe Islands
(Denmark)
* Finland
Greenland (Denmark)
43 000
5 200 000
56 854
Trshavn
Helsinki
Nuuk (Godthab, Godthb)
+ Iceland
300 000
* Ireland
4 100 000
Dublin (City)
* Latvia
2 300 000
Riga
* Lithuania
3 400 000
Vilnius
1 690 000
Belfast
4 600 000
Oslo
5 200 000
Edinburgh - Glasgow
9 000 000
Stockholm
Northern Ireland (UK)

+ Norway
Scotland (UK)
* Sweden
13
Reykjavik
* United Kingdom
59 700 000
London
2 750 000
Cardiff
Albania
3 200 000
Tirana
Andorra
100 000
Wales (UK)
Southern Europe
Bosnia and
Herzegovina
Croatia (Hrvatska)
* Cyprus
3 900 000
Sarajevo
4 400 000
Zagreb
793 100
Gibraltar (UK)
25 000
* Greece
11 000 000
Holy See (Vatican City
1 000
State)
* Italy
57 800 000
Macedonia, Rep. of
* Malta
Montenegro
* Portugal
Nicosia (Lefkosia)
Gibraltar
Athens
Vatican City
Rome - Milan (Metro)
2 000 000
Skopje
400 000
Valletta
650 000
Podgorica
10 500 000
San Marino
Andorra la Vella
30 000
Lisbon
San Marino
Serbia
10 000 000
Belgrade
* Slovenia
2 000 000
Ljubljana
* Spain
Turkey
42 500 000
Madrid
71 300 000
Ankara - Istanbul
Western Europe
Country
Population
* Austria
8 100 000
* Belgium
10 400 000
Brussels
* France
60 000 000
Paris
Vienna (Wien)
14
* Germany
82 600 000
Berlin
+ Liechtenstein
33 000
Vaduz
* Luxembourg
500 000
Monaco
Luxembourg
34 000
* Netherlands
16 300 000
+ Switzerland
7 400 000
Monaco
Amsterdam
MAP OF THE WORLD CONTINENTS
15
16
17
Japan
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about the country. For other uses, see Japan (disambiguation).
Japan
Nippon-koku or Nihon-koku
Flag
Imperial Seal
Anthem:
Kimigayo (?)
Government Seal of Japan:
(Go-Shichi no Kiri?)
18
Capital
(and largest city)
Tokyo (de facto)

3541N 13946E / 35.683N
139.767E /
Official
language(s)
None[1]
Recognised
Aynu itak, Ryukyuan languages, Eastern
regional language
Japanese, Western Japanese, and several
other Japanese dialects
National
language
Japanese
98.5% Japanese,
Ethnic groups
0.5% Korean, 0.4% Chinese,

0.6% other[2]
Demonym
Japanese
Unitary parliamentary
Government
democracy and
constitutional monarchy
- Emperor
Akihito
19
- Prime Minister
Legislature
Naoto Kan (DPJ)

Diet of Japan
- Upper House
House of Councillors
- Lower House
House of Representatives
Formation
National
Foundation Day
Meiji
Constitution
Current
constitution
February 11, 660 BC[3]
November 29, 1890
May 3, 1947
Treaty of
San Francisco
April 28, 1952

Area
- Total
- Water (%)
377,944 km2
[4]
(61st)
145,925 sq mi
0.8
Population
- 2011 estimate
127,960,000[5] (10th)
- 2004 census
127,333,002
- Density
337.1/km2 (36th)
20
873.1/sq mi
GDP (PPP)
2010 estimate
- Total
$4.308 trillion[6] (3rd)
- Per capita
$33,828[6] (24th)
GDP (nominal)
2010 estimate
- Total
$5.390 trillion[6] (3rd)
- Per capita
$42,325[6] (17th)
Gini
HDI (2010)
38.1 (2002)[7]
0.884[8] (very high) (11th)
International Symbol
Pronounced (Yen)
Currency
Japanese Symbol (or in

Traditional Kanji) Pronounced
(En) (JPY)
Time zone
- Summer (DST)
JST (UTC+9)
not observed (UTC+9)
yyyy-mm-dd
Date formats
yyyy m d
Era yy m d (CE1988)
Drives on the
left
ISO 3166 code
JP
21
Internet TLD
.jp
Calling code
81
Japan ( i /dpn/; Japanese: Nihon or Nippon, officially Nippon-koku or

Nihon-koku) is an island nation in East Asia.[9] Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies to the east of the
Sea of Japan, China, North Korea, South Korea and Russia, stretching from the Sea of Okhotsk in the
north to the East China Sea and Taiwan in the south. The characters that make up Japan's name mean
"sun-origin", which is why Japan is sometimes referred to as the "Land of the Rising Sun".
Japan is an archipelago of 6,852 islands.[10] The four largest islands are Honshu, Hokkaido, Kyushu and
Shikoku, together accounting for ninety-seven percent of Japan's land area. Japan has the world's tenthlargest population, with over 127 million people. The Greater Tokyo Area, which includes the de facto
capital city of Tokyo and several surrounding prefectures, is the largest metropolitan area in the world,
with over 30 million residents.
Archaeological research indicates that people lived in Japan as early as the Upper Paleolithic period.
The first written mention of Japan is in Chinese history texts from the 1st century AD. Influence from
other nations followed by long periods of isolation has characterized Japan's history. Since adopting its
revised constitution in 1947, Japan has maintained a unitary constitutional monarchy with an emperor
and an elected parliament called the Diet.
A major economic power,[2] Japan has the world's third-largest economy by nominal GDP[11] and by
purchasing power parity. It is also the world's fourth largest exporter and fourth largest importer.
Although Japan has officially renounced its right to declare war, it maintains an extensive modern
military force in self-defense and peacekeeping roles. After Singapore, Japan has the lowest homicide
(including attempted homicide) rate in the world.[12] According to both UN and WHO estimates, Japan
has the longest life expectancy of any country in the world. According to the UN, it has the third lowest
infant mortality rate.[13][14]
Contents
[hide]
1 Etymology
2 History
o
2.1 Prehistory and ancient history
2.2 Feudal era
22
2.3 Modern era
3 Politics
4 Administrative divisions
5 Foreign relations and military
6 Geography
6.1 Climate
6.2 Biodiversity
6.3 Environment
7 Economy
o
7.1 Science and technology
7.2 Infrastructure
8 Demographics
o
8.1 Religion
8.2 Languages
8.3 Education
8.4 Health
9 Culture
o
9.1 Art
9.2 Music
9.3 Literature
9.4 Cuisine
9.5 Sports
10 See also
23
11 References
12 External links
Etymology
Main article: Names of Japan
The English word Japan is an exonym. The Japanese names for Japan are Nippon (?) listen
(helpinfo) and Nihon (?) listen (helpinfo); both names are written using the kanji . The
Japanese name Nippon is used for most official purposes, including on Japanese yen, postage stamps,
and for many international sporting events. Nihon is a more casual term and is used in contemporary
speech. Japanese people refer to themselves as Nihonjin (?) and to their language as Nihongo (
?). Both Nippon and Nihon mean "sun-origin" and are often translated as Land of the Rising Sun.
This nomenclature comes from Japanese missions to Imperial China and refers to Japan's eastward
position relative to China. Before Nihon came into official use, Japan was known as Wa (?) or
Wakoku (?).[15]
The English word for Japan came to the West via early trade routes. The early Mandarin or possibly Wu
Chinese () word for Japan was recorded by Marco Polo as Cipangu. In modern Shanghainese, a
Wu dialect, the pronunciation of characters 'Japan' is Zeppen [zpn]. The old Malay word for
Japan, Jepang, was borrowed from a Chinese language, and this Malay word was encountered by
Portuguese traders in Malacca in the 16th century. It is thought the Portuguese traders were the first to
bring the word to Europe. It was first recorded in English in a 1565 letter, spelled Giapan.[16]
History
Main article: History of Japan
Prehistory and ancient history
24
An example of Jmon pottery, 3000-2000 BC
A Paleolithic culture around 30,000 BC constitutes the first known habitation of Japan. This was
followed from around 14,000 BC (the start of the Jmon period) by a Mesolithic to Neolithic semisedentary hunter-gatherer culture, who include ancestors of both the contemporary Ainu people and
Yamato people,[17][18] characterized by pit dwelling and rudimentary agriculture.[19] Decorated clay
vessels from this period are some of the oldest surviving examples of pottery in the world. Around 300
BC, the Yayoi people began to enter the Japanese islands, intermingling with the Jmon.[20] The Yayoi
period, starting around 500 BC, saw the introduction of practices like wet-rice farming,[21] a new style
of pottery,[22] and metallurgy, introduced from China and Korea.[23]
The Japanese first appear in written history in the Chinese Book of Han. According to the Records of
Three Kingdoms, the most powerful kingdom on the archipelago during the 3rd century was called
Yamataikoku. Buddhism was first introduced to Japan from Baekje, but the subsequent development of
Japanese Buddhism was primarily influenced by China.[24] Despite early resistance, Buddhism was
promoted by the ruling class and gained widespread acceptance beginning in the Asuka period.[25]
The Nara period of the 8th century marked the emergence of a strong Japanese state, centered on an
imperial court in Heij-ky (modern Nara). The Nara period is characterized by the appearance of a
nascent literature with the completion of the Kojiki (712) and Nihon Shoki (720).[26] The smallpox
epidemic of 735737 is believed to have killed as much as one-third of Japan's population.[27] In 784,
Emperor Kammu moved the capital from Nara to Nagaoka-ky before relocating it to Heian-ky
(modern Kyoto) in 794. This marked the beginning of the Heian period, during which a distinctly
indigenous Japanese culture emerged, noted for its art, poetry and literature. Lady Murasaki's The Tale
of Genji and the lyrics of Japan's national anthem Kimigayo were written during this time.[28]
Feudal era
The Mongol invasions in 1274 and 1281 were successfully repelled
Japan's feudal era was characterized by the emergence and dominance of a ruling class of warriors, the
samurai. In 1185, following the defeat of the Taira clan, samurai Minamoto no Yoritomo was appointed
shogun and established a base of power in Kamakura. After Yoritomo's death, the Hj clan came to
power as regents for the shoguns. The Zen school of Buddhism was introduced from China in the
25
Kamakura period (11851333) and became popular among the samurai class.[29] The Kamakura
shogunate repelled Mongol invasions in 1274 and 1281, but was eventually overthrown by Emperor
Go-Daigo. Go-Daigo was himself defeated by Ashikaga Takauji in 1336. The succeeding Ashikaga
shogunate failed to control the feudal warlords (daimyo), and a civil war (the nin War) began in 1467,
opening the century-long Sengoku period ("Warring States").[30]
During the 16th century, traders and Jesuit missionaries from Portugal reached Japan for the first time,
initiating direct commercial and cultural exchange between Japan and the West (Nanban trade). Oda
Nobunaga conquered many other daimyo using European technology and firearms; after he was
assassinated in 1582, his successor Toyotomi Hideyoshi unified the nation in 1590. Hideyoshi invaded
Korea twice, but following defeats by Korean and Ming Chinese forces and Hideyoshi's death,
Japanese troops were withdrawn in 1598.[31]
Tokugawa Ieyasu served as regent for Hideyoshi's son Toyotomi Hideyori, using his position to gain
political and military support. When open war broke out, he defeated rival clans in the Battle of
Sekigahara in 1600. Ieyasu was appointed shogun in 1603 and established the Tokugawa shogunate at
Edo (modern Tokyo).[32] The Tokugawa shogunate enacted measures like buke shohatto as a code of
conduct to control the autonomous daimyo.[33] In 1639, the shogunate began the isolationist sakoku
("closed country") policy that spanned the two and a half centuries of tenuous political unity known as
the Edo period.[34] The study of Western sciences, known as rangaku, continued during this period
through contact with the Dutch enclave at Dejima in Nagasaki. The Edo period also gave rise to
kokugaku ("national studies"), the study of Japan by the Japanese.[35]
Modern era
The Meiji Emperor
26
On March 31, 1854, Commodore Matthew Perry and the "Black Ships" of the United States Navy
forced the opening of Japan to the outside world with the Convention of Kanagawa. Subsequent similar
treaties with Western countries in the Bakumatsu period brought economic and political crises. The
resignation of the shogun led to the Boshin War and the establishment of a centralized state nominally
unified under the Emperor (the Meiji Restoration).[36] Adopting Western political, judicial and military
institutions, the Cabinet organized the Privy Council, introduced the Meiji Constitution, and assembled
the Imperial Diet. The Meiji Restoration transformed the Empire of Japan into an industrialized world
power that pursued military conflict to expand its sphere of influence. After victories in the First SinoJapanese War (18941895) and the Russo-Japanese War (19041905), Japan gained control of Taiwan,
Korea, and the southern half of Sakhalin.[37] Japan's population grew from 35 million in 1873 to 70
million in 1935.[38]
The early 20th century saw a brief period of "Taish democracy" overshadowed by increasing
expansionism and militarization. World War I enabled Japan, which joined the side of the victorious
Allies, to widen its influence and territorial holdings. It continued its expansionist policy by occupying
Manchuria in 1931; as a result of international condemnation of this occupation, Japan resigned from
the League of Nations two years later. In 1936, Japan signed the Anti-Comintern Pact with Nazi
Germany, and the 1940 Tripartite Pact made it one of the Axis Powers.[39] In 1941, Japan negotiated the
SovietJapanese Neutrality Pact.[40]
The Empire of Japan invaded other parts of China in 1937, precipitating the Second Sino-Japanese War
(19371945). In 1940, the Empire then invaded French Indochina, after which the United States placed
an oil embargo on Japan.[41] On December 7, 1941, Japan attacked the US naval base at Pearl Harbor
and declared war, bringing the US into World War II.[42][43] After the Soviet invasion of Manchuria and
the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945, Japan agreed to an unconditional surrender
on August 15.[44] The war cost Japan and the rest of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere millions
of lives and left much of the nation's industry and infrastructure destroyed. The Allies (led by the US)
repatriated millions of ethnic Japanese from colonies and military camps throughout Asia, largely
eliminating the Japanese empire and restoring the independence of its conquered territories.[45] The
Allies also convened the International Military Tribunal for the Far East on May 3, 1946 to prosecute
some Japanese leaders for war crimes. However, the bacteriological research units and members of the
imperial family involved in the war were exonerated from criminal prosecutions by the Supreme Allied
Commander despite calls for trials for both groups.[46]
In 1947, Japan adopted a new constitution emphasizing liberal democratic practices. The Allied
occupation ended with the Treaty of San Francisco in 1952[47] and Japan was granted membership in the
United Nations in 1956. Japan later achieved rapid growth to become the second-largest economy in
the world. This ended in the mid-1990s when Japan suffered a major recession. In the beginning of the
21st century, positive growth has signaled a gradual economic recovery.[48] On March 11, 2011, Japan
suffered the strongest earthquake in its recorded history; this triggered the Fukushima I nuclear
accidents, one of the worst disasters in the history of nuclear power.[49]
27
Politics
Main articles: Politics of Japan and Government of Japan
Emperor Akihito and Empress Michiko
Japan is a constitutional monarchy where the power of the Emperor is very limited. As a ceremonial
figurehead, he is defined by the constitution as "the symbol of the state and of the unity of the people".
Power is held chiefly by the Prime Minister of Japan and other elected members of the Diet, while
sovereignty is vested in the Japanese people.[50] Akihito is the current Emperor of Japan; Naruhito,
Crown Prince of Japan, stands as next in line to the throne.
Japan's legislative organ is the National Diet, a bicameral parliament. The Diet consists of a House of
Representatives with 480 seats, elected by popular vote every four years or when dissolved, and a
House of Councillors of 242 seats, whose popularly-elected members serve six-year terms. There is
universal suffrage for adults over 20 years of age,[2] with a secret ballot for all elected offices.[50] In
2009, the social liberal Democratic Party of Japan took power after 54 years of the liberal conservative
Liberal Democratic Party's rule.[51] The Prime Minister of Japan is the head of government and is
appointed by the Emperor after being designated by the Diet from among its members. The Prime
Minister is the head of the Cabinet and appoints and dismisses the Ministers of State. Naoto Kan was
designated by the Diet to replace Yukio Hatoyama as the Prime Minister of Japan on June 2, 2010.[52]
Although the Prime Minister is formally appointed by the Emperor, the Constitution of Japan explicitly
requires the Emperor to appoint whoever is designated by the Diet. Emperor Akihito formally
appointed Kan as the country's 94th Prime Minister on June 8.[53]
Historically influenced by Chinese law, the Japanese legal system developed independently during the
Edo period through texts such as Kujikata Osadamegaki.[54] However, since the late 19th century the
judicial system has been largely based on the civil law of Europe, notably Germany. For example, in
1896, the Japanese government established a civil code based on a draft of the German Brgerliches
Gesetzbuch; with postWorld War II modifications, the code remains in effect.[55] Statutory law
originates in Japan's legislature and has the rubber stamp of the Emperor. The Constitution requires that
the Emperor promulgate legislation passed by the Diet, without specifically giving him the power to
28
oppose legislation.[50] Japan's court system is divided into four basic tiers: the Supreme Court and three
levels of lower courts.[56] The main body of Japanese statutory law is called the Six Codes.[57]
Administrative divisions
Main articles: Prefectures of Japan, Regions of Japan, Cities of Japan, Towns of Japan, and
Villages of Japan
Japan consists of forty-seven prefectures, each overseen by an elected governor, legislature and
administrative bureaucracy. Each prefecture is further divided into cities, towns and villages.[58] The
nation is currently undergoing administrative reorganization by merging many of the cities, towns and
villages with each other. This process will reduce the number of sub-prefecture administrative regions
and is expected to cut administrative costs.[59] In the following, the 47 prefectures are listed according to
their regions.
Hokkaido
Thoku
Kant
Chbu
1. Hokkaido
2. Aomori
3. Iwate
4. Miyagi
5. Akita
6. Yamagata
7. Fukushima
8. Ibaraki
9. Tochigi
10. Gunma
11. Saitama
12. Chiba
13. Tokyo
14. Kanagawa
15. Niigata
16. Toyama
17. Ishikawa
18. Fukui
19. Yamanashi
20. Nagano
21. Gifu
22. Shizuoka
23. Aichi
Kansai
Chgoku
Shikoku
Kysh and Okinawa
24. Mie
25. Shiga
26. Kyoto
27. Osaka
28. Hygo
29. Nara
30. Wakayama
31. Tottori
32. Shimane
33. Okayama
34. Hiroshima
35. Yamaguchi
36. Tokushima
37. Kagawa
38. Ehime
39. Kchi
40. Fukuoka
41. Saga
42. Nagasaki
43. Kumamoto
44. ita
45. Miyazaki
46. Kagoshima
29
47. Okinawa
Foreign relations and military
Main articles: Foreign relations of Japan and Japan Self-Defense Forces
Japan is a member of the G8, APEC, and "ASEAN Plus Three", and is a participant in the East Asia
Summit. Japan signed a security pact with Australia in March 2007[60] and with India in October 2008.
[61]
It is the world's third largest donor of official development assistance after the United States and
France, donating US$9.48 billion in 2009.[62]
JDS Kong (DDG-173) launching a Standard Missile 3 anti-ballistic missile
Japan has close economic and military relations with the United States; the US-Japan security alliance
acts as the cornerstone of the nation's foreign policy.[63] A member state of the United Nations since
1956, Japan has served as a non-permanent Security Council member for a total of 19 years, most
recently for 2009 and 2010. It is one of the G4 nations seeking permanent membership in the Security
Council.[64]
Japan is engaged in several territorial disputes with its neighbors: with Russia over the South Kuril
Islands, with South Korea over the Liancourt Rocks, with China and Taiwan over the Senkaku Islands,
and with China over the EEZ around Okinotorishima.[65] Japan also faces an ongoing dispute with
North Korea over the latter's abduction of Japanese citizens and its nuclear weapons and missile
program (see also Six-party talks).[66]
Japan maintains one of the largest military budgets of any country in the world.[67] Japan contributed
non-combatant troops to the Iraq War but subsequently withdrew its forces.[68] The Japan Maritime SelfDefense Force is a regular participant in RIMPAC maritime exercises.[69]
Japan's military is restricted by Article 9 of the Japanese Constitution, which renounces Japan's right to
declare war or use military force in international disputes. Japan's military is governed by the Ministry
30
of Defense, and primarily consists of the Japan Ground Self-Defense Force (JGSDF), the Japan
Maritime Self-Defense Force (JMSDF) and the Japan Air Self-Defense Force (JASDF). The forces
have been recently used in peacekeeping operations; the deployment of troops to Iraq marked the first
overseas use of Japan's military since World War II.[68] Nippon Keidanren has called on the government
to lift the ban on arms exports so that Japan can join multinational projects such as the Joint Strike
Fighter.[70]
Geography
Main articles: Geography of Japan and Geology of Japan
Topographic map
Japan has a total of 6,852 islands extending along the Pacific coast of Asia. The country, including all
of the islands it controls, lies between latitudes 24 and 46N, and longitudes 122 and 146E. The
main islands, from north to south, are Hokkaido, Honsh, Shikoku and Kysh. The Ryukyu Islands,
including Okinawa, are a chain of islands south of Kyush. Together they are often known as the
Japanese Archipelago.[71] About 73 percent of Japan is forested, mountainous, and unsuitable for
agricultural, industrial, or residential use.[2][72] As a result, the habitable zones, mainly located in coastal
areas, have extremely high population densities. Japan is one of the most densely populated countries in
the world.[73]
The islands of Japan are located in a volcanic zone on the Pacific Ring of Fire. They are primarily the
result of large oceanic movements occurring over hundreds of millions of years from the mid-Silurian
to the Pleistocene as a result of the subduction of the Philippine Sea Plate beneath the continental
Amurian Plate and Okinawa Plate to the south, and subduction of the Pacific Plate under the Okhotsk
Plate to the north. Japan was originally attached to the eastern coast of the Eurasian continent. The
subducting plates pulled Japan eastward, opening the Sea of Japan around 15 million years ago.[74]
Japan has 108 active volcanoes. Destructive earthquakes, often resulting in tsunamis, occur several
31
times each century.[75] The 1923 Tokyo earthquake killed over 140,000 people.[76] The most recent major
quakes are the 2004 Chetsu earthquake and the 2011 Thoku earthquake, a 9.0-magnitude[77] quake
which hit Japan on March 11, 2011, and triggered a tsunami.[49]
Climate
Main article: Climate of Japan
The climate of Japan is predominantly temperate, but varies greatly from north to south. Japan's
geographical features divide it into six principal climatic zones: Hokkaido, Sea of Japan, Central
Highland, Seto Inland Sea, Pacific Ocean, and Ryukyu Islands. The northernmost zone, Hokkaido, has
a temperate climate with long, cold winters and cool summers. Precipitation is not heavy, but the
islands usually develop deep snowbanks in the winter. In the Sea of Japan zone on Honsh's west coast,
northwest winter winds bring heavy snowfall. In the summer, the region is cooler than the Pacific area,
though it sometimes experiences extremely hot temperatures because of the foehn wind. The Central
Highland has a typical inland climate, with large temperature differences between summer and winter,
and between day and night; precipitation is light. The mountains of the Chgoku and Shikoku regions
shelter the Seto Inland Sea from seasonal winds, bringing mild weather year-round. The Pacific coast
experiences cold winters with little snowfall and hot, humid summers because of the southeast seasonal
wind. The Ryukyu Islands have a subtropical climate, with warm winters and hot summers.
Precipitation is very heavy, especially during the rainy season.[78]
The average winter temperature in Japan is 5.1 C (41.2 F) and the average summer temperature is
25.2 C (77.4 F).[79] The highest temperature ever measured in Japan40.9 C (105.6 F)was
recorded on August 16, 2007.[80] The main rainy season begins in early May in Okinawa, and the rain
front gradually moves north until reaching Hokkaido in late July. In most of Honsh, the rainy season
begins before the middle of June and lasts about six weeks. In late summer and early autumn, typhoons
often bring heavy rain.[81]
Biodiversity
Sakura (Cherry blossom)
32
Japan has nine forest ecoregions which reflect the climate and geography of the islands. They range
from subtropical moist broadleaf forests in the Ryky and Bonin islands, to temperate broadleaf and
mixed forests in the mild climate regions of the main islands, to temperate coniferous forests in the
cold, winter portions of the northern islands.[82] Japan has over 90,000 species of wildlife, including the
brown bear, the Japanese macaque, the raccoon dog, and the Japanese giant salamander.[83]
Environment
Main article: Environmental issues in Japan
In the period of rapid economic growth after World War II, environmental policies were downplayed by
the government and industrial corporations; as a result, environmental pollution was widespread in the
1950s and 1960s. Responding to rising concern about the problem, the government introduced several
environmental protection laws in 1970.[84] The oil crisis in 1973 also encouraged the efficient use of
energy due to Japan's lack of natural resources.[85] Current environmental issues include urban air
pollution (NOx, suspended particulate matter, and toxics), waste management, water eutrophication,
nature conservation, climate change, chemical management and international co-operation for
conservation.[86]
Japan is one of the world's leaders in the development of new environment-friendly technologies, and is
ranked 20th best in the world in the 2010 Environmental Performance Index.[87] As a signatory of the
Kyoto Protocol, and host of the 1997 conference which created it, Japan is under treaty obligation to
reduce its carbon dioxide emissions and to take other steps to curb climate change.[88]
Economy
Main article: Economy of Japan
The Tokyo Stock Exchange
33
From 1868, the Meiji period launched economic expansion in Japan as Meiji rulers embraced the
market economy.[89] Many of today's enterprises were founded at the time, and Japan emerged as the
most developed nation in Asia.[90] The period of overall real economic growth from the 1960s to the
1980s has been called a "Japanese miracle": it averaged 7.5 percent in the 1960s and 1970s, and 3.2
percent in the 1980s and early 1990s.[91] Growth slowed markedly in the 1990s during what the
Japanese call the Lost Decade, largely because of the after-effects of the Japanese asset price bubble
and domestic policies intended to wring speculative excesses from the stock and real estate markets.
Government efforts to revive economic growth met with little success and were further hampered by
the global slowdown in 2000.[2] The economy showed strong signs of recovery after 2005; GDP growth
for that year was 2.8 percent, surpassing the growth rates of the US and European Union during the
same period.[92]
As of 2010, Japan is the third largest national economy in the world, after the United States and China,
in terms of both nominal GDP and purchasing power parity.[93][94] As of January 2011, Japan's public
debt was more than 200 percent of its annual gross domestic product, the largest of any nation in the
world. The service sector accounts for three quarters of the gross domestic product.[95] Japan has a large
industrial capacity, and is home to some of the largest and most technologically advanced producers of
motor vehicles, electronics, machine tools, steel and nonferrous metals, ships, chemical substances,
textiles, and processed foods. Agricultural businesses in Japan cultivate 13 percent of Japan's land, and
Japan accounts for nearly 15 percent of the global fish catch, second only to China.[2] As of 2010,
Japan's labor force consisted of some 65.9 million workers.[96] Japan has a low unemployment rate of
around four percent. Almost one in six Japanese, or 20 million people, lived in poverty in 2007.[97]
Housing in Japan is characterized by limited land supply in urban areas.[98]
Toyota, one of the world's largest automakers. Japan is the second-largest producer of
automobiles in the world.[99]
Japan's exports amounted to US$4,210 per capita in 2005. Japan's main export markets are China
(18.88 percent), the United States (16.42 percent), South Korea (8.13 percent), Taiwan (6.27 percent)
and Hong Kong (5.49 percent) as of 2009. Its main exports are transportation equipment, motor
vehicles, electronics, electrical machinery and chemicals.[2] Japan's main import markets as of 2009 are
China (22.2 percent), the US (10.96 percent), Australia (6.29 percent), Saudi Arabia (5.29 percent),
United Arab Emirates (4.12 percent), South Korea (3.98 percent) and Indonesia (3.95 percent). Its main
imports are machinery and equipment, fossil fuels, foodstuffs (in particular beef), chemicals, textiles
34
and raw materials for its industries.[100] By market share measures, domestic markets are the least open
of any OECD country.[101] Junichiro Koizumi's administration began some pro-competition reforms, and
foreign investment in Japan has soared.[102]
Japan ranks 12th of 178 countries in the 2008 Ease of Doing Business Index and has one of the smallest
tax revenues of the developed world. The Japanese variant of capitalism has many distinct features:
keiretsu enterprises are influential, and lifetime employment and seniority-based career advancement
are relatively common in the Japanese work environment.[101][103] Japanese companies are known for
management methods like "The Toyota Way", and shareholder activism is rare.[104] Some of the largest
enterprises in Japan include Toyota, Nintendo, NTT DoCoMo, Canon, Honda, Takeda Pharmaceutical,
Sony, Panasonic, Toshiba, Sharp, Nippon Steel, Nippon Oil, and Seven & I Holdings Co.[105] It has
some of the world's largest banks, and the Tokyo Stock Exchange (known for its Nikkei 225 and Topix
indices) stands as the second largest in the world by market capitalization.[106] Japan is home to 326
companies from the Forbes Global 2000 or 16.3 percent (as of 2006).[107]
Science and technology
Main article: Science and technology in Japan
H-II Transfer Vehicle
Japan is a leading nation in scientific research, particularly technology, machinery and biomedical
research. Nearly 700,000 researchers share a US$130 billion research and development budget, the
third largest in the world.[108] Japan is a world leader in fundamental scientific research, having
produced fifteen Nobel laureates in either physics, chemistry or medicine,[109] three Fields medalists,[110]
and one Gauss Prize laureate.[111] Some of Japan's more prominent technological contributions are in the
fields of electronics, automobiles, machinery, earthquake engineering, industrial robotics, optics,
chemicals, semiconductors and metals. Japan leads the world in robotics production and use, possessing
more than half (402,200 of 742,500) of the world's industrial robots.[112]
The Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) is Japan's space agency; it conducts space, planetary,
and aviation research, and leads development of rockets and satellites. It is a participant in the
International Space Station: the Japanese Experiment Module (Kibo) was added to the station during
35
Space Shuttle assembly flights in 2008.[113] Japan's plans in space exploration include: launching a space
probe to Venus, Akatsuki;[114][115] developing the Mercury Magnetospheric Orbiter to be launched in
2013;[116][117] and building a moon base by 2030.[118] On September 14, 2007, it launched lunar explorer
"SELENE" (Selenological and Engineering Explorer) on an H-IIA (Model H2A2022) carrier rocket
from Tanegashima Space Center. SELENE is also known as Kaguya, after the lunar princess of The
Tale of the Bamboo Cutter.[119] Kaguya is the largest lunar mission since the Apollo program. Its
purpose is to gather data on the moon's origin and evolution. It entered a lunar orbit on October 4,[120]
[121]
flying at an altitude of about 100 km (62 mi).[122] The probe's mission was ended when it was
deliberately crashed by JAXA into the Moon on 11 June 2009.[123]
Infrastructure
Main articles: Energy in Japan and Transport in Japan
Shinkansen or Bullet trains are a popular form of transport in Japan.[124]
As of 2008, 46.4 percent of energy in Japan is produced from petroleum, 21.4 percent from coal, 16.7
percent from natural gas, 9.7 percent from nuclear power, and 2.9 percent from hydro power. Nuclear
power produces 22.5 percent of Japan's electricity.[125] Given its heavy dependence on imported energy,
[126]
Japan has aimed to diversify its sources and maintain high levels of energy efficiency.[127]
Japan's road spending has been extensive.[128] Its 1.2 million kilometers of paved road are the main
means of transportation.[129] A single network of high-speed, divided, limited-access toll roads connects
major cities and is operated by toll-collecting enterprises. New and used cars are inexpensive; car
ownership fees and fuel levies are used to promote energy efficiency. However, at just 50 percent of all
distance traveled, car usage is the lowest of all G8 countries.[130]
Dozens of Japanese railway companies compete in regional and local passenger transportation markets;
major companies include seven JR enterprises, Kintetsu Corporation, Seibu Railway and Keio
Corporation. Some 250 high-speed Shinkansen trains connect major cities. Japanese trains are known
for their punctuality.[131] There are 173 airports in Japan; the largest domestic airport, Haneda Airport, is
Asia's second-busiest airport.[132] The largest international gateways are Narita International Airport,
36
Kansai International Airport and Chbu Centrair International Airport.[133] Nagoya Port is the country's
largest and busiest port, accounting for 10 percent of Japan's trade value.[134]
Demographics
Main articles: Demographics of Japan, Japanese people, and Racial issues in Japan
Japan's population is estimated at around 127.3 million.[2] Japanese society is linguistically and
culturally homogeneous with small populations of foreign workers.[135] Zainichi Koreans,[136] Zainichi
Chinese, Filipinos, Japanese Brazilians,[137] and Japanese Peruvians are among the small minority
groups in Japan.[138] In 2003, there were about 136,000 Western expatriates.[139] The most dominant
native ethnic group is the Yamato people; primary minority groups include the indigenous Ainu[140] and
Ryukyuan peoples, as well as social minority groups like the burakumin.[141]
Japan has the longest life expectancy rate in the world.[13][14] The Japanese population is rapidly aging as
a result of a postWorld War II baby boom followed by a decrease in birth rates. In 2009, about 22.7
percent of the population was over 65, by 2050 almost 40 percent of the population will be aged 65 and
over, as projected in December 2006.[142] The changes in demographic structure have created a number
of social issues, particularly a potential decline in workforce population and increase in the cost of
social security benefits like the public pension plan. A growing number of younger Japanese are
preferring not to marry or have families.[143] Japan's population is expected to drop to 95 million by
2050,[142] demographers and government planners are currently in a heated debate over how to cope
with this problem.[143] Immigration and birth incentives are sometimes suggested as a solution to
provide younger workers to support the nation's aging population.[144][145] Japan has a steady flow of
about 15,000 immigrants per year.[146] According to the UNHCR, in 2007 Japan accepted just 41
refugees for resettlement, while the US took in 50,000.[147]
Japan suffers from a high suicide rate.[148][149] In 2009, the number of suicides exceeded 30,000 for the
twelfth straight year.[150] Suicide is the leading cause of death for people under 30.[151]
view talk edit view talk edit Largest
2010 Census[152]
Ra City Prefe
Ra
Pop.
nk Name cture
nk
Tokyo
1 Tokyo Tokyo
City
Name
cities of Japan
Prefec
Pop.
ture
8,949,
Hiroshim Hiroshi 1,174,
11
447
a
ma
209
2 Yokoh Kanag 3,689, 12 Sendai

ama awa
603
37
Miyagi 1,045,
903
Osaka
3 Osaka Osaka
2,666,
Kitakys Fukuok 977,2
13
371
h
a
88
Nagoy
Aichi
a
2,263,
14 Chiba
907
Chiba
962,1
30
Sappo Hokkai 1,914,

15 Sakai
ro
d
434
Osaka
842,1
34
Niigata
812,1
92
6 Kbe Hygo
1,544,
16 Niigata
873
7 Kyto Kyto
1,474,
Hamama Shizuo 800,9
17
473
tsu
ka
12
Yokohama
Fukuo Fukuok 1,463,

[[{{{city Kuma
18
ka
a
826
_18}}}]] moto
734,2
94
Kawa Kanag 1,425,

Sagamih Kanag 717,5
19
saki
awa
678
ara
awa
61
10
Saita Saitam 1,222,

Shizuo 716,3
20 Shizuoka
ma
a
910
ka
28
Nagoya
Religion
Main article: Religion in Japan
Shinto Itsukushima Shrine UNESCO World Heritage Site
The highest estimates suggest that 8496 percent of the Japanese population are Buddhists or
Shintoists, including a large number of believers in a syncretism of both religions.[2][153] However, these
estimates are based on people associated with a temple, rather than the number of people truly
following the religion. Professor Robert Kisala (Nanzan University) suggests that only 30 percent of
the population identify themselves as belonging to a religion.[154] Taoism and Confucianism from China
have also influenced Japanese beliefs and customs.[155] Religion in Japan tends to be syncretic in nature.
38
Less than one percent of Japanese are Christian.[156] In addition, since the mid-19th century numerous
religious sects (Shinshky) have emerged in Japan.[157]
Languages
Main article: Japanese language
More than 99 percent of the population speaks Japanese as their first language.[2] It is an agglutinative
language distinguished by a system of honorifics reflecting the hierarchical nature of Japanese society,
with verb forms and particular vocabulary indicating the relative status of speaker and listener. Japanese
writing uses kanji (Chinese characters) and two sets of kana (syllabaries based on simplified Chinese
characters), as well as the Latin alphabet and Arabic numerals.[158]
Besides Japanese, the Ryukyuan languages, also part of the Japonic language family, are spoken in
Okinawa; however, few children learn these languages.[159] The Ainu language, which is unrelated to
Japanese or any other known language, is moribund, with only a few elderly native speakers remaining
in Hokkaido.[160] Most public and private schools require students to take courses in both Japanese and
English.[161]
Education
Main articles: Education in Japan and Health care in Japan
The Yasuda Auditorium of University of Tokyo
Primary schools, secondary schools and universities were introduced in 1872 as a result of the Meiji
Restoration.[162] Since 1947, compulsory education in Japan comprises elementary and middle school,
which together last for nine years (from age 6 to age 15). Almost all children continue their education at
a three-year senior high school, and, according to the MEXT, as of 2005 about 75.9 percent of high
school graduates attend a university, junior college, trade school, or other higher education institution.
[163]
The two top-ranking universities in Japan are the University of Tokyo and Kyoto University.[164][165]
The Programme for International Student Assessment coordinated by the OECD currently ranks the
overall knowledge and skills of Japanese 15-year-olds as sixth best in the world.[166]
39
Health
In Japan, health care is provided by national and local governments. Payment for personal medical
services is offered through a universal health insurance system that provides relative equality of access,
with fees set by a government committee. People without insurance through employers can participate
in a national health insurance program administered by local governments. Since 1973, all elderly
persons have been covered by government-sponsored insurance.[167] Patients are free to select the
physicians or facilities of their choice.[168]
Culture
The Temple of the Golden Pavilion (Kinkaku-ji)

Main article: Culture of Japan
Japanese culture has evolved greatly from the country's original Jmon arts to its contemporary culture,
which combines influences from Asia, Europe and North America. Traditional Japanese arts include
crafts (ikebana, origami, dolls, lacquerware, pottery, ceramics), folklore, performances (bunraku,
dance, kabuki, noh, rakugo), and traditions (games, tea ceremony, Bud, architecture, gardens, katana).
Art
Main articles: Japanese art and Japanese aesthetics
The Great Wave off Kanagawa, by Hokusai
Japanese painting is one of the oldest of the Japanese arts, with early figurative paintings dating back to
at least 300 BC. The history of Japanese painting exhibits synthesis and competition between native
Japanese aesthetics and adaptation of imported ideas. The interaction between Japanese and European
40
art has been significant: for example ukiyo-e prints, which began to be exported in the 19th century in a
movement known as Japonism, had a significant influence on the development of modern art in the
West, most notably on post-Impressionism.[169] Famous ukiyo-e artists included Hokusai and Hiroshige.
The fusion of traditional woodblock printing and Western art led to the creation of manga, a comic
book format that is now popular within and outside Japan.[170] Manga-influenced animation for
television and film is called anime. Japanese-made video game consoles have been popular since the
1980s.[171]
Music
Main article: Music of Japan
Japanese music is eclectic and diverse. Many instruments, such as the koto, were introduced in the 9th
and 10th centuries. The accompanied recitative of the Noh drama dates from the 14th century and the
popular folk music, with the guitar-like shamisen, from the sixteenth.[172] Western classical music,
introduced in the late 19th century, now forms an integral part of Japanese culture. The imperial court
ensemble Gagaku has influenced the work of some modern Western composers.[173] Notable classical
composers from Japan include Toru Takemitsu and Rentaro Taki. Popular music in post-war Japan has
been heavily influenced by American and European trends, which has led to the evolution of J-pop, or
Japanese popular music.[174] Karaoke is the most widely practiced cultural activity in Japan. A 1993
survey by the Cultural Affairs Agency found that more Japanese had sung karaoke that year than had
participated in traditional pursuits such as flower arranging (ikebana) or tea ceremonies.[175]
Literature
Main article: Japanese literature
A 12th century illustrated handscroll of The Tale of the Genji
The earliest works of Japanese literature include the Kojiki and the Nihon Shoki, and the 8th-century
poetry book Man'ysh, all written in Chinese characters.[176] In the early days of the Heian period, the
system of transcription known as kana (Hiragana and Katakana) was created as phonograms. The Tale
of the Bamboo Cutter is considered the oldest Japanese narrative.[177] An account of Heian court life is
given by The Pillow Book by Sei Shnagon, while The Tale of Genji by Murasaki Shikibu is often
described as the world's first novel.[178][179]
41
During the Edo period, the chnin ("townspeople") overtook the samurai aristocracy as producers and
consumers of literature. The popularity of Yomihon, for example, reveals this change in readership and
authorship. The Meiji era saw the decline of traditional literary forms, during which Japanese literature
integrated Western influences. Natsume Sseki and Mori gai were the first "modern" novelists of
Japan, followed by Rynosuke Akutagawa, Jun'ichir Tanizaki, Yasunari Kawabata, Yukio Mishima
and, more recently, Haruki Murakami. Japan has two Nobel Prize-winning authorsYasunari
Kawabata (1968) and Kenzaburo Oe (1994).[177]
A traditional Japanese breakfast

Cuisine
Main article: Japanese cuisine
Historically, the primary ingredient of Japanese cuisine has been Japanese rice. In the early modern era
ingredients such as red meats that had previously not been widely used in Japan were introduced.
Japanese cuisine offers a vast array of regional specialties, known as kydo ryri (), many
originating from dishes prepared using traditional recipes with local ingredients. The Michelin Guide
has awarded Japanese cities more Michelin stars than the rest of the world combined.[180]
Sports
Main article: Sport in Japan
Sumo wrestlers competing in Tokyo
42
Traditionally, sumo is considered Japan's national sport.[181] Japanese martial arts such as judo, karate
and kendo are also widely practiced and enjoyed by spectators in the country. After the Meiji
Restoration, many Western sports were introduced in Japan and began to spread through the education
system.[182] Japan hosted the Summer Olympics in Tokyo in 1964. Japan has hosted the Winter
Olympics twice: Nagano in 1998 and Sapporo in 1972.[183]
The Japanese professional baseball league was established in 1936.[184] Today baseball is the most
popular spectator sport in the country. One of the most famous Japanese baseball players is Ichiro
Suzuki, who plays for the Seattle Mariners.[185] Sadaharu Oh was well-known outside Japan, having hit
more home runs during his career in Japan than Hank Aaron in the US.[186] Since the establishment of
the Japan Professional Football League in 1992, association football has also gained a wide following.
[187]
Japan was a venue of the Intercontinental Cup from 1981 to 2004 and co-hosted the 2002 FIFA
World Cup with South Korea.[188] Japan has one of the most successful football teams in Asia, winning
the Asian Cup four times.[189] Golf is also popular in Japan,[190] as are forms of auto racing like the Super
GT series and Formula Nippon.[191]
See also
France
This article is about the country. For other uses, see France (disambiguation).
French Republic
Rpublique franaise[1]
Flag
National Emblem
(unofficial)
Motto:
Libert, galit, Fraternit
43
(Liberty, Equality, Fraternity)

Anthem: "La Marseillaise"
Location of Metropolitan France (dark green)

on the European continent (green & dark grey)
in the European Union (green) [Legend]
Territory of the French Republic in the world

(excl. Antarctica where sovereignty is suspended)
Capital
Paris
4851.4N 221.05E /
(and largest city)

48.8567N 2.35083E /
Official
French
44
language(s)
Regional
languages
[show]
(both official
and not official)
Demonym
Government
French
Unitary semi-presidential
republic
-President
Nicolas Sarkozy (UMP)
-Prime Minister
Franois Fillon (UMP)
Legislature
Parliament
-Upper House
Senate
-Lower House
National Assembly
Formation
-Francia
-West Francia
486 (Unification by
Clovis)
843 (Treaty of Verdun)
Current constitutio 5 October 1958 (5th

n
Republic)
EU accession
25 March 1957
Area
-Total[3]
674,843 km2 (41st)
45
260,558 sq mi
-Metropolitan France
- IGN
551,695 km2 (47th)
[4]
213,010 sq mi
543,965 km2 (47th)
- Cadastre[5]
210,026 sq mi
Population
(1 January 2011 estimate)

-Total[3]
Metropolitan Franc
e
-Density[8]
GDP (PPP)
65,821,885[7] (20th)
63,136,180[6] (22nd)
116/km2 (89th)
301/sq mi
2010 estimate
-Total
$2.146 trillion[9]
-Per capita
$34,092[9]
GDP (nominal)
2010 estimate
-Total
$2.555 trillion[9]
-Per capita
$40,591[9]
Gini (2008)
HDI (2010)
32.7[10]
0.872[11] (very high) (14t
h)
46
Currency
Time zone
-Summer (DST)
Euro,[12] CFP franc[13]

(EUR,
XPF)
CET[8] (UTC+1)
CEST[8] (UTC+2)
Drives on the
right
ISO 3166 code
FR
Internet TLD
.fr[14]
Calling code
331
The overseas regions and collectivities form part of the

French telephone numbering plan, but have their own
country calling codes: Guadeloupe +590; Martinique
1
+596; French Guiana +594, Runion and Mayotte +262;

Saint Pierre and Miquelon +508. The overseas territories
are not part of the French telephone numbering plan;
their country calling codes are: New Caledonia +687,
French Polynesia +689; Wallis and Futuna +681
Spoken mainly in overseas territories
France ( i /frns/ franss or /frns/ frahnss; French pronunciation (helpinfo): [f s]),

officially the French Republic (French: Rpublique franaise, pronounced: [epyblik f sz]), is a
unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands
located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans.[15] Metropolitan France
extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, and from the Rhine to
the Atlantic Ocean. It is often referred to as lHexagone ("The Hexagon") because of the geometric
shape of its territory[citation needed]. It is bordered (clockwise starting from the northeast) by Belgium,
Luxembourg, Germany, Switzerland, Italy and Monaco; with Spain and Andorra to the south. France is
linked to the United Kingdom by the Channel Tunnel, which passes underneath the English Channel. In
addition to these borders on the European continent France has land borders with Suriname and Brazil
through French Guiana, as well as with the Netherlands through the Collectivity of Saint Martin. It is
the largest west-European country and it possesses the second-largest Exclusive Economic Zone in the
47
world, covering 11,035,000 km2 (4,260,000 sq mi), just behind that of the United States
(11,351,000 km2 / 4,383,000 sq mi).
Over the past 500 years,[16] France has been a major power with strong cultural, economic, military and
political influence in Europe and in the world. During the 17th and 18th centuries, France colonised
great parts of North America and South Asia; during the 19th and early 20th centuries, France built the
second largest empire of the time, including large portions of North, West and Central Africa, Southeast
Asia, and many Caribbean and Pacific Islands.
France has its main ideals expressed in the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. The
French Republic is defined as indivisible, secular, democratic and social by its constitution.[17] France is
one of the world's most developed countries[18] and possesses the world's fifth largest and Europe's
second largest economy by nominal GDP.[19] France is the wealthiest European (and the world's 4th)
nation[20] in aggregate household wealth. France enjoys a high standard of living as well as a high public
education level, and has also one of the world's highest life expectancies.[21] France has been listed as
the world's "best overall health care" provider by the World Health Organization.[22] It is the most
visited country in the world, receiving 82 million foreign tourists annually.[23]
France has the world's fourth largest nominal military budget, the third largest military in NATO and
EU's largest army. France also possesses the third largest nuclear weapons stockpile in the world[24]with ~300 active warheads as of 25 May 2010- and the world's second largest diplomatic corps (only
second to the one of the United States).[25]
France is a founding member of the United Nations, one of the five permanent members of the UN
Security Council, and a member of the Francophonie, the G8, G20, NATO, OECD, WTO, and the Latin
Union. It is also a founding and leading member state of the European Union and the largest one by
area.[26] In 2010, France was listed 14th on the Human Development Index and 24th on the Corruption
Perceptions Index.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
o
1.1 Etymology
1.2 Prehistory and Antiquity
1.3 Middle Age to Revolution
1.4 Monarchy to Republic
48
2 Geography
o
2.1 Environment
2.2 Administrative divisions
2.3 Overseas regions and territories
3 Politics
o
3.1 Government
3.2 Law
3.3 Foreign relations
3.4 Development aid
3.5 Military
4 Economy
o
4.1 Agriculture
4.2 Labour market
4.3 Tourism
4.4 Transport
5 Demographics
o
5.1 Language
5.2 Religion
5.3 Health
5.4 Education
6 Culture
o
6.1 Painting
6.2 Architecture
49
6.3 Literature
6.4 Music
6.5 Cinema
6.6 Fashion
6.7 Media
6.8 Society
6.9 Cuisine
6.10 Sports
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
History
Main article: History of France
See also: Military history of France, Economic history of France, and Territorial formation
of France
Etymology
Main article: Name of France
See also: List of country name etymologies
The name "France" comes from the Latin Francia, which means "country of the Franks".[27] There are
various theories as to the origin of the name of the Franks. One is that it is derived from the ProtoGermanic word frankon which translates as javelin or lance as the throwing axe of the Franks was
known as a francisca.[28] Another proposed etymology is that in an ancient Germanic language, Frank
means free as opposed to slave.
However, it is also possible that the word is derived from the ethnic name of the Franks because, as the
conquering class, only the Franks had the status of freemen.[citation needed] In German (and other Germanic
languages, such as Scandinavian languages and Dutch), France is still called "Realm of the Franks"
50
(Frankreich, Frankrike, Frankrige). In order to distinguish from the Frankish Empire of Charlemagne,
Modern France is called Frankreich in German, while the Frankish Realm is called Frankenreich.
Prehistory and Antiquity
Main articles: Prehistory of France, Gaul, and Roman Gaul
One of the paintings of Lascaux which represents a horse (Dordogne, approximately

18,000 BC).
The oldest traces of human life, in what is now France, date from approximately 1,800,000 years ago.
[29]
Men were then confronted by a hard and variable climate, marked by several glacial eras which
modified their framework of life and led them to a nomadic life of hunters-gatherers.[29] France counts a
large number of decorated caves from the upper Paleolithic era, including one of the most famous and
best preserved: Lascaux[29] (Dordogne, approximately 18,000 BC).
At the end of the Last glacial period (10.000 BC), the climate softened[29] and from approximately 7,000
BC, this part of Western Europe entered the Neolithic era and its inhabitants became sedentary. After a
strong demographic and agricultural development between the 4th and 3rd millennia, metallurgy
appeared at the end of the 3rd millennium, initially with the work of gold, copper and bronze, and later
with iron.[30] France counts numerous megalithic sites from the Neolithic period, including the
exceptionally dense Carnac stones site in Brittany (c. 3,300 BC).
In 600 BC, Ionian Greeks, originating from Phocaea, founded the colony of Massalia (present-day
Marseille), on the shores of the Mediterranean Sea, making it the oldest city of France.[31][32] At the same
time, some Gallic Celtic tribes penetrated some parts of the current territory of France, but this
occupation spread in the rest of France only between the 5th and 3rd century BC.[33]
The concept of Gaul emerged at that time; it corresponds to the territories of Celtic settlement ranging
between the Rhine, the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea. The borders of modern France are
approximately the same as those of ancient Gaul, which was inhabited by Celtic Gauls. Gaul was then a
prosperous country of which the southernmost part was heavily subject to Greek and Roman
51
influences. However, around 390 BC, the Gallic chieftain Brennus made his own way through the Alps,
defeated the Romans in the Battle of the Allia and sacked Rome for several months. The Gallic
invasion left Rome weakened and encouraged several subdued Italian tribes to rebel. One by one, over
the course of the next 50 years, these tribes were defeated and brought back under Roman dominion.
Meanwhile, the Gauls would continue to harass the region until 345 BC, when they entered into a
formal treaty with Rome. But Romans and Gauls would maintain an adversarial relationship for the
next several centuries and the Gauls would remain a threat in Italia.
Gallic tribes before the Roman conquest
Around 125 BC, the south of Gaul was conquered by the Romans who called this region Provincia
Romana ("Roman Province"), which evolved into the name Provence in French.[34] The sacking of
Rome was still remembered by Romans, when Julius Caesar conquered the remainder of Gaul, and
overcame a revolt carried out by the Gallic chieftain Vercingetorix in 52 BC.[35]
The Maison Carre was a temple of the Gallo-Roman city of Nemausus (present-day
Nmes) and is one of the best preserved vestiges of the Roman Empire
52
Gaul was divided by Augustus into Roman provinces, the principal ones being Gallia Narbonensis in
the south, Gallia Aquitania in the south-west, Gallia Lugdunensis in the center and Gallia Belgica in the
north.[36] Many cities were founded during the Gallo-Roman period, including Lugdunum (present-day
Lyon), which is considered to be the capital of the Gauls.[37] These cities were built in the traditional
Roman style, with a forum, a theatre, a circus, an amphitheatre and thermal baths. The Gauls mixed
with Roman settlers and eventually adopted Roman speech (Latin, from which the French language
evolved) and Roman culture. The Roman polytheism merged with the Gallic paganism into the same
syncretism.
Around the 3rd century AD, Roman Gaul underwent a serious crisis with its "limes" (fortified borders
protecting the Empire) crossed on several occasions by Barbarians.[38] The weakness of the central
imperial power, at this time, led Gallo-Roman leaders to proclaim the independence of the short-lived
Gallic Empire,[39] which ended with the Battle of Chlons in 274, which saw Gaul reincorporated in the
Roman Empire.
Nevertheless, the situation improved in the first half of the 4th century AD, which was a period of
revival and prosperity for Roman Gaul.[40] In 312, the emperor Constantin I converted to Christianity.
Christians, persecuted until then, multiplied across the entire Roman Empire.[41] But, from the second
half of the 4th century AD, the Barbarian Invasions started again,[42] and Germanic tribes, such as the
Vandals, Suebi and Alans crossed the Rhine and settled in Gaul, Spain and other parts of the collapsing
Roman Empire.[43] At the end of the Antiquity period, ancient Gaul was divided into several Germanic
kingdoms and some remaining Gallo-Roman territories, notably the Kingdom of Syagrius.
Middle Age to Revolution
Main articles: France in the Middle Ages, Absolute monarchy in France, Ancien Rgime in
France, Early modern France, and List of French monarchs
Frankish expansion from the early Clovis I' kingdom (481) to the divisions of
Charlemagne's Empire (843/870).
53
French territorial gains (green) and losses (red) from 985 to present-day (Overseas
possessions not shown, see below)
The pagan Franks, from whom the ancient name of Francie was derived, originally settled the NorthEast of Gaul, but conquered most of northern and central Gaul, under Clovis I. The Frankish King
Clovis I was the first Germanic conquerors after the fall of the Roman Empire to convert, in 498, to
Catholic Christianity, rather than Arianism; thus France obtained the title Eldest daughter of the
Church (La fille ane de lglise) from the papacy,[44] and the French kings would adopt this as
justification for calling their country the Most Christian Kingdom of France, until the French
Revolution. The Franks embraced the Christian Gallo-Roman heritage, and ancient Gaul was
progressively renamed Francia ("Land of the Franks"). The Germanic Franks adopted Romanic
languages, except in northern Gaul where Roman settlements were less dense and where Germanic
languages emerged. Clovis made Paris his capital and established the Merovingian dynasty but his
kingdom would not survive his death. The Franks treated land purely as a private possession and
divided it among their heirs, so four kingdoms emerged: Paris, Orlans, Soissons, and Rheims. The last
Merovingian kings, sometimes referred as Rois fainants ("lazy kings"), lost effective power to their
mayors of the palace.
The mayor of the palace, Charles Martel, defeated a Muslim invasion from Hispania at the Battle of
Tours (732) and earned respect and power within the Frankish Kingdoms. His son Pepin the Short
eventually seized the crown of Francia from the discredited Merovingians and founded the Carolingian
dynasty. Pippin's son, Charlemagne reunited the Frankish Kingdoms and built a vast empire across
Western and Central Europe.
54
Joan of Arc led the French army to several important victories during the Hundred Years'
War which paved the way for the final victory.
Proclaimed "Roman Emperor" by the Pope, Charlemagne tried to revive the Western Roman Empire
and its cultural grandeur, from its Palace of Aachen. The efficient administration of this immense
empire was ensured by high civil servants, carrying the, still non-hereditary, titles of counts (in charge
of a County), marquis (in charge of a March), dukes (military commanders), etc.
Charlemagne's son Louis I (emperor 814840) kept the empire united; however, this Carolingian
Empire would not survive Louis I's death. The Empire was divided between Louis' three sons, with the
Treaty of Verdun (843), into East Francia to Louis the German, Middle Francia to Lothair I and West
Francia to Charles the Bald. Western Francia approximated the area occupied by modern France and
was the precursor to modern France.[45] Constantly threatened by Viking invasions, France became a
very decentralised state: the nobility's titles and lands became hereditary, the authority of the king
became more religious than effective and constantly challenged by powerful noblemen. Thus was
established feudalism in France. Some of the king's vassals would grow so powerful that they would
become a threat to the king. By example, after the Battle of Hastings, in 1066, the Duke of Normandy
added "King of England" to his titles, becoming vassal (as Duke of Normandy) and equal (as king of
England) to the king of France.
The Carolingian dynasty ruled France until 987, when Hugh Capet, Duke of France and Count of Paris,
was crowned King of France.[46] His descendants, the Direct Capetians, the House of Valois and the
House of Bourbon, progressively unified the country through a series of wars, such as the Saintonge
War, and dynastic inheritance into a Kingdom of France. The Albigensian Crusade was launched in
1209 to eliminate the heretical Cathars in the south-western area of modern-day France. In the end, the
Cathars were exterminated and the autonomous County of Toulouse was annexed.[47] Later Kings
expanded their territory to cover over half of modern continental France, including most of the North,
Centre and West of France. French knights took also an active part in the various Crusades that were
55
fought, between 1095 and 1291, to restore Christian control over the Holy Land. Meanwhile, the royal
authority became more and more assertive, centred around a hierarchically conceived society
distinguishing nobility, clergy, and commoners.
The St. Bartholomew's Day massacre (1572) during the French Wars of Religion.
Charles IV (The Fair) died without an heir in 1328.[48] Under the rules of the Salic law adopted in 1316,
the crown of France could not pass to a woman, nor could the line of kinship pass through the female
line.[48] Accordingly, the crown passed to the cousin of Charles, Philip of Valois, rather than through the
female line to Charles' nephew, Edward, who would soon become Edward III of England. In the reign
of Philip of Valois, the French monarchy reached the height of its medieval power.[48] However, Philip's
seat on the throne was contested by Edward III of England and in 1337, on the eve of the first wave of
the Black Death,[49] England and France went to war in what would become known as the Hundred
Years' War.[50] The exact boundaries changed greatly with time, but French landholdings of the English
Kings remained extensive for decades. With charismatic leaders, such as Joan of Arc and La Hire,
strong French counterattacks won back all English continental territories, except Calais which was
captured in 1558 by the French. Like the rest of Europe, France was struck by the Black Death. Around
1340, France had a population of about 17 million,[51] which by the end of the pandemic had declined
by about one-half.[52]
56
Louis XIV of France, the "sun king" was the absolute monarch of France and made France
the leading European power.
The French Renaissance saw a long set of wars, known as the Italian Wars, between the Kingdom of
France and the powerful Holy Roman Empire It saw also the first standardization of the French
language, which would become the official language of France and the language of Europe's
aristocracy. French explorers, such as Jacques Cartier or Samuel de Champlain, claimed lands in the
Americas for France, paving the way for the expansion of the First French colonial empire. The rise of
Protestantism in Europe led France to a civil war known as the French Wars of Religion, where, in the
most notorious incident, thousands of Huguenots were murdered in the St. Bartholomew's Day
massacre of 1572.[53] The wars of Religion were ended in France by Henry IV's Edict of Nantes which
granted some freedom of religion to the Huguenots. Henry IV was eventually murdered by a Catholic
fanatic.
The monarchy reached its height during the 17th century and the reign of Louis XIV. By turning
powerful feudal lords into courtiers in Versailles, Louis XIV's personal power became unchallenged.
Remembered for his numerous wars, he made France the leading European power. At this time, France
possessed the largest population in Europe (see Demographics of France) and had tremendous influence
over European politics, economy, and culture. Since the 18th century, French was the most used
language in diplomacy, science, literature and international affairs, until the emergence of the USA in
the 20th century.[54] In addition, France obtained many overseas possessions in the Americas, Africa and
Asia.
Under Louis XV, while the continental territory of France kept growing, with notable acquisitions such
as Lorraine (1766) and Corsica (1770), most of its overseas possessions were lost after the French
defeat during the Seven Years' War, which ended in 1763.
Louis XVI actively supported the Americans seeking independence from Great Britain (realized in the
1783 Treaty of Paris). The example of the American Revolution was one of the many contributing
factors to the French Revolution.
Much of the Enlightenment occurred in French intellectual circles, and major scientific breakthroughs
and inventions, such as the automobile (1771) and the first hot air balloon carrying passengers (1783),
were achieved by French scientists in the 18th century. The Enlightenment philosophy, in which reason
was advocated as the primary source for legitimacy and authority, undermined the Absolute monarchy
and prepared the French Revolution.
Monarchy to Republic
Main articles: France in the long nineteenth century and France in the twentieth century
57
See also: French Revolution, Napoleonic era, and French colonial empire
The Storming of the Bastille, on 14 July 1789, was the starting event of the French
Revolution.
After the storming of the Bastille on 14 July 1789, the absolute monarchy was abolished and France
became a constitutional monarchy. Through the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen,
the French Republic established fundamental rights for French citizens and all men without exception.
The Declaration affirms "the natural and imprescriptible rights of man" to "liberty, property, security
and resistance to oppression". It called for the destruction of aristocratic privileges by proclaiming an
end to exemptions from taxation, freedom and equal rights for all men, and access to public office
based on talent rather than birth. The monarchy was restricted, and all citizens were to have the right to
take part in the legislative process. Freedom of speech and press were declared, and arbitrary arrests
outlawed. The Declaration also asserted the principles of popular sovereignty, in contrast to the divine
right of kings that characterized the French monarchy, and social equality among citizens, eliminating
the privileges of the nobility and clergy.
58
Napoleon I, Empereur des Franais, built a Great Empire across Europe.
In 1792, the French Republic was proclaimed. As European monarchies attacked the new Republic to
restore the French monarchy, Louis XVI (and later his wife Marie Antoinette) was convicted of treason
and guillotined in 1793. Facing increasing pressures from European monarchies and facing internal
guerrilla wars and counterrevolutions, like the War in the Vende or the Chouannerie, the young
Republic fell into the Reign of Terror, between 1793 and 1794, where 16,000 to 40,000 persons were
executed. In Western France, the civil war between the Bleus (the "Blues", supporters of the
Revolution) and the Blancs (the "Whites", supporters of the Monarchy) last from 1793 to 1796 and cost
around 450,000 lives (200,000 Patriotes and 250,000 Vendens).[55] Both foreign armies and French
counterrevolutionnaries were crushed and the French Republic survived. Furthermore, the French
Republic extended greatly its boundaries, following its victories, and established "Sister Republics" in
the surrounding countries.
Animated map of the growth and decline of the French colonial empire.
After a short-lived governmental scheme, Napoleon Bonaparte seized control of the Republic in 1799,
making himself First Consul, and later Emperor of the First Empire (18041814/1815). As a
continuation of the wars sparked by the European monarchies against the French Republic, changing
sets of European Coalitions declared wars to Napoleon's French Empire. His armies conquered most of
continental Europe, with members of the Bonaparte family being appointed as monarchs in some of the
newly established kingdoms. After the catastrophic Russian campaign, Napoleon was finally defeated
and the Bourbon monarchy restored. About a million Frenchmen died during the Napoleonic Wars.[56]
After his brief return from exile, Napoleon was finally defeated in 1815 at the Battle of Waterloo, the
monarchy was re-established (18151830), but with new constitutional limitations. The discredited
Bourbon dynasty was overthrown by the civil uprising of 1830, which established the constitutional
July Monarchy, which lasted until 1848, when the French Second Republic was proclaimed. In 1852,
Louis-Napolon Bonaparte, Napoleon Is nephew, proclaimed the second Empire, as Napoleon III. He
multiplied the French interventions abroad, especially in Crimea, in Mexico and Italy but was unseated
following defeat in the Franco-Prussian war of 1870 and his regime was replaced by the Third
Republic.
59
Charles de Gaulle took an active part in all major events of the 20th century : a hero of
World War I, leader of the Free French during World War II, he then became President,
where he facilitated the decolonization, maintained France as a major power and
overcame the May 1968 revolt.
France had colonial possessions, in various forms, since the beginning of the 17th century until the
1960s. In the 19th and 20th centuries, its global overseas colonial empire was the second largest in the
world behind the British Empire. At its peak, between 1919 and 1939, the second French colonial
empire extended over 12,347,000 square kilometres (4,767,000 sq mi) of land. Including metropolitan
France, the total area of land under French sovereignty reached 12,898,000 square kilometres
(4,980,000 sq mi) in the 1920s and 1930s, which is 8.6% of the world's land area.
France was a member of the Triple Entente when World War I broke out. A small part of Northern
France was occupied, but France and its allies eventually emerged victorious against the Central
Powers, at a tremendous human and material cost: the first war left 1.4 million French soldiers dead.[57]
The interbellum phase was marked by a variety of social reforms introduced by the Popular Front
government. Following the German Blitzkrieg campaign in World War II, metropolitan France was
divided in an occupation zone in the north and Vichy France, a newly established authoritarian regime
collaborating with Germany, in the south.[58] The Allies and the French Resistance eventually emerged
victorious from the Axis powers and French sovereignty was restored.
The Fourth Republic was established after World War II and saw spectacular economic growth (les
Trente Glorieuses). France was one of the founding members of the NATO (1949), which was the
Western counterpart of the Warsaw Pact system of collective defence. France attempted to regain
control of French Indochina but was defeated by the Viet Minh at the Battle of Dien Bien Phu in 1954.
Only months later, France faced a new conflict in Algeria. The debate over whether or not to keep
control of Algeria, then home to over one million European settlers,[59] wracked the country and nearly
60
led to civil war. In 1958, the weak and unstable Fourth Republic gave way to the Fifth Republic, which
contained a strengthened Presidency.[60] In the latter role, Charles de Gaulle managed to keep the
country together while taking steps to end the war. The Algerian War was concluded with peace
negotiations in 1962 that led to Algerian independence. France granted independence progressively to
its colonies, the last one being Vanuatu in 1980. A vestige of the colonial empire are the French
overseas departments and territories that include French Guiana, Martinique and French Polynesia.
France has been at the forefront of the European Union member states seeking to exploit the
momentum of monetary union to create a more unified and capable European Union political, defence,
and security apparatus.[61]
Geography
Main article: Geography of France
See also: Outline of France
Metropolitan French cities with over 100,000 inhabitants
Metropolitan France is situated mostly between latitudes 41 and 51 N (Dunkirk is just north of 51),
and longitudes 6 W and 10 E, on the western edge of Europe, and thus lies within the northern
temperate zone
While Metropolitan France is located in Western Europe, France also has a number of territories in
North America, the Caribbean, South America, the southern Indian Ocean, the Pacific Ocean, and
Antarctica.[62] These territories have varying forms of government ranging from overseas department to
overseas collectivity. France's overseas departments and collectivities share land borders with Brazil,
and Suriname (bordering French Guiana), and the Netherlands Antilles (bordering Saint-Martin).
61
The Exclusive Economic Zone of France extends over 11,000,000 km 2 (4,200,000 sq mi)
of ocean across the world.[63]
Metropolitan France covers 547,030 square kilometres (211,209 sq mi),[10] having the largest area
among European Union members.[26] France possesses a wide variety of landscapes, from coastal plains
in the north and west to mountain ranges of the Alps in the south-east, the Massif Central in the southcentral and Pyrenees in the south-west. At 4,810.45 metres (15,782 ft)[64] above sea level, the highest
point in Western Europe, Mont Blanc, is situated in the Alps on the border between France and Italy.
Metropolitan France also has extensive river systems such as the Seine, the Loire, the Garonne, and the
Rhone, which divides the Massif Central from the Alps and flows into the Mediterranean Sea at the
Camargue. Corsica lies off the Mediterranean coast.
France's total land area, with its overseas departments and territories (excluding Adlie Land), is
674,843 km2 (260,558 sq mi), 0.45% of the total land area on Earth. However, France possesses the
second-largest Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) in the world,[65] covering 11,035,000 km2 (4,260,637
sq mi), approximately 8% of the total surface of all the EEZs of the world, just behind the United States
(11,351,000 km2/4,382,646 sq mi) and ahead of Australia (8,232,000 km2/3,178,393 sq mi).[66] The
north and northwest have a temperate climate, while a combination of maritime influences, latitude and
altitude produce a varied climate in the rest of Metropolitan France.[67] In the south-east a
Mediterranean climate prevails. In the west, the climate is predominantly oceanic with a high level of
rainfall, mild winters and cool to warm summers. Inland the climate becomes more continental with
hot, stormy summers, colder winters and less rain. The climate of the Alps and other mountainous
regions is mainly alpine, with the number of days with temperatures below freezing over 150 per year
and snow cover lasting for up to six months.
Landscapes and climates of France
62
Limestone cliffs of
Normandy near tretat.
Mediterranean vegetation
(lavender) in Provence.
Alpine climate in Savoie

(note the Alpine Ibex on the
left).
63
Environment
See also: Ministry of Ecology, Energy, Sustainable Development and Sea, National parks
of France, and Regional natural parks of France
Regional and National natural parks in France. Indicated in green and purple colour
respectively.
France was one of the first countries to create a Ministry of the Environment, in 1971.[68] Although
France is one of the most industrialised and developed countries, it is ranked only seventeenth by
carbon dioxide emissions, behind such less populous nations as Canada, Saudi Arabia or Australia. This
situation results from the French government's decision to invest in nuclear power in 1974 (after the
1973 oil crisis[69]), which now accounts for 78% of France's electricity production[70] and explains why
France pollutes less than comparable countries.[71][72] Like all European Union members, France agreed
to cut carbon emissions by at least 20% of 1990 levels by the year 2020,[73] in comparison the USA
agreed to a fall of 4% of its emissions[74] whereas China stated it wanted to "reduce its carbon intensity
by 40-45% by the year 2020" (compared with 2005 levels),[75] which means with a GDP growth of 8%
yearly an augmentation of 80%[74] to 250%[76] of the Chinese carbon emissions by 2020.
In 2009, the French carbon dioxide emissions per capita level is lower than the Chinese one.[77]
France was even set to impose a carbon tax in 2009 at 17 Euros per tonne of carbon dioxide emitted.[78]
The carbon tax would have brought in 4.3 billion Euros of revenue per year.[79] However, 6 months
later, the plan for a carbon tax was abandoned for various reasons, one being that French companies
would have a more difficult time competing with companies in neighboring countries who would not
have to pay such steep taxes on carbon dioxide emissions. Instituting a carbon tax was also an
unpopular political move for President Sarkozy.[80]
64
In 2010, a study at Yale and Columbia universities ranked France the most environmentally conscious
nation of the G20.[81][82]
Forests account for 28,27% of the land area of France.[83][84] France is the second most wooded country
of the EU.[85] French forests are also some of the most diversified of Europe, with more than 140
differents varieties of trees.[86] There are 9 national parks[87] and 46 natural parks in France.[88] France
wants to convert 20% of its Exclusive Economic Zone in a Marine Protected Area by 2020.[89]
Administrative divisions
The Place du Capitole in Toulouse (Haute-Garonne) in the Midi-Pyrnes region

Main articles: Administrative divisions of France, Regions of France, and Departments of
France
See also: Metropolitan Area (France) and List of communes in France with over 20,000
inhabitants (1999 census)
France is divided into 27 administrative regions.[10] 22 are in metropolitan France (21 are on the
continental part of metropolitan France; one is the territorial collectivity of Corsica), and five are
overseas regions. The regions are further subdivided into 101 departments[90] which are numbered
(mainly alphabetically). This number is used in postal codes and vehicle number plates amongst others.
The 101 departments are subdivided into 341 arrondissements which are, in turn, subdivided into 4,051
cantons. These cantons are then divided into 36,697 communes, which are municipalities with an
elected municipal council. There also exist 2,588 intercommunal entities grouping 33,414 of the 36,697
communes (i.e. 91.1% of all the communes). Three communes, Paris, Lyon and Marseille are also
subdivided into 45 municipal arrondissements.
The regions, departments and communes are all known as territorial collectivities, meaning they
possess local assemblies as well as an executive. Arrondissements and cantons are merely
administrative divisions. However, this was not always the case. Until 1940, the arrondissements were
also territorial collectivities with an elected assembly, but these were suspended by the Vichy regime
and definitely abolished by the Fourth Republic in 1946. Historically, the cantons were also territorial
collectivities with their elected assemblies.
65
The 22 regions and 96 departments of metropolitan France includes Corsica (Corse, lower
right). Paris area is expanded (inset at left)
Region
Departments
Alsace
Bas-Rhin, Haut-Rhin
Aquitaine
Dordogne, Gironde, Landes, Lot-et-Garonne, Pyrnes-Atlantiques
Auvergne
Allier, Cantal, Haute-Loire, Puy-de-Dme
BasseNormandie
Calvados, Manche, Orne
Bourgogne
Cte-d'Or, Nivre, Sane-et-Loire, Yonne
Brittany
Ctes-d'Armor, Finistre, Ille-et-Vilaine, Morbihan
Centre
Cher, Eure-et-Loir, Indre, Indre-et-Loire, Loiret, Loir-et-Cher
ChampagneArdenne
Ardennes, Aube, Haute-Marne, Marne
Corsica (Corse) Corse-du-Sud, Haute-Corse

Franche-Comt Doubs, Haute-Sane, Jura, Territoire de Belfort
Haute-
Eure, Seine-Maritime
66
Normandie
le-de-France
LanguedocRoussillon
Essonne, Hauts-de-Seine, Paris, Seine-et-Marne, Seine-SaintDenis, Val-de-Marne, Val-d'Oise, Yvelines

Aude, Gard, Hrault, Lozre, Pyrnes-Orientales
Limousin
Corrze, Creuse, Haute-Vienne
Lorraine
Meurthe-et-Moselle, Meuse, Moselle, Vosges
Midi-Pyrnes
Arige, Aveyron, Gers, Haute-Garonne, Hautes-Pyrnes, Lot,

Tarn, Tarn-et-Garonne
Nord-Pas-deCalais
Nord, Pas-de-Calais
Pays de la Loire Loire-Atlantique, Maine-et-Loire, Mayenne, Sarthe, Vende

Picardie
PoitouCharentes
Aisne, Oise, Somme

Charente, Charente-Maritime, Deux-Svres, Vienne
Provence-Alpes- Alpes-de-Haute-Provence, Alpes-Maritimes, Bouches-du-Rhne,

Hautes-Alpes, Var, Vaucluse
Cte d'Azur
Rhne-Alpes
Ain, Ardche, Drme, Haute-Savoie, Isre, Loire, Rhne, Savoie
Overseas regions and territories

Main article: Overseas departments and territories of France
Among the 101 departments of France, five (French Guiana, Guadeloupe, Martinique, Mayotte, and
Runion) are in overseas regions (ROMs) that are also simultaneously overseas departments (DOMs)
and are an integral part of France (and the European Union) and thus enjoy a status similar to
metropolitan departments.
In addition to the 27 regions and 101 departments, the French Republic also has five overseas
collectivities (French Polynesia, Saint Barthlemy, Saint Martin, Saint Pierre and Miquelon, and Wallis
and Futuna), one sui generis collectivity (New Caledonia), one overseas territory (French Southern and
Antarctic Lands), and one island possession in the Pacific Ocean (Clipperton Island).
67
The lands making up the French Republic, shown at the same geographic scale.
Name
Constitutional status
Clipperton Island
State private property under the direct authority of the French

government
French Guiana
Overseas region (rgions d'outre-mer) and simultaneously

overseas department (dpartement d'outre-mer or DOM)
French Polynesia
Designated as an overseas land (pays d'outre-mer or POM), the

status is the same as an overseas collectivity.
French Southern
and Antarctic Lands
overseas territory (territoire d'outre-mer or TOM)
Guadeloupe
Overseas region and department (DOM)
Martinique
Mayotte
New Caledonia
Sui generis collectivity
Runion
Saint Barthlemy
Overseas collectivity (collectivit d'outre-mer or COM)
Saint Martin
Overseas collectivity (collectivit d'outre-mer or COM)
68
Saint Pierre and

Miquelon
Overseas collectivity (collectivit d'outre-mer or COM). Still

referred to as a collectivit territoriale.
Wallis and Futuna Overseas collectivity (collectivit d'outre-mer or COM). Still

referred to as a territoire.
Overseas collectivities and territories form part of the French Republic, but do not form part of the
European Union or its fiscal area (with the exception of St. Bartelemy, which seceded from Guadeloupe
in 2007). The Pacific Collectivities (COMs) of French Polynesia, Wallis and Fortuna, and New
Caledonia continue to use the CFP franc[91][92][93] whose value is linked to that of the euro. In contrast,
the five overseas regions used the French franc and now use the euro.[94]
Politics
Main article: Politics of France
Government
Main articles: Government of France and Constitution of France
Logo of the French Republic
The French Republic is a unitary semi-presidential republic with strong democratic traditions. The
constitution of the Fifth Republic was approved by referendum on 28 September 1958.[95] It greatly
strengthened the authority of the executive in relation to parliament. The executive branch itself has
two leaders: the President of the Republic, currently Nicolas Sarkozy, who is head of state and is
elected directly by universal adult suffrage for a 5-year term (formerly 7 years),[96] and the Government,
led by the president-appointed Prime Minister, currently Franois Fillon.
69
Nicolas Sarkozy has been the President of the French Republic since 2007
The French parliament is a bicameral legislature comprising a National Assembly (Assemble

Nationale) and a Senate.[97] The National Assembly deputies represent local constituencies and are
directly elected for 5-year terms.[98] The Assembly has the power to dismiss the cabinet, and thus the
majority in the Assembly determines the choice of government. Senators are chosen by an electoral
college for 6-year terms (originally 9-year terms), and one half of the seats are submitted to election
every 3 years starting in September 2008.[99]
The Senate's legislative powers are limited; in the event of disagreement between the two chambers, the
National Assembly has the final say.[100] The government has a strong influence in shaping the agenda
of Parliament.
French politics are characterised by two politically opposed groupings: one left-wing, centred around
the French Socialist Party, and the other right-wing, centred previously around the Rassemblement pour
la Rpublique (RPR) and now its successor the Union for a Popular Movement (UMP).[101] The
executive branch is currently composed mostly of the UMP.
Law
Main article: Law of France
70
The basic principles that the French Republic must respect are found in the 1789
Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen
France uses a civil legal system;[10] that is, law arises primarily from written statutes; judges are not to
make law, but merely to interpret it (though the amount of judge interpretation in certain areas makes it
equivalent to case law). Basic principles of the rule of law were laid in the Napoleonic Code. In
agreement with the principles of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen law should
only prohibit actions detrimental to society. As Guy Canivet, first president of the Court of Cassation,
wrote about the management of prisons: :Freedom is the rule, and its restriction is the exception; any
restriction of Freedom must be provided for by Law and must follow the principles of necessity and
proportionality. That is, Law should lay out prohibitions only if they are needed, and if the
inconveniences caused by this restriction do not exceed the inconveniences that the prohibition is
supposed to remedy.
French law is divided into two principal areas: private law and public law. Private law includes, in
particular, civil law and criminal law. Public law includes, in particular, administrative law and
constitutional law. However, in practical terms, French law comprises three principal areas of law: civil
law, criminal law and administrative law.
France does not recognise religious law, nor does it recognise religious beliefs or morality as a
motivation for the enactment of prohibitions. As a consequence, France has long had neither blasphemy
laws nor sodomy laws (the latter being abolished in 1791). However, "offences against public decency"
(contraires aux bonnes murs) or disturbing public order (trouble l'ordre public) have been used to
repress public expressions of homosexuality or street prostitution.
Criminal laws can only address the future and not the past (criminal ex post facto laws are prohibited) ;
and to be applicable, laws must be officially published in the Journal Officiel de la Rpublique
Franaise.
France is tolerant of the LGBT community. Since 1999, civil unions for homosexual couples are
permitted, although same-sex marriage is illegal in France. Laws sentencing racism, sexism or
antisemitism are old and important, for instance, laws prohibiting discriminatory speech in the press are
as old as 1881.[102] France is one of the most tolerant countries of the world, religiously speaking,
according to a survey conducted in 15 different countries.[103]
Foreign relations
Main article: Foreign relations of France
See also: European Union, Latin Union, Francophonie, United Nations Security
Council, and NATO
71
Signing of the Rome Treaty. France is a founding member of the EEC in 1957 and the
European Union in 1993.
France is a member of the United Nations and serves as one of the permanent members of the UN
Security Council with veto rights.[104] It is also a member of the G8, World Trade Organisation (WTO),
[105]
the Secretariat of the Pacific Community (SPC)[106] and the Indian Ocean Commission (COI).[107] It
is an associate member of the Association of Caribbean States (ACS)[108] and a leading member of the
International Francophone Organisation (OIF) of fifty-one fully or partly French-speaking countries.[109]
It hosts the headquarters of the OECD,[110] UNESCO,[111] Interpol,[112] Alliance Base[113] and the
International Bureau for Weights and Measures.[114] In 1953, France received a request from the United
Nations to pick a coat of arms that would represent it internationally. Thus the French emblem was
adopted and is currently used on passports.[115]
French foreign policy has been largely shaped by membership of the European Union, of which it was a
founding member. In the 1960s, France sought to exclude the British from the organisation,[116] seeking
to build its own standing in continental Europe. Since the 1960s, France has developed close ties with
reunified Germany to become the most influential driving force of the EU.[117]
French President Nicolas Sarkozy and United States President Barack Obama, before NATO
summit, in Strasbourg, on 3 April 2009.
France is a member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation, but under President de Gaulle, it
excluded itself from the joint military command to avoid the American domination of its foreign and
72
security policies.[118] However, as a result of Nicolas Sarkozy's (much criticised in France by the leftists
and by a part of the right)[119][120] pro-American politics, France rejoined the NATO joint military
command on 4 April 2009. In the early 1990s, the country drew considerable criticism from other
nations for its underground nuclear tests in French Polynesia.[121] France vigorously opposed the 2003
invasion of Iraq,[122][123] straining bilateral relations with the US[124][125] and the UK.[126] France retains
strong political and economic influence in its former African colonies (Franafrique)[127] and has
supplied economic aid and troops for peace-keeping missions in the Ivory Coast and Chad.[128]
France has the second largest network of diplomatic missions in the world, second only to the USA.[129]
Development aid
In 2007, France is the third largest (in absolute numbers) donor of development aid in the world, behind
the US and Germany, but ahead of Japan and the UK.[130] This represents 0.5 % of its GDP, in this
regard rating as average among the developed countries and not meeting the International Aid Target of
0.7 %.[131] The organism managing the French help is the French Development Agency, which finances
primarily humanitarian projects in sub-Saharan Africa.[132] The main goals of this help are "developing
infrastructure, access to health care and education, the implementation of appropriate economic policies
and the consolidation of the rule of law and democracy."[132]
Military
Main article: French Armed Forces
See also: Military history of France and Deployments of the French military
Examples of France's military. Clockwise from top left: Nuclear aircraft carrier Charles de
Gaulle; A pair of Rafale fighter aircraft; French Chasseurs alpins patrolling the valleys of
Kapisa province in Afghanistan; a Leclerc tank in Paris for the 14th July Bastille Day
Military Parade.
73
France's armed forces (Armes franaises), comprising the French Army (Arme de Terre), French
Navy (Marine Nationale), and the French Air Force (Arme de l'Air), and the auxiliary paramilitary
force, the National Gendarmerie (Gendarmerie nationale) is the thirteenth largest in the world.[133]
Individually, the Navy employs 42,550 professional sailors and 15,000 part-time reservists[134] and has a
displacement 307,000 tons making it the world's sixth biggest navy.[135] The Army employs 123,100
regulars and 118,350 part-time reservists [136] making it the fourth largest in NATO. The Air Force is the
oldest and first professional air force in the world[137] and employs 57,400 regulars making it also the
fourth largest in NATO. While administratively a part of the French armed forces, and therefore under
the purview of the Ministry of Defence, the Gendarmerie is operationally attached to the Ministry of the
Interior. The gendarmerie is a military police force which serves for the most part as a rural and general
purpose police force. It encompasses the counter terrorist units of the Parachute Intervention Squadron
of the National Gendarmerie (Escadron Parachutiste d'Intervention de la Gendarmerie Nationale) and
the National Gendarmerie Intervention Group (Groupe d'Intervention de la Gendarmerie Nationale).
One of the French intelligence units, the Directorate-General for External Security (Direction Gnrale
de la Scurit Extrieure) reports to the Ministry of Defence. The other, the Central Directorate of
Interior Intelligence (Direction Centrale du Renseignement Intrieur), reports directly to the Ministry
of the Interior. There has been no national conscription since 1997.[138] The president is the supreme
commander of the French Armed Forces. France is a permanent member of the Security Council of the
UN, and a recognised nuclear state since 1960. France has signed and ratified the Comprehensive
Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT)[139] and acceeded to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. France's
annual military expenditure in 2010 was US$61.3 billion, or 2.5 percent of its GDP,[140] making it the
third biggest military spender in the world after China and the United States of America.[140]
The French deterrence, (formerly known as Force de frappe), relies on complete independence. The
current French nuclear force consists of four Triomphant class submarines equipped with submarinelaunched ballistic missiles. In addition to the submarine fleet, it is estimated that France has about 60
ASMP medium-range air-to-ground missiles with nuclear warheads,[141] of which ~50 are carried by the
Mirage 2000N long-range multirole fighter and arm the Air Force and ~10 can be carried by the French
Navy's Super tendard Modernis (SEM) attack planes which use the only non-American nuclear
powered aircraft carrier in the world, the Charles de Gaulle when at sea. The new Rafale F3 aircraft
will gradually replace all Mirage 2000N and SEM in the nuclear strike role with the improved ASMP-A
missile with a nuclear warhead.
France has major military industries that have produced the Rafale fighter, the Charles de Gaulle
aircraft carrier, the Exocet missile and the Leclerc tank amongst others. Some weaponry, like the E-2
Hawkeye or the E-3 Sentry was bought from the United States. Despite withdrawing from the
Eurofighter project, France is actively investing in European joint projects such as the Eurocopter
Tiger, multipurpose frigates, the UCAV demonstrator nEUROn and the Airbus A400M. France has the
largest aerospace industry in Europe.[142][143] France is a major arms seller,[144][145] with most of its
arsenal's designs available for the export market with the notable exception of nuclear-powered devices.
74
Economy
Main articles: Economy of France and Energy in France
Further information: List of French companies and Economic history of France
The first completed Airbus A380 at the A380 Reveal event in Toulouse on 18 January
2005. Airbus is a symbol of the globalisation of the French and European economy.
A member of the G8 group of leading industrialised countries, it is ranked as the world's fifth largest
and Europe's second largest economy by nominal GDP;[146] with 39 of the 500 biggest companies of the
world in 2010, France ranks world's 4th and Europe's 1st in the Fortune Global 500 ahead of Germany
and the UK. France joined 11 other EU members to launch the euro on 1 January 1999, with euro coins
and banknotes completely replacing the French franc () in early 2002.[147]
France derives 79% of its electricity from nuclear power, the highest percentage in the
world.[148]
France has a mixed economy which combines extensive private enterprise (nearly 2.5 million
companies registered)[149][150] with substantial (though declining[151]) state enterprise and government
intervention (see dirigisme). The government retains considerable influence over key segments of
infrastructure sectors, with majority ownership of railway, electricity, aircraft, nuclear power and
telecommunications.[151] It has been gradually relaxing its control over these sectors since the early
1990s.[151] The government is slowly corporatising the state sector and selling off holdings in France
Tlcom, Air France, as well as the insurance, banking, and defence industries.[151] France has an
75
important aerospace industry led by the European consortium Airbus, and has its own national
spaceport, the Centre Spatial Guyanais.
France is part of a monetary union, the Eurozone (dark blue), and of the EU single market.
According to the WTO, in 2009 France was the world's sixth-largest exporter and the fourth-largest
importer of manufactured goods.[152] In 2008, France was the third-largest recipient of foreign direct
investment among OECD countries at $117.9 billion, ranking behind Luxembourg (where foreign
direct investment was essentially monetary transfers to banks located in that country) and the United
States ($316.1 billion), but above the United Kingdom ($96.9 billion), Germany ($24.9 billion), or
Japan ($24.4 billion).[153][154] In the same year, French companies invested $220 billion outside of
France, ranking France as the second most important outward direct investor in the OECD, behind the
United States ($311.8 billion), and ahead of the United Kingdom ($111.4 billion), Japan ($128 billion)
and Germany ($156.5 billion).[153][154] With 39 of the 500 biggest companies of the world in 2010,
France ranks 4th in the Fortune Global 500, behind the USA, Japan and China, but ahead of Germany
and the UK.[155]
France is the smallest emitter of carbon dioxide among the seven most industrialized countries in the
world, due to its heavy investment in nuclear power.[156] As a result of large investments in nuclear
technology, most of the electricity produced in the country is generated by 59 nuclear power plants
(78% in 2006,[157] up from only 8% in 1973, 24% in 1980, and 75% in 1990). In this context, renewable
energies (see the power cooperative Enercoop) are having difficulties taking off the ground.
Agriculture
76
Vineyards near Carcassonne.
France has historically been an important producer of agricultural products.[158] Large tracts of fertile
land, the application of modern technology, and EU subsidies have combined to make France the
leading agricultural producer and exporter in Europe[159] (representing alone 20% of the EU's
agricultural production[160]) and the world's third biggest exportator of agricultural products.[161]
Wheat, poultry, dairy, beef, and pork, as well as an internationally recognized foodstuff and wine
industry are primary French agricultural exports. EU agriculture subsidies to France have decreased for
the last years, but still amounted to $8 billion in 2007.[162] This same year, France sold 33.4 billion euros
of transformed agricultural products.[163]
Agriculture is thus an important sector of France's economy : 3.5% of the active population is
employed in agriculture,[160] whereas the total agri-food industry made up 4.2% of French GDP in 2005.
[160]
Labour market
The French GDP per capita is similar to the GDP per capita of other comparable European countries
such as Germany and the United Kingdom.[164] GDP per capita is determined by (i) productivity per
hour worked, which in France is the highest of the G8 countries in 2005, according to the OECD,[165]
(ii) the number of hours worked, which is one the lowest of developed countries,[166] and (iii) the
employment rate. France has one of the lowest 1564 years employment rates of the OECD countries:
in 2004, only 69% of the French population aged 1564 years were in employment, compared to 80%
in Japan, 79% in the UK, 77% in the US, and 71% in Germany.[167]
77
La Dfense, just outside Paris, is the largest business district in Europe. [168]
This gap is due to the very low employment rates at both age extremes: the employment rate of people
aged 5564 was 38.3% in 2007, compared to 46.6% in the EU15;[169] for the 1524 years old, the
employment rate was 31.5% in 2007, compared to 37.2% in EU25.[170] These low employment rates are
explained by the high minimum wages which prevent low productivity workers such as young people
from easily entering the labour market,[171] ineffective university curricula that fail to prepare students
adequately for the labour market,[172] and, concerning the older workers, restrictive legislation on work
and incentives for premature retirement.[173][174]
The unemployment rate decreased from 9% in 2006 to 7% in 2008 but remains one of the highest in
Europe.[175][176] In June 2009, the unemployment rate for France was 9.4%.[177] Shorter working hours
and the reluctance to reform the labour market are mentioned as weak spots of the French economy in
the view of the right, when the left mentions the lack of government policies fostering social justice.
Liberal economists have stressed repeatedly over the years that the main issue of the French economy is
an issue of structural reforms, in order to increase the size of the working population in the overall
population, reduce the taxes' level and the administrative burden.
Keynesian economists have different answers to the unemployment issue, and their theories led to the
35-hour workweek law in the early 2000s, which turned out to be a failure in reducing unemployment.
Afterwards, between 2004 and 2008, the Government made some supply-oriented reforms to combat
unemployment but met with fierce resistance,[178] especially with the contrat nouvelle embauche and the
contrat premire embauche which both were eventually repealed.[179] The current Government is
experiencing the Revenu de solidarit active.[180]
Tourism
Main article: Tourism in France
78
The Palace of Versailles is one of the most popular tourist destinations in France.
With 81.9 million foreign tourists in 2007,[23] France is ranked as the first tourist destination in the
world, ahead of Spain (58.5 million in 2006) and the United States (51.1 million in 2006). This
81.9 million figure excludes people staying less than 24 hours in France, such as Northern Europeans
crossing France on their way to Spain or Italy during the summer.
The Mont Saint-Michel is one of the most visited sites of France
France features cities of high cultural interest (Paris being the foremost, but also Toulouse, Strasbourg,
Bordeaux, Lyon...), beaches and seaside resorts, ski resorts, and rural regions that many enjoy for their
beauty and tranquillity (green tourism). Small and picturesque French villages of quality heritage (such
as Collonges-la-Rouge or Locronan) are promoted through the association Les Plus Beaux Villages de
France (litt. "The Most Beautiful Villages of France"). The "Remarkable Gardens" label is a list of the
over two hundred gardens classified by the French Ministry of Culture. This label is intended to protect
and promote remarkable gardens and parks. France also attracts many religious pilgrims on their way to
St. James, or to Lourdes, a town in the Hautes-Pyrnes that hosts a few million visitors a year.
France, and especially Paris, have some of the world's largest and renowned museums, including the
Louvre, which is the most visited art museum in the world, but also the Muse d'Orsay, mostly devoted
to impressionism, and Beaubourg, dedicated to Contemporary art.
79
The Chteau de Chambord is one of the many French royal residences of the Loire Valley.
Disneyland Paris is France's and indeed Europe's most popular theme park, with 15,405,000 combined
visitors to the resort's Disneyland Park and Walt Disney Studios Park in 2009.[181] The historical theme
park Puy du Fou in Vende is the second most visited park of France.[182] Other popular theme parks are
the Futuroscope of Poitiers and the Parc Astrix.
With more than 10 millions tourists a year, the French Riviera (or Cte d'Azur), in south-eastern France,
is the second leading tourist destination in the country, after the Parisian region.[183] According to the
Cte d'Azur Economic Development Agency, it benefits from 300 days of sunshine per year,
115 kilometres (71 mi) of coastline and beaches, 18 golf courses, 14 ski resorts and 3,000 restaurants.
[184]
Each year the Cte d'Azur hosts 50% of the world's superyacht fleet, with 90% of all superyachts
visiting the region's coast at least once in their lifetime.[185]
An other major destination are the Chteaux of the Loire Valley, this World Heritage Site is noteworthy
for the quality of its architectural heritage, in its historic towns such as Amboise, Angers, Blois,
Chinon, Nantes, Orlans, Saumur, and Tours, but in particular for its castles (chteaux), such as the
Chteaux d'Amboise, de Chambord, d'Uss, de Villandry and Chenonceau, which illustrate to an
exceptional degree the ideals of the French Renaissance.
The most popular tourist sites include: (according to a 2003 ranking[186] visitors per year): Eiffel Tower
(6.2 million), Louvre Museum (5.7 million), Palace of Versailles (2.8 million), Muse d'Orsay
(2.1 million), Arc de Triomphe (1.2 million), Centre Pompidou (1.2 million), Mont-Saint-Michel
(1 million), Chteau de Chambord (711,000), Sainte-Chapelle (683,000), Chteau du HautKnigsbourg (549,000), Puy de Dme (500,000), Muse Picasso (441,000), Carcassonne (362,000).
Transport
Main articles: Transport in France and Rail transport in France
80
A TGV Sud-Est, which can reach a maximum speed of 300 km/h (186.41 mph).
The railway network of France, which as of 2008 stretches 29,473 kilometres (18,314 mi)[187] is the
second most extensive in Western Europe after the German one.[188] It is operated by the SNCF, and
high-speed trains include the Thalys, the Eurostar and TGV, which travels at 320 km/h (199 mph) in
commercial use.[189][190] The Eurostar, along with the Eurotunnel Shuttle, connects with the United
Kingdom through the Channel Tunnel. Rail connections exist to all other neighbouring countries in
Europe, except Andorra. Intra-urban connections are also well developed with both underground
services and tramway services complementing bus services.
There are approximately 1,027,183 kilometres (638,262 mi) of serviceable roadway in France, ranking
it the most extensive network of the European continent.[191] The Paris region is enveloped with the
most dense network of roads and highways that connect it with virtually all parts of the country. French
roads also handle substantial international traffic, connecting with cities in neighboring Belgium, Spain,
Andorra, Monaco, Switzerland, Germany and Italy. There is no annual registration fee or road tax;
however, motorway usage is through tolls except in the vicinity of large communes. The new car
market is dominated by domestic brands such as Renault (27% of cars sold in France in 2003), Peugeot
(20.1%) and Citron (13.5%).[192] Over 70% of new cars sold in 2004 had diesel engines, far more than
contained petrol or LPG engines.[193] France possesses the Millau Viaduct, the world's tallest bridge,[194]
and has built many important bridges such as the Pont de Normandie.
There are 475 airports in France.[10] Paris-Charles de Gaulle Airport located in the vicinity of Paris is the
largest and busiest airport in the country, handling the vast majority of popular and commercial traffic
and connecting Paris with virtually all major cities across the world. Air France is the national carrier
airline, although numerous private airline companies provide domestic and international travel services.
There are ten major ports in France, the largest of which is in Marseille,[195] which also is the largest
bordering the Mediterranean Sea.[196][197] 12,261 kilometres (7,619 mi) of waterways traverse France
including the Canal du Midi which connects the Mediterranean Sea to the Atlantic Ocean through the
Garonne river.[10]
Demographics
81
Main articles: Demography of France and French people
Population density in the French Republic at the 1999 census.
With an estimated population of 65.8 million people (as of 1 Jan. 2011),[7] France is the 20th most
populous country in the world. In 2003, France's natural population growth (excluding immigration)
was responsible for almost all natural population growth in the European Union. The natural growth
(excess of births over deaths) rose to 302,432 in 2006,[198] its highest since the end of the baby boom in
1973. The total fertility rate rose to 2.01 in 2010,[7] from a nadir of 1.68 in 1994.[199] In the five years
between Jan. 2006 and Jan. 2011, population growth was on average +0.58% per year.[198]
The largest cities in France, in terms of metropolitan area population, are Paris (11,836,970), Lyon
(1,757,180), Marseille (1,618,369), Lille (1,163,934), Toulouse (1,118,472), Bordeaux (1,009,313),
Nice (999,678), Nantes (768,305) and Strasbourg (641,853).
In 2004, a total of 140,033 people immigrated to France. Of them, 90,250 were from Africa and 13,710
from Europe.[200] In 2008, France granted citizenship to 137,000 persons, mostly to people from
Morocco, Algeria and Turkey.[201]
It is illegal for the French state to collect data on ethnicity and race, a law with its origins in the 1789
revolution and reaffirmed in the constitution of 1958.[202] While official data on the size of the country's
ethnic minorities is not available, it has been estimated that between three million[203] and six million
[204]
people are of North African ancestry while an estimated 2.5 million people are of Black African
82
ancestry.[205][206] It is currently estimated that 40% of the French population is descended at least
partially from the different waves of immigration the country has received.[207] Between 1921 and 1935
about 1.1 million net immigrants came to France.[208] An estimated 1.6 million European pieds noirs
returned to France as the country's North African possessions gained independence.[209][210]
According to the French National Institute for Statistics and Economic Studies, it has an estimated
4.9 million foreign-born immigrants, of which 2 million have acquired French citizenship.[211] France is
the leading asylum destination in Western Europe with an estimated 50,000 applications in 2005 (a 15%
decrease from 2004).[212] The European Union allows free movement between the member states. While
UK and Ireland did not impose restrictions, France put in place controls to curb Eastern European
migration.
A perennial political issue concerns rural depopulation. Over the period 19601999 fifteen rural
dpartements experienced a decline in population. In the most extreme case, the population of Creuse
fell by 24%.
Language
Main article: French Language
See also: Languages of France, Language policy in France, and Francophonie
France's legacy: a map of the Francophone world

native language
administrative language
secondary or non-official language
francophone minorities
According to Article 2 of the Constitution, the official language of France is French,[213] a Romance
language derived from latin. Since 1635, the Acadmie franaise is France's official authority on the
usages, vocabulary, and grammar of the French language, although its recommendations carry no legal
power.
83
The French government does not regulate the choice of language in publications by individuals but the
use of French is required by law in commercial and workplace communications. In addition to
mandating the use of French in the territory of the Republic, the French government tries to promote
French in the European Union and globally through institutions such as La Francophonie. The
perceived threat from anglicisation has prompted efforts to safeguard the position of the French
language in France. Besides French, there exist 77 vernacular minority languages of France, 8 in the
French metropolitan territory of continental Europe and 69 in the French overseas territories.
From the 17th century to the mid 20th century, French served as the pre-eminent international language
of diplomacy and international affairs as well as a lingua franca among the educated classes of Europe.
[214]
The dominant position of French language in international affairs has only been challenged recently
by English, since the emergence of the USA as a major power.[54][215][216]
As a result of France's extensive colonial ambitions between the 17th and 20th centuries, French was
introduced to America, Africa, Polynesia, South-East Asia, and the Caribbean. French is the second
most-studied foreign language in the world after English,[217] and is a lingua franca in some regions,
notably in Africa. The legacy of French as a living language outside Europe is mixed: it is nearly
extinct in some former French colonies (Southeast Asia), while creoles, and pidgins based on French
have emerged in the French departments in the West Indies and the South Pacific (French Polynesia).
On the other hand, many former French colonies have adopted French as an official language, and the
total number of French speakers is increasing, especially in Africa.
Religion
Main article: Religion in France
Religion in France
[218]
Religion
percent
Catholicism
51%
None
31%
Islam
6%
Protestantism
3%
Judaism
1%
Buddhism
1%
Other
4%
84
France is a secular country, and freedom of religion is a constitutional right. The French government
does not keep statistics on religious adherence, nor on ethnicity or on political affiliation. However,
some unofficial survey estimates exist.
Roman Catholicism has been the predominant religion in France for more than a millennium, though it
is not as actively practiced today as it once was. A survey by the Catholic newspaper La Croix found
that whilst in 1965, 81% of the French declared themselves to be Catholics, in 2009 this proportion was
64%. Moreover, whilst 27% of the French went to Mass once a week or more in 1952, only 4.5% did so
in 2006; 15.2% attended Mass at least once a month.[219] The same survey found that Protestants
accounted for 3% of the population, an increase from previous surveys, and 5% adhered to other
religions, with the remaining 28% stating that they had no religion.[219]
Notre-Dame de Reims is the Roman Catholic cathedral where the kings of France were
crowned until 1825.[220]
According to a January 2007 poll by the Catholic World News,[221] only 5% of the French population
attended church regularly (or 10% attend church services regularly among the respondents who did
identify themselves as Catholics). The poll showed[222] 51% identified as being Catholics, 31%
identified as being agnostics or atheists (another poll[223] sets the proportion of atheists equal to 27%),
10% identified as being from other religions or being without opinion, 4% identified as Muslim, 3%
identified as Protestant, 1% identified as Buddhist, 1% identified as Jewish. Meanwhile, an independent
estimate by the politologist Pierre Brchon in 2009 concluded that the proportion of Catholics had
fallen to 42% while the number of atheists and agnostics had risen to 50%.[224] According to the
Pewforum "In France, proponents of a 2004 law banning the wearing of religious symbols in schools
say it protects Muslim girls from being forced to wear a headscarf, but the law also restricts those who
want to wear headscarves or any other conspicuous religious symbol, including large Christian
crosses and Sikh turbans as an expression of their faith"[225]
85
According to the most recent but in 2010 somewhat outdated Eurobarometer Poll 2005,[226] 34% of
French citizens responded that they believe there is a god, whereas 27% answered that they believe
there is some sort of spirit or life force and 33% that they do not believe there is any sort of spirit,
god, or life force. One other study shows 32% of people in France declaring themselves to be atheists,
and another 32% declaring themselves sceptical about the existence of God but not an atheist.[227]
Estimates of the number of Muslims in France vary widely. According to the more than one decade old
1999 French census returns, there were 3.7 million people of possible Muslim faith in France (6.3%
of the total population). In 2003, the French Ministry of the Interior estimated the total number of
Muslims to be between five and six million (810%).[228][229] The current Jewish community in France
numbers around 600,000 according to the World Jewish Congress and is the largest in Europe.
Since 1905 the French government has followed the principle of lacit, in which it is prohibited from
recognising any religion (except for legacy statutes like that of military chaplains and the local law in
Alsace-Moselle). Instead, it merely recognises religious organisations, according to formal legal
criteria that do not address religious doctrine. Conversely, religious organizations should refrain from
intervening in policy-making.
Certain bodies of beliefs such as Scientology, Children of God, the Unification Church, or the Order of
the Solar Temple are considered cults ("sectes" in French),[230] and therefore do not have the same status
as religions in France. Secte is considered a pejorative term in France.[231]
Health
Main article: Health in France
The Piti-Salptrire Hospital, a teaching hospital in Paris, one of Europe's largest

hospitals.[232]
The French healthcare system was ranked first worldwide by the World Health Organization in 1997[233]
and then again in 2000.[234] Care is generally free for people affected by chronic diseases (Affections de
longues dures) such as cancer, AIDS or Cystic Fibrosis. Average life expectancy at birth is 77 years
for men and 84 years for women, one of the highest of the European Union.[235] There are 3.22
physicians for every 1000 inhabitants in France,[236] whereas average health care spending per capita is
86
US$4,719 in 2008.[237] As of 2007, there are approximately 140,000 inhabitants (0.4%) of France who
are living with HIV/AIDS.[151]
Even if the French have the reputation of being one of the thinnest people in developed countries,[238][239]
[240][241][242][243]
Francelike other rich countriesfaces an increasing and recent epidemic of obesity, due
mostly to the replacement of traditional healthy French cuisine by junk food in French eating habits.[238]
[239][244]
Nevertheless, the French obesity rate is far below that of the USA (for instance, obesity rate in
France is the same that the American once was in the 1970s[239]), and is still the lowest of Europe,[241][244]
but it is now regarded by the authorities as one of the main public health issues[245] and is fiercely
fought; rates of childhood obesity are slowing in France, while continuing to grow in other countries.
[246]
France, as all EU countries, is under an EU directive to reduce sewage discharge to sensitive areas. As
of 2006, France is only 40% in compliance with this directive, placing it as one of the lowest achieving
countries within the EU with regard to this wastewater treatment standard.[247]
The death of Chantal Sbire revived the debate over euthanasia in France. It was reported on 21 March
2008.[248]
Education
Main article: Education in France
See also: History of education in France and Baccalaurat
School system in France
87
In 1802, Napolon Bonaparte created the lyce.[249] Nevertheless it is Jules Ferry who is considered to
be the father of the French modern school, which is free, secular, and compulsory until the age of 13
since 1882[250] (school attendance in France is now compulsory until the age of 16[251]).
Nowadays, the schooling system in France is centralized, and is composed of three stages, primary
education, secondary education, and higher education. The Programme for International Student
Assessment, coordinated by the OECD, currently ranks France's education as the 25th best in the world,
being neither significantly higher nor lower than the OECD average.[252] Primary and secondary
education are predominantly public, run by the Ministry of National Education.
Culture
Main article: Culture of France
Marianne, in painting by Eugne Delacroix, La Libert guidant le peuple (1830)
France has been a center of cultural creation for centuries. Many French artists have been among the
most renowned of their time, and France is still much recognized and admired in the world for its very
rich cultural tradition.
The successive political regimes have always promoted artistic creation, and the creation of the
Ministry of Culture in 1959 helped preserve the cultural heritage of the country and make it available to
the public. The Ministry of Culture has been very active since its creation, granting subsidies to artists,
promoting French culture in the world, supporting festivals and cultural events, protecting historical
monuments. The French government also succeeded in maintaining a cultural exception to defend
audiovisual products made in the country.
France receives the highest number of tourists per year, largely thanks to the numerous cultural
establishments and historical buildings implanted all over the territory. It counts 1,200 museums
welcoming more than 50 million people annually.[253] The most important cultural sites are run by the
government, for instance through the public agency Centre des monuments nationaux, which have
around a hundred national historical monuments at charge.[clarification needed] The 43,180 buildings protected
88
as historical monuments include mainly residences (many castles, or chteaux in French) and religious
buildings (cathedrals, basilicas, churches, etc.), but also statutes, memorials and gardens.
Painting
Main article: French painting
Claude Monet founded the Impressionist movement (Femme avec un parasol, 1886,
Muse d'Orsay).
The origins of French painting were very much influenced by Italian art. The two most famous French
artists of the time of Renaissance, Nicolas Poussin and Claude Lorrain, lived in Italy. Louis XIV's
prime minister Jean-Baptiste Colbert founded in 1648 the Royal Academy of Painting and Sculpture to
protect these artists, and in 1666 he created the still-in-activity French Academy in Rome to have direct
relations with Italian artists. French painting also followed the evolution of Italian painters towards a
rococo style in the 18th century, as an imitation of old baroque style, the works of court-endorsed artists
Antoine Watteau, Franois Boucher and Jean-Honor Fragonard being the most representative in the
country. The French Revolution brought great changes, as Napoleon I favoured painters of neoclassic
style as Jacques-Louis David. The middle of the eighteen century was dominated by two successive
movements, at first Romanticism with Thodore Gricault and Eugne Delacroix, a more realistic
painting with Camille Corot, Gustave Courbet and Jean-Franois Millet.
In the second part of the 18th century, France became a center of artistic creation, developing a new
style of painting and counting on the most famous impressionist painters of the period, among them
Camille Pissarro, douard Manet, Edgar Degas, Claude Monet, Auguste Renoir.[254] Second generation
of impressionist-style painters Paul Czanne, Paul Gauguin, Toulouse-Lautrec and Georges Seurat were
also at the avant-guarde of artistic evolutions,[255] as well as fauvist artists Henri Matisse, Andr Derain
and Maurice de Vlaminck.[256][257] At the beginning of 20th century, Cubism was developed by Georges
89
Braque and Spanish painter Pablo Picasso, living in Paris. Other foreign artists also settled and worked
in or near Paris, like Vincent van Gogh, Marc Chagall and Wassily Kandinsky.
Many museums in France are entirely or partly devoted to painting works. A huge collection of old
masterpieces created before or during the 18th century are displayed in the state-owned Muse du
Louvre, such as Mona Lisa, also known as La Joconde. While the Louvre Palace has been for a long
time a museum, the Muse d'Orsay was inaugurated in 1986 in the old railway station Gare d'Orsay, in
a major reorganization of national art collections, to gather French paintings from the second part of the
19th century (mainly Impressionism and Fauvism movements).[258][259] Modern works are presented in
the Muse National d'Art Moderne, which moved in 1976 to the Centre Georges Pompidou. These three
state-owned museums welcome close to 17 million people a year.[260] Other national museums hosting
paintings include the Grand Palais (1,3 million visitors in 2008), but there are also many museums
owned by cities, the most visited being the Muse d'Art Moderne de la Ville de Paris (0,8 million
entries in 2008), which hosts contemporary works.[260]
Architecture
Main article: French architecture
Technically speaking, there is no standard type of "French" architecture, although that has not always
been true. Gothic Architecture's old name was French Architecture (or Opus Francigenum).[261] The
term Gothic appeared later as a stylistic insult and was widely adopted. The Gothic Architecture was
the first French style of Architecture to be copied in all Europe.[262] Northern France is the home of
some of the most important Gothic cathedrals and basilicas, the first of these being the Saint Denis
Basilica (used as the royal necropolis); other important French Gothic cathedrals are Notre-Dame de
Chartres and Notre-Dame d'Amiens. The kings were crowned in another important Gothic church:
Notre-Dame de Reims.[263] Aside from churches, Gothic Architecture had been used for many religious
palaces, the most important one being the Palais des Papes in Avignon.
Saint Louis' Sainte Chapelle represents the French impact on religious architecture.
During the Middle Ages, fortified castles were built by feudal nobles to mark their powers against their
rivals. When King Philip II took Rouen from King John, for example, he demolished the ducal castle to
90
build a bigger one. Fortified cities were also common, unfortunately most French castles did not
survive the passage of time. This is why Richard the Lionheart's Chteau Gaillard was demolished, as
well as the Chteau de Lusignan. Some important French castles that survived are Chinon, Chteau
d'Angers, the massive Chteau de Vincennes and the so called Cathar castles.
Before the appearance of this architecture France had been using Romanesque architecture like most of
Western Europe (with the exception of the Iberian Peninsula, which used Mooresque architecture,
which now consists of Spain and Portugal). Some of the greatest examples of Romanesque churches in
France are the Saint Sernin Basilica in Toulouse (largest romanesque church in Europe[264]) and the
remains of the Cluniac Abbey (largely destroyed during the Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars).
Opra Garnier, Paris, a symbol of the French Neo-Baroque style
The end of the Hundred Years' War marked an important stage in the evolution of French architecture.
It was the time of the French Renaissance and several artists from Italy and Spain were invited to the
French court; many residential palaces, inspired by the Italians, were built, but mainly in the Loire
Valley. Such residential castles were the Chteau de Chambord, the Chteau de Chenonceau, or the
Chteau d'Amboise. Following the renaissance and the end of the Middle Ages, Baroque Architecture
replaced the traditional gothic style. However, in France, baroque architecture found a greater success
in the secular domain than in a religious one.[265] In the secular domain the Palace of Versailles has
many baroque features. Jules Hardouin Mansart was said to be the most influential French architect of
the baroque era, with his famous dome, Les Invalides. Some of the most impressive provincial baroque
architecture is found in places that were not yet French such as the Place Stanislas in Nancy. On the
military architectural side, Vauban designed some of the most efficient fortresses in Europe and became
an influential military architect; as a result, imitations of his works can been found all over Europe, the
Americas, Russia and Turkey.[266][267]
91
The Eiffel Tower is an icon of both Paris and France
After the Revolution the Republicans favoured Neoclassicism although neoclassicism was introduced
in France prior to the revolution with such building as the Parisian Pantheon or the Capitole de
Toulouse. Built during the French Empire the Arc de Triomphe and Sainte Marie-Madeleine represent
this trend the best.[268]
Under Napoleon III a new wave of urbanism and architecture was given birth. If extravagant buildings
such as the neo-baroque Palais Garnier were built, the urban planning of the time was very organised
and rigorous.[citation needed] For example, Baron Haussmann rebuilt Paris. The architecture associated to this
era is named Second Empire in English, the term being taken from the Second French Empire. At this
time there was a strong Gothic resurgence across Europe and in France the associated architect was
Eugne Viollet-le-Duc. In the late 19th century Gustave Eiffel designed many bridges, such as Garabit
viaduct, and remains one of the most influential bridge designer of his time, although he is best
remembered for the iconic Eiffel Tower.
In the 20th century, Swiss Architect Le Corbusier designed several buildings in France. More recently
French architects have combined both modern and old architectural styles. The Louvre Pyramid is an
example of modern architecture added to an older building. Certainly the most difficult buildings to
integrate within French cities are skyscrapers, as they are visible from afar. For instance, in Paris, since
1977, new buildings had to be under 37 meters, or 121 feet.[269] France's largest financial district is La
Defense, where a significant number of skyscrapers are located.[270] Other massive buildings that are a
challenge to integrate into their environment are large bridges; a good example of the way this has been
done is the Millau Viaduct. Some famous modern French architects include Jean Nouvel or Paul
Andreu.
Literature
92
Main article: French literature
French literary figures. Clockwise from top left: Molire is the most played author in the
Comdie-Franaise[271]; Victor Hugo is one of the most important French novelists and
poets, and is sometimes seen as the greatest French writer of all time. [272]; 19th century
poet, writer, and translator Charles Baudelaire; 20th century philosopher and novelist
Jean-Paul Sartre.
The earliest French literature dates from the Middle Ages, when what is now known as modern France
did not have a single, uniform language. There were several languages and dialects and each writer
used his own spelling and grammar.[citation needed] The authors of French mediaeval texts are unknown,
such as Tristan and Iseult and Lancelot and the Holy Grail. Much mediaeval French poetry and
literature were inspired by the legends of the Matter of France, such as The Song of Roland and the
various Chansons de geste. The Roman de Renart, written in 1175 by Perrout de Saint Cloude tells
the story of the mediaeval character Reynard ('the Fox') and is another example of early French writing.
The names of some authors from this period are known, for example Chrtien de Troyes and Duke
William IX of Aquitaine, who wrote in Occitan.
An important 16th century writer was Franois Rabelais who influenced modern French vocabulary
and metaphor.[citation needed] During the 17th century, plays by Pierre Corneille, Jean Racine and Molire, as
well as the moral and philosophical books by Blaise Pascal and Ren Descartes, deeply influenced the
French aristocracy leaving an important new niche for authors of the following decades, such as Jean de
La Fontaine, who was an important poet from this century.
French literature and poetry flourished in the 18th and 19th centuries. The 18th century saw the works
of writers, essayists and moralists such as Voltaire, Denis Diderot and Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Charles
Perrault was a prolific writer of famous children's fairy tales including Puss in Boots, Cinderella,
Sleeping Beauty and Bluebeard.
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At the turn of the 19th century symbolist poetry was an important movement in French literature, with
poets such as Charles Baudelaire, Paul Verlaine and Stphane Mallarm.[clarification needed][273] The 19th
century saw the writings of French authors: Victor Hugo (Les Misrables), Alexandre Dumas (The
Three Musketeers and The Count of Monte-Cristo), and Jules Verne (Twenty Thousand Leagues Under
the Sea), which are amongst the most well-known in France and the world. Other 19th century fiction
writers include mile Zola, Honor de Balzac, Guy de Maupassant, Thophile Gautier and Stendhal.
The Prix Goncourt is a French literary prize first awarded in 1903.[274] Important writers of the 20th
century include Marcel Proust, Louis-Ferdinand Cline, Albert Camus, and Jean-Paul Sartre. Antoine
de Saint Exupry wrote Little Prince which has remained popular for decades with children and adults
around the world.[275] For most of the 20th century, French authors had more Literature Nobel Prizes
than those of any other nation.[276] Compare the Evolution of Nobel Prizes by country.
Music
Main article: Music of France
Although the musical creation in France dates back to the Middle Ages, it knew its golden age in the
17th century thanks to Louis XIV, who employed several musicians and composers in the royal court.
The most renowned composers of this period include Marc-Antoine Charpentier, Franois Couperin,
Michel-Richard Delalande, Jean-Baptiste Lully and Marin Marais, all of them composers at the court.
After the death of the "Roi Soleil", French musical creation lost dynamism, but in the next century the
music of Jean-Philippe Rameau reached some prestige, and today he is still one of the most renowned
French composers. French classical music knew a revival in the 19th and 20th century, at the end of the
romantic movement, at first with opera composers Hector Berlioz, Georges Bizet, Gabriel Faur,
Charles Gounod, Jacques Offenbach, douard Lalo, Jules Massenet and Camille Saint-Sans. This
period was a golden age for operas, being popular in the country the opra bouffon, the opera-ballet and
the opra comique genres. Later came precursors of modern classical music rik Satie, Francis
Poulenc, and above all Maurice Ravel and Claude Debussy, who invented new musical forms.[277][278][279]
[280]
More recently, at the middle of the 20th century, Maurice Ohana, Pierre Schaeffer and Pierre Boulez
contributed to the evolutions of contemporary classical music.[281]
Daft Punk, pioneers of the French house.

94
French music then followed the rapid emergence of pop and rock music at the middle of the 20th
century. Although English-speaking creations achieved popularity in the country, French pop music,
known as chanson franaise, has also remained very popular. Among the most important French artists
of the century are Edith Piaf, Georges Brassens, Lo Ferr, Charles Aznavour and Serge Gainsbourg.
Although there are very few rock bands in France compared to English-speaking countries,[282] bands
such as Noir Dsir, Mano Negra, Niagara, Rita Mitsouko and more recently Superbus, Phoenix and
Gojira[283] have reached worldwide popularity. Other French artists with international careers have been
popular in several countries, for example female singers Mireille Mathieu and Mylne Farmer,[283]
electronic music pioneers Jean-Michel Jarre, Laurent Garnier and Bob Sinclar, and later David Guetta.
In the 1990s and 2000s, electronic duos Daft Punk, Justice and Air also reached worldwide popularity
and contributed to the reputation of modern electronic music in the world.[283][284][285]
Among current musical events and institutions in France, many are dedicated to classical music and
operas. The most prestigious institutions are the state-owned Paris National Opera (with its two sites
Palais Garnier and Opra Bastille), the Opra National de Lyon, the Thtre du Chtelet in Paris, the
Thtre du Capitole in Toulouse and the Grand Thtre de Bordeaux. As for music festivals, there are
several events organized, the most popular being the Eurockennes and Rock en Seine. The Fte de la
Musique, imitated by many foreign cities, was first launched by the French government in 1982.[286][287]
Major music halls and venues in France include Le Znith sites present in many cities and other places
in Paris (Paris Olympia, Thtre Mogador, lyse Montmartre, etc.).
Cinema
Main article: Cinema of France
World's first movie advertising for l'Arroseur Arros, 1895
France has historical and strong links with cinema. It is two Frenchmen, Auguste and Louis Lumire
(known as the Lumiere Brothers) who created the cinema in 1895.[288] More recently, in 2006, France
produced more films than any other European country.[289] Cannes Festival is one of the most important
and famous film festivals in the world.[290][291]
95
Although the French film market is dominated by Hollywood, it is however the Western country (out of
the United States) where the share of the American films in the total film revenues is the smallest, at
50.1%, to compare with 77.3% of Germany and 69.4% of Japan.[292] Thus, French films account for
34.8% of the total film revenues of France, which is the highest percentage of national films revenues
in developed countries (the U.S. not included), to compare with 13.7% in Spain and 8.3% in the UK.[292]
France was for centuries, and not so long ago, the cultural center of the world.[214] But France's
dominant position has been overthrown by American culture, and thus France tries to protect its
culture. France has been a strong advocate of the cultural exception.[293] France therefore succeeded in
convincing all the EU members to refuse to include culture and audiovisuals in the list of liberalized
sectors of the WTO in 1993.[294]
Moreover, this decision was confirmed in a voting in the UNESCO in 2005, and the principle of
"cultural exception" won an overwhelming victory: 198 countries voted for it, only 2 countries, the U.S
and Israel, voted against it.[295]
Fashion
Main article: French fashion
Chanel's headquarters on the Place Vendme, Paris.
Fashion has been an important industry and cultural export of France since the 17th century, and
modern "haute couture" originated in Paris in the 1860s. Today, Paris, along with London, Milan, and
New York City, is considered one of the world's fashion capitals, and the city is home or headquarters
to many of the premier fashion houses. The expression Haute couture is, in France, a legally protected
name, guaranteeing certain quality standards.
96
The association of France with fashion and style (French: la mode) dates largely to the reign of Louis
XIV[296] when the luxury goods industries in France came increasingly under royal control and the
French royal court became, arguably, the arbiter of taste and style in Europe. But France renewed its
dominance of the high fashion (French: couture or haute couture) industry in the years 1860-1960
through the establishing of the great couturier houses such as Chanel, Dior, and Givenchy.
In the 1960s, the elitist "Haute couture" came under criticism from France's youth culture. In 1966, the
designer Yves Saint Laurent broke with established Haute Couture norms by launching a prt--porter
("ready to wear") line and expanding French fashion into mass manufacturing. With a greater focus on
marketing and manufacturing, new trends were established by Sonia Rykiel, Thierry Mugler, Claude
Montana, Jean-Paul Gaultier and Christian Lacroix in the 1970s and 80s. The 1990s saw a
conglomeration of many French couture houses under luxury giants and multinationals such as LVMH.
Media
Main article: Telecommunications in France
Compared to other developed countries, the French do not spend much time reading newspapers, due to
the popularity of broadcast media. Best-selling daily national newspapers in France are Le Monde and
right-wing Le Figaro, with around 300.000 copies sold daily, but also L'quipe, dedicated to sports
coverage.[297] In the past years, free dailies made a breakthrough, with Metro, 20 Minutes and Direct
Plus distributed at more than 650.000 copies respectively.[298] However, the widest circulations are
reached by regional daily Ouest France with more than 750.000 copies sold, and the 50 other regional
papers have also high sales.[299][300] The sector of weekly magazines is stronger and diversified with
more than 400 specialized weekly magazines published in the country.[301]
The most influential news magazine are left-wing Le Nouvel Observateur, centrist L'Express and rightwing Le Point (more than 400.000 copies),[302] but the highest circulation for weeklies is reached by TV
magazines and by womens magazines, among them Marie Claire and ELLE, which have foreign
versions. Influential weeklies also include investigative and satirical papers Le Canard Enchan and
Charlie Hebdo, as well as Paris Match. Like in most industrialized nations, the print media have been
affected by a severe crisis in the past decade. In 2008, the government have launched a major initiative
to help the sector reform to be financially independent,[303][304] but in 2009 it had to give 600.000 euros
to help the print media cope with the economic crisis, in addition to existing subsidies.[305]
In 1974, after years of centralized monopoly on radio and television, the governmental agency ORTF
was split into several national institutions, but the three already-existing TV channels and four national
radio stations[306][307] remained under state-control. It was only in 1981 when the government allowed
free broadcasting in the territory, ending state monopoly on radio.[307] French television was partly
liberalized in the next two decade with the creation of several commercial channels, mainly thanks to
cable and satellite television. In 2005 the national service Tlvision Numrique Terrestre introduced
digital television all over the territory, allowing the creation of other channels.
97
The four existing national channels are now owned by state-owned consortium France Tlvisions,
while public broadcasting group Radio France run five national radio stations. Among these public
media are Radio France Internationale, which broadcasts programs in French all over the world, and
Franco-German TV channel TV5 Monde. In 2006, the government created global news channel France
24. Long-established TV channels TF1 (privatized in 1987), France 2 and France 3 have the highest
shares, while radio stations RTL, Europe 1 and state-owned France Inter are the least listened to.
Society
Voltaire fought intolerance and fanaticism, and was a prominent and very prolific
philosopher of the Enlightenment.
According to a 2010 BBC poll based on 29,977 responses in 28 countries, France is globally seen as a
positive influence in the world's affairs: 49 % have a positive view of the country's influence, whereas
19 % have a negative view.[308][309] The Nation Brand Index of 2008 suggested that France has the
second best international reputation, only behind Germany.[310]
In January 2010, the International Living ranked France as "best country to live in", ahead of 193 other
countries surveyed, for the fifth year running, according to a survey taking in account 9 criteria of
quality of life: Cost of Living, Culture and Leisure, Economy, Environment, Freedom, Health,
Infrastructure, Safety and Risk and Climate.[311][312]
France has historical strong ties with Human Rights.[313] Since the Declaration of the Rights of Man and
of the Citizen of 1789, France is often nicknamed as "the country of Human Rights".[314] Furthermore,
in 1948, a Frenchman, Ren Cassin, was one of the main redactors of the Universal Declaration of
Human Rights which was adopted by the UN members in Paris.[313]
National symbols strongly reflect the heritage of the Revolution. The four official symbols of the
Republic, as stated by the Constitution,[315] all commemorate events from the period. Bastille Day, the
national holiday, commemorate the Fte de la Fdration, held on 14 July 1790 to celebrate the
98
storming of the Bastille.[316] The origins of Tricolored flag also date back to the Revolution, as the
cockade was the symbols adopted by the revolutionaries in 1789.[317]
As for the national anthem La Marseillaise, it was written in 1792 as a war song for the French Army.
[318][319]
The official motto of the French Republic, "Libert, galit, fraternit" (Liberty, equality,
brotherhood) also appeared during the French Revolution.[320] Marianne, unofficial symbol, is an
allegorical figure of liberty and of the Republic and also appeared at the time of the Revolution.[321]
A common and traditional symbol of the French people is the Gallic rooster. Its origins date back to
Antiquity, since the Latin word Gallus meant both "rooster" and "inhabitant of Gaul". Then this figure
gradually became the most widely shared representation of the French, used by French monarchs, then
by the Revolution and under the successive republican regimes as representation of the national
identity, used for some stamps and coins.[322] Although it is not an official symbol of the Republic, it is
the most common image to symbolize France in the collective imagination and abroad.
Cuisine
Main article: French cuisine
Foie gras
French cuisine is renowned for being one of the finest in the world.[323][324][325][326][327][328][329] French
cuisine is extremely diverse and has exerted a major influence on other western cuisines.[330] According
to the regions, traditional recipes are different, the North of the country prefers to use butter as the
preferred fat for cooking, whereas olive oil is more commonly used in the South.[331]
Moreover, each region of France has iconic traditional specialities : Cassoulet in the Southwest,
Choucroute in Alsace, Quiche in the Lorraine region, Beef bourguignon in the Bourgogne, provenal
Tapenade, etc. France's most renowned products are wines,[332] including Champagne, Bordeaux,
Bourgogne, and Beaujolais as well as a large variety of different cheeses, such as Camembert,
Roquefort and Brie. There are more than 400 different varieties.[333][334]
99
French cuisine is also regarded as a key element of the quality of life and the attractiveness of France.
[312]
A French publication, the Michelin guide, had by 2006 awarded 620 stars to French restaurants, at
that time more than any other country, although the guide also inspects more restaurants in France than
in any other country (by 2010, Japan was awarded as many Michelin stars as France, despite having
half the number of Michelin inspectors working there).[335][336]
Sports
Main article: Sport in France
Tour de France
Popular sports played in France include football, judo and tennis.[337] France has hosted events such as
the 1938 and 1998 FIFA World Cups,[338] and hosted the 2007 Rugby Union World Cup.[339] Stade de
France in Paris is the largest stadium in France and was the venue for the 1998 FIFA World Cup final,
and hosted the 2007 Rugby World Cup final in October 2007. France also hosts the annual Tour de
France, the most famous road bicycle race in the world.[340][341] France is also famous for its 24 Hours of
Le Mans sports car endurance race held in the Sarthe department.[342] Several major tennis tournaments
take place in France, including the Paris Masters and the French Open, one of the four Grand Slam
tournaments.
France has a close association with the Modern Olympic Games; it was a French aristocrat, Baron
Pierre de Coubertin, who suggested the Games' revival, at the end of the 19th century.[343][344] After
Athens was awarded the first Games, in reference to the Greek origins of the ancient Olympics, Paris
hosted the second Games in 1900.[345] Paris was also the first home of the International Olympic
Committee, before it moved to Lausanne.[346] Since that 1900 Games, France has hosted the Olympics
on four further occasions: the 1924 Summer Olympics, again in Paris[344] and three Winter Games (1924
in Chamonix, 1968 in Grenoble and 1992 in Albertville).[344]
Both the national football team and the national rugby union team are nicknamed Les Bleus in
reference to the teams shirt color as well as the national French tricolor flag. The football team is
among the most successful in the world, particularly at the turn of the 21st century, with one FIFA
100
World Cup victory in 1998,[347] one FIFA World Cup second place in 2006,[348] and two European
Championships in 1984[349] and 2000.[350] The top national football club competition is the Ligue 1.
Rugby is also very popular, particularly in Paris and the southwest of France.[351] The national rugby
team has competed at every Rugby World Cup, and takes part in the annual Six Nations Championship.
Following from a strong domestic tournament the French rugby team has won sixteen Six Nations
Championships, including eight grand slams; and have reached the semi-finals and final of the Rugby
World Cup.
Rugby league in France is a sport that is most popular in the south with cities such as Perpignan and
Toulouse having a strong presence in the game. The Catalans Dragons currently play in Super League
which is the top tier rugby league competition in Europe. Toulouse Olympique play in the Co-operative
Championship which is the 2nd tier of European rugby league. The Elite One Championship is the top
tier of French rugby league
United States

This article is about the United States of America. For other uses of terms redirecting here, see US
(disambiguation), USA (disambiguation), and United States (disambiguation).
United States of America
Flag
Great Seal
Motto: In God We Trust (official)

E Pluribus Unum (traditional)
(Latin: Out of Many, One)
Anthem: "The Star-Spangled Banner"
101
Washington, D.C.
Capital
3853N 7701W38.883N 77.017W
Largest city
Official language(s)
National language
Demonym
Government
New York City

None at federal level[a]
English (de facto)[b]
American
Federal presidential
constitutional republic
President
Barack Obama (D)
Vice President
Joe Biden (D)
Speaker of the
House
Chief Justice
Legislature
John Boehner (R)
John Roberts
Congress
102
Upper House
Senate
Lower House
House of Representatives
Independence from the Kingdom of Great Britain

-
Declared
July 4, 1776
Recognized
September 3, 1783
Current
constitution
June 21, 1788
Area
Total
Water (%)
9,826,675 km2 [1][c](3rd/4th)

3,794,101 sq mi
6.76
Population
2010 census
Density
GDP (PPP)
308,745,538[2]
33.7/km2
87.4/sq mi
2010 estimate
Total
$14.624 trillion[3] (1st)
Per capita
$47,123[3] (6th)
GDP (nominal)
-
Total
2010 estimate
$14.624 trillion[3] (1st)
103
Per capita
Gini (2007)
$47,132[3] (9th)
45.0[1] (44th)
0.902[4] (very
HDI (2010)
high) (4th)
Currency
United States dollar ($) (USD)
Time zone
(UTC5 to 10)
Summer (DST)
(UTC4 to 10)
Date formats
m/d/yy (AD)
Drives on the
right
Internet TLD
.us .gov .mil .edu
Calling code
+1
^ a. English is the official language of at least 28 statessome sources give a higher

figure, based on differing definitions of "official". [5] English and Hawaiian are both
official languages in the state of Hawaii.
^ b. English is the de facto language of American government and the sole language
spoken at home by 80% of Americans age five and older. Spanish is the second most
commonly spoken language.
^ c. Whether the United States or the People's Republic of China is larger is disputed.
The figure given is from the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency's World Factbook.
Other sources give smaller figures. All authoritative calculations of the country's size
include only the 50 states and the District of Columbia, not the territories.
^ d. The population estimate includes people whose usual residence is in the fifty
states and the District of Columbia, including noncitizens. It does not include either
104
those living in the territories, amounting to more than 4 million U.S. citizens (most in
Puerto Rico), or U.S. citizens living outside the United States.
The United States of America (also referred to as the United States, the U.S., the USA, the States, or
America) is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district. The country
is situated mostly in central North America, where its forty-eight contiguous states and
Washington, D.C., the capital district, lie between the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, bordered by Canada
to the north and Mexico to the south. The state of Alaska is in the northwest of the continent, with
Canada to the east and Russia to the west across the Bering Strait. The state of Hawaii is an archipelago
in the mid-Pacific. The country also possesses several territories in the Caribbean and Pacific.
At 3.79 million square miles (9.83 million km2) and with over 308 million people, the United States is
the third or fourth largest country by total area, and the third largest both by land area and population. It
is one of the world's most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale
immigration from many countries.[6] The U.S. economy is the world's largest national economy, with an
estimated 2009 GDP of $14.3 trillion (24% of nominal global GDP and 20% of global GDP at
purchasing power parity).[3][7]
Indigenous peoples of Asian origin have inhabited what is now the mainland United States for many
thousands of years. This Native American population was greatly reduced by disease and warfare after
European contact. The United States was founded by thirteen British colonies located along the Atlantic
seaboard. On July 4, 1776, they issued the Declaration of Independence, which proclaimed their right to
self-determination and their establishment of a cooperative union. The rebellious states defeated the
British Empire in the American Revolution, the first successful colonial war of independence.[8] The
current United States Constitution was adopted on September 17, 1787; its ratification the following
year made the states part of a single republic with a strong federal government. The Bill of Rights,
comprising ten constitutional amendments guaranteeing many fundamental civil rights and freedoms,
was ratified in 1791.
In the 19th century, the United States acquired land from France, Spain, the United Kingdom, Mexico,
and Russia, and annexed the Republic of Texas and the Republic of Hawaii. Disputes between the
agrarian South and industrial North over states' rights and the expansion of the institution of slavery
provoked the American Civil War of the 1860s. The North's victory prevented a permanent split of the
country and led to the end of legal slavery in the United States. By the 1870s, the national economy
was the world's largest.[9] The SpanishAmerican War and World War I confirmed the country's status
as a military power. It emerged from World War II as the first country with nuclear weapons and a
permanent member of the United Nations Security Council. The end of the Cold War and the
dissolution of the Soviet Union left the United States as the sole superpower. The country accounts for
43% of global military spending and is a leading economic, political, and cultural force in the world.[10]
Contents
1 Etymology
105
2 Geography, climate, and environment
3 History
o 3.1 Native Americans and European settlers
o 3.2 Independence and expansion
o 3.3 Civil War and industrialization
o 3.4 World War I, Great Depression, and World War II
o 3.5 Cold War and protest politics
o 3.6 Contemporary era
4 Government and elections

o 4.1 Parties, ideology, and politics
5 Political divisions
6 Foreign relations and military
7 Economy
o 7.1 Income and human development
o 7.2 Science and technology
o 7.3 Transportation
o 7.4 Energy
8 Demographics
9 Language
10 Religion
11 Education
106
12 Health
13 Crime and law enforcement
14 Culture
o 14.1 Popular media
o 14.2 Literature, philosophy, and the arts
o 14.3 Food
o 14.4 Sports
o 14.5 Measurement systems
15 See also
16 References
17 External links
Etymology
See also: Names for United States citizens
In 1507, German cartographer Martin Waldseemller produced a world map on which he named the
lands of the Western Hemisphere "America" after Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci.
[11]
The former British colonies first used the country's modern name in the Declaration of
Independence, the "unanimous Declaration of the thirteen united States of America" adopted by the
"Representatives of the united States of America" on July 4, 1776.[12] On November 15, 1777, the
Second Continental Congress adopted the Articles of Confederation, which states, "The Stile of this
Confederacy shall be 'The United States of America.'" The Franco-American treaties of 1778 used
"United States of North America", but from July 11, 1778, "United States of America" was used on the
country's bills of exchange, and it has been the official name ever since.[13]
The short form the United States is also standard. Other common forms include the U.S., the USA, and
America. Colloquial names include the U.S. of A. and the States. Columbia, a once popular name for
the United States, was derived from Christopher Columbus; it appears in the name "District of
Columbia".
107
The standard way to refer to a citizen of the United States is as an American. Though United States is
the formal appositional term, American and U.S. are more commonly used to refer to the country
adjectivally ("American values," "U.S. forces"). American is rarely used in English to refer to people
not connected to the United States.[14]
The phrase "the United States" was originally treated as plurale.g., "the United States are"
including in the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1865. It became
common to treat it as singulare.g., "the United States is"after the end of the Civil War. The singular
form is now standard; the plural form is retained in the idiom "these United States".[15]
Geography, climate, and environment

Main articles: Geography of the United States, Climate of the United States, and Environment of the
United States
The land area of the contiguous United States is approximately 1.9 billion acres (770 million hectares).
Alaska, separated from the contiguous United States by Canada, is the largest state at 365 million acres
(150 million hectares). Hawaii, occupying an archipelago in the central Pacific, southwest of North
America, has just over 4 million acres (1.6 million hectares).[16] The United States is the world's third or
fourth largest nation by total area (land and water), ranking behind Russia and Canada and just above or
below China. The ranking varies depending on how two territories disputed by China and India are
counted and how the total size of the United States is calculated: the CIA World Factbook gives
3,794,101 square miles (9,826,675 km2),[1] the United Nations Statistics Division gives
3,717,813 square miles (9,629,091 km2),[17] and the Encyclopdia Britannica gives 3,676,486 square
miles (9,522,055 km2).[18] Including only land area, the United States is third in size behind Russia and
China, just ahead of Canada.[19]
Satellite image showing topography of the contiguous United States

The coastal plain of the Atlantic seaboard gives way further inland to deciduous forests and the rolling
hills of the Piedmont. The Appalachian Mountains divide the eastern seaboard from the Great Lakes
and the grasslands of the Midwest. The MississippiMissouri River, the world's fourth longest river
system, runs mainly northsouth through the heart of the country. The flat, fertile prairie of the Great
Plains stretches to the west, interrupted by a highland region in the southeast. The Rocky Mountains, at
108
the western edge of the Great Plains, extend north to south across the country, reaching altitudes higher
than 14,000 feet (4,300 m) in Colorado. Farther west are the rocky Great Basin and deserts such as the
Mojave. The Sierra Nevada and Cascade mountain ranges run close to the Pacific coast. At 20,320 feet
(6,194 m), Alaska's Mount McKinley is the tallest peak in the country and in North America. Active
volcanoes are common throughout Alaska's Alexander and Aleutian Islands, and Hawaii consists of
volcanic islands. The supervolcano underlying Yellowstone National Park in the Rockies is the
continent's largest volcanic feature.[20]
The United States, with its large size and geographic variety, includes most climate types. To the east of
the 100th meridian, the climate ranges from humid continental in the north to humid subtropical in the
south. The southern tip of Florida is tropical, as is Hawaii. The Great Plains west of the 100th meridian
are semi-arid. Much of the Western mountains are alpine. The climate is arid in the Great Basin, desert
in the Southwest, Mediterranean in coastal California, and oceanic in coastal Oregon and Washington
and southern Alaska. Most of Alaska is subarctic or polar. Extreme weather is not uncommonthe
states bordering the Gulf of Mexico are prone to hurricanes, and most of the world's tornadoes occur
within the country, mainly in the Midwest's Tornado Alley.[21]
The U.S. ecology is considered "megadiverse": about 17,000 species of vascular plants occur in the
contiguous United States and Alaska, and over 1,800 species of flowering plants are found in Hawaii,
few of which occur on the mainland.[22] The United States is home to more than 400 mammal, 750 bird,
and 500 reptile and amphibian species.[23] About 91,000 insect species have been described.[24] The
Endangered Species Act of 1973 protects threatened and endangered species and their habitats, which
are monitored by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service. There are fifty-eight national parks and
hundreds of other federally managed parks, forests, and wilderness areas.[25] Altogether, the government
owns 28.8% of the country's land area.[26] Most of this is protected, though some is leased for oil and
gas drilling, mining, logging, or cattle ranching; 2.4% is used for military purposes.[26]
History
Main article: History of the United States
Native Americans and European settlers

See also: Native Americans in the United States, European colonization of the Americas, and Thirteen
Colonies
The indigenous peoples of the U.S. mainland, including Alaska Natives, are believed to have migrated
from Asia, beginning between 12,000 and 40,000 years ago.[27] Some, such as the pre-Columbian
Mississippian culture, developed advanced agriculture, grand architecture, and state-level societies.
After Europeans began settling the Americas, many millions of indigenous Americans died from
epidemics of imported diseases such as smallpox.[28]
109
The Mayflower transported Pilgrims to the New World in 1620, as depicted in William Halsall's The
Mayflower in Plymouth Harbor, 1882
In 1492, Genoese explorer Christopher Columbus, under contract to the Spanish crown, reached several
Caribbean islands, making first contact with the indigenous people. On April 2, 1513, Spanish
conquistador Juan Ponce de Len landed on what he called "La Florida"the first documented
European arrival on what would become the U.S. mainland. Spanish settlements in the region were
followed by ones in the present-day southwestern United States that drew thousands through Mexico.
French fur traders established outposts of New France around the Great Lakes; France eventually
claimed much of the North American interior, down to the Gulf of Mexico. The first successful English
settlements were the Virginia Colony in Jamestown in 1607 and the Pilgrims' Plymouth Colony in
1620. The 1628 chartering of the Massachusetts Bay Colony resulted in a wave of migration; by 1634,
New England had been settled by some 10,000 Puritans. Between the late 1610s and the American
Revolution, about 50,000 convicts were shipped to Britain's American colonies.[29] Beginning in 1614,
the Dutch settled along the lower Hudson River, including New Amsterdam on Manhattan Island.
In 1674, the Dutch ceded their American territory to England; the province of New Netherland was
renamed New York. Many new immigrants, especially to the South, were indentured servantssome
two-thirds of all Virginia immigrants between 1630 and 1680.[30] By the turn of the 18th century,
African slaves were becoming the primary source of bonded labor. With the 1729 division of the
Carolinas and the 1732 colonization of Georgia, the thirteen British colonies that would become the
United States of America were established. All had local governments with elections open to most free
men, with a growing devotion to the ancient rights of Englishmen and a sense of self-government
stimulating support for republicanism. All legalized the African slave trade. With high birth rates, low
death rates, and steady immigration, the colonial population grew rapidly. The Christian revivalist
movement of the 1730s and 1740s known as the Great Awakening fueled interest in both religion and
religious liberty. In the French and Indian War, British forces seized Canada from the French, but the
francophone population remained politically isolated from the southern colonies. Excluding the Native
Americans (popularly known as "American Indians"), who were being displaced, those thirteen
colonies had a population of 2.6 million in 1770, about one-third that of Britain; nearly one in five
Americans were black slaves.[31] Though subject to British taxation, the American colonials had no
representation in the Parliament of Great Britain.
Independence and expansion
110
Declaration of Independence, by John Trumbull, 181718

Tensions between American colonials and the British during the revolutionary period of the 1760s and
early 1770s led to the American Revolutionary War, fought from 1775 through 1781. On June 14, 1775,
the Continental Congress, convening in Philadelphia, established a Continental Army under the
command of George Washington. Proclaiming that "all men are created equal" and endowed with
"certain unalienable Rights," the Congress adopted the Declaration of Independence, drafted largely by
Thomas Jefferson, on July 4, 1776. That date is now celebrated annually as America's Independence
Day. In 1777, the Articles of Confederation established a weak confederal government that operated
until 1789.
After the British defeat by American forces assisted by the French and the Spaniards, Great Britain
recognized the independence of the United States and the states' sovereignty over American territory
west to the Mississippi River. A constitutional convention was organized in 1787 by those wishing to
establish a strong national government, with powers of taxation. The United States Constitution was
ratified in 1788, and the new republic's first Senate, House of Representatives, and presidentGeorge
Washingtontook office in 1789. The Bill of Rights, forbidding federal restriction of personal
freedoms and guaranteeing a range of legal protections, was adopted in 1791.
Attitudes toward slavery were shifting; a clause in the Constitution protected the African slave trade
only until 1808. The Northern states abolished slavery between 1780 and 1804, leaving the slave states
of the South as defenders of the "peculiar institution." The Second Great Awakening, beginning about
1800, made evangelicalism a force behind various social reform movements, including abolitionism.
Territorial acquisitions by date

Americans' eagerness to expand westward prompted a long series of Indian Wars. The Louisiana
Purchase of French-claimed territory under President Thomas Jefferson in 1803 almost doubled the
nation's size.[32] The War of 1812, declared against Britain over various grievances and fought to a draw,
111
strengthened U.S. nationalism. A series of U.S. military incursions into Florida led Spain to cede it and
other Gulf Coast territory in 1819. The Trail of Tears in the 1830s exemplified the Indian removal
policy that stripped the native peoples of their land. The United States annexed the Republic of Texas in
1845. The concept of Manifest Destiny was popularized during this time.[33] The 1846 Oregon Treaty
with Britain led to U.S. control of the present-day American Northwest. The U.S. victory in the
MexicanAmerican War resulted in the 1848 cession of California and much of the present-day
American Southwest. The California Gold Rush of 184849 further spurred western migration. New
railways made relocation easier for settlers and increased conflicts with Native Americans. Over a halfcentury, up to 40 million American bison, or buffalo, were slaughtered for skins and meat and to ease
the railways' spread. The loss of the buffalo, a primary resource for the plains Indians, was an
existential blow to many native cultures.
Civil War and industrialization
Battle of Gettysburg, lithograph by Currier & Ives, ca. 1863

Tensions between slave and free states mounted with arguments over the relationship between the state
and federal governments, as well as violent conflicts over the spread of slavery into new states.
Abraham Lincoln, candidate of the largely antislavery Republican Party, was elected president in 1860.
Before he took office, seven slave states declared their secessionwhich the federal government
maintained was illegaland formed the Confederate States of America. With the Confederate attack
upon Fort Sumter, the American Civil War began and four more slave states joined the Confederacy.
Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation in 1863 declared slaves in the Confederacy to be free. Following
the Union victory in 1865, three amendments to the U.S. Constitution ensured freedom for the nearly
four million African Americans who had been slaves,[34] made them citizens, and gave them voting
rights. The war and its resolution led to a substantial increase in federal power.[35] The war remains the
deadliest conflict in American history, resulting in the deaths of 620,000 soldiers.[36]
Immigrants at Ellis Island, New York Harbor, 1902

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After the war, the assassination of Lincoln radicalized Republican Reconstruction policies aimed at
reintegrating and rebuilding the Southern states while ensuring the rights of the newly freed slaves. The
resolution of the disputed 1876 presidential election by the Compromise of 1877 ended Reconstruction;
Jim Crow laws soon disenfranchised many African Americans. In the North, urbanization and an
unprecedented influx of immigrants from Southern and Eastern Europe hastened the country's
industrialization. The wave of immigration, lasting until 1929, provided labor and transformed
American culture. National infrastructure development spurred economic growth. The 1867 Alaska
Purchase from Russia completed the country's mainland expansion. The Wounded Knee Massacre in
1890 was the last major armed conflict of the Indian Wars. In 1893, the indigenous monarchy of the
Pacific Kingdom of Hawaii was overthrown in a coup led by American residents; the United States
annexed the archipelago in 1898. Victory in the SpanishAmerican War the same year demonstrated
that the United States was a world power and led to the annexation of Puerto Rico, Guam, and the
Philippines.[37] The Philippines gained independence a half-century later; Puerto Rico and Guam remain
U.S. territories.
World War I, Great Depression, and World War II

See also: American Expeditionary Forces and Military history of the United States during World War II
An abandoned farm in South Dakota during the Dust Bowl, 1936

At the outbreak of World War I in 1914, the United States remained neutral. Most Americans
sympathized with the British and French, although many opposed intervention.[38] In 1917, the United
States joined the Allies, helping to turn the tide against the Central Powers. After the war, the Senate
did not ratify the Treaty of Versailles, which established the League of Nations. The country pursued a
policy of unilateralism, verging on isolationism.[39] In 1920, the women's rights movement won passage
of a constitutional amendment granting women's suffrage. The prosperity of the Roaring Twenties
ended with the Wall Street Crash of 1929 that triggered the Great Depression. After his election as
president in 1932, Franklin D. Roosevelt responded with the New Deal, a range of policies increasing
government intervention in the economy. The Dust Bowl of the mid-1930s impoverished many farming
communities and spurred a new wave of western migration.
113
Soldiers of the U.S. Army 1st Infantry Division landing in Normandy on D-Day, June 6, 1944
The United States, effectively neutral during World War II's early stages after Nazi Germany's invasion
of Poland in September 1939, began supplying materiel to the Allies in March 1941 through the LendLease program. On December 7, 1941, the Empire of Japan launched a surprise attack on Pearl Harbor,
prompting the United States to join the Allies against the Axis powers as well as the internment of
Japanese Americans by the thousands.[40] Participation in the war spurred capital investment and
industrial capacity. Among the major combatants, the United States was the only nation to become
richerindeed, far richerinstead of poorer because of the war.[41] Allied conferences at Bretton
Woods and Yalta outlined a new system of international organizations that placed the United States and
Soviet Union at the center of world affairs. As victory was won in Europe, a 1945 international
conference held in San Francisco produced the United Nations Charter, which became active after the
war.[42] The United States, having developed the first nuclear weapons, used them on the Japanese cities
of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August. Japan surrendered on September 2, ending the war.[43]
Cold War and protest politics
Martin Luther King, Jr. delivering his "I Have a Dream" speech, 1963
The United States and Soviet Union jockeyed for power after World War II during the Cold War,
dominating the military affairs of Europe through NATO and the Warsaw Pact. The United States
promoted liberal democracy and capitalism, while the Soviet Union promoted communism and a
centrally planned economy. Both supported dictatorships and engaged in proxy wars. American troops
fought Communist Chinese forces in the Korean War of 195053. The House Un-American Activities
Committee pursued a series of investigations into suspected leftist subversion, while Senator Joseph
McCarthy became the figurehead of anticommunist sentiment.
114
The 1961 Soviet launch of the first manned spaceflight prompted President John F. Kennedy's call for
the United States to be first to land "a man on the moon", achieved in 1969. Kennedy also faced a tense
nuclear showdown with Soviet forces in Cuba. Meanwhile, the United States experienced sustained
economic expansion. A growing civil rights movement, symbolized and led by African Americans such
as Rosa Parks, Martin Luther King, Jr., and James Bevel, used nonviolence to confront segregation and
discrimination. Following Kennedy's assassination in 1963, the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and Voting
Rights Act of 1965 were passed under President Lyndon B. Johnson. Johnson and his successor,
Richard Nixon, expanded a proxy war in Southeast Asia into the unsuccessful Vietnam War. A
widespread countercultural movement grew, fueled by opposition to the war, black nationalism, and the
sexual revolution. Betty Friedan, Gloria Steinem, and others led a new wave of feminism that sought
political, social, and economic equality for women.
As a result of the Watergate scandal, in 1974 Nixon became the first U.S. president to resign, to avoid
being impeached on charges including obstruction of justice and abuse of power; he was succeeded by
Vice President Gerald Ford. The Jimmy Carter administration of the late 1970s was marked by
stagflation and the Iran hostage crisis. The election of Ronald Reagan as president in 1980 heralded a
rightward shift in American politics, reflected in major changes in taxation and spending priorities. His
second term in office brought both the Iran-Contra scandal and significant diplomatic progress with the
Soviet Union. The subsequent Soviet collapse ended the Cold War.
Contemporary era
The World Trade Center on the morning of September 11, 2001

Under President George H. W. Bush, the United States took a lead role in the UNsanctioned Gulf War.
The longest economic expansion in modern U.S. historyfrom March 1991 to March 2001
encompassed the Bill Clinton administration and the dot-com bubble.[44] A civil lawsuit and sex scandal
led to Clinton's impeachment in 1998, but he remained in office. The 2000 presidential election, one of
the closest in American history, was resolved by a U.S. Supreme Court decisionGeorge W. Bush, son
of George H. W. Bush, became president.
On September 11, 2001, al-Qaeda terrorists struck the World Trade Center in New York City and The
Pentagon near Washington, D.C., killing nearly three thousand people. In response, the Bush
administration launched the global War on Terror. In October 2001, U.S. forces led an invasion of
Afghanistan, removing the Taliban government and al-Qaeda training camps. Taliban insurgents
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continue to fight a guerrilla war. In 2002, the Bush administration began to press for regime change in
Iraq on controversial grounds.[45] Lacking the support of NATO or an explicit UN mandate for military
intervention, Bush organized a Coalition of the Willing; coalition forces preemptively invaded Iraq in
2003, removing dictator Saddam Hussein. In 2005, Hurricane Katrina caused severe destruction along
much of the Gulf Coast, devastating New Orleans. On November 4, 2008, amid a global economic
recession the first African American president, Barack Obama, was elected. In 2010, major health care
and financial system reforms were enacted. The Deepwater Horizon oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico that
year became the largest peacetime oil disaster in history.[46]
Government and elections

Main articles: Federal government of the United States, state governments of the United States, and
elections in the United States
The west front of the United States Capitol, which houses the United States Congress.
The United States is the world's oldest surviving federation. It is a constitutional republic and
representative democracy, "in which majority rule is tempered by minority rights protected by law."[47]
The government is regulated by a system of checks and balances defined by the U.S. Constitution,
which serves as the country's supreme legal document. In the American federalist system, citizens are
usually subject to three levels of government, federal, state, and local; the local government's duties are
commonly split between county and municipal governments. In almost all cases, executive and
legislative officials are elected by a plurality vote of citizens by district. There is no proportional
representation at the federal level, and it is very rare at lower levels.
The south faade of the White House, home and workplace of the U.S. president.
The federal government is composed of three branches:
116
Legislative: The bicameral Congress, made up of the Senate and the House of Representatives,
makes federal law, declares war, approves treaties, has the power of the purse, and has the
power of impeachment, by which it can remove sitting members of the government.
Executive: The president is the commander-in-chief of the military, can veto legislative bills
before they become law, and appoints the members of the Cabinet (subject to Senate approval)
and other officers, who administer and enforce federal laws and policies.
Judicial: The Supreme Court and lower federal courts, whose judges are appointed by the
president with Senate approval, interpret laws and overturn those they find unconstitutional.
The west front of the United States Supreme Court Building.

The House of Representatives has 435 voting members, each representing a congressional district for a
two-year term. House seats are apportioned among the states by population every tenth year. As of the
2000 census, seven states have the minimum of one representative, while California, the most populous
state, has fifty-three. The Senate has 100 members with each state having two senators, elected at-large
to six-year terms; one third of Senate seats are up for election every other year. The president serves a
four-year term and may be elected to the office no more than twice. The president is not elected by
direct vote, but by an indirect electoral college system in which the determining votes are apportioned
by state. The Supreme Court, led by the Chief Justice of the United States, has nine members, who
serve for life.
The state governments are structured in roughly similar fashion; Nebraska uniquely has a unicameral
legislature. The governor (chief executive) of each state is directly elected. Some state judges and
cabinet officers are appointed by the governors of the respective states, while others are elected by
popular vote.
All laws and governmental procedures are subject to judicial review, and any law ruled in violation of
the Constitution is voided. The original text of the Constitution establishes the structure and
responsibilities of the federal government and its relationship with the individual states. Article One
protects the right to the "great writ" of habeas corpus, and Article Three guarantees the right to a jury
trial in all criminal cases. Amendments to the Constitution require the approval of three-fourths of the
states. The Constitution has been amended twenty-seven times; the first ten amendments, which make
up the Bill of Rights, and the Fourteenth Amendment form the central basis of Americans' individual
rights.
117
Parties, ideology, and politics

Main articles: Politics of the United States and Political ideologies in the United States
Barack Obama taking the presidential oath of office from U.S. Chief Justice John Roberts, January 20,
2009
The United States has operated under a two-party system for most of its history. For elective offices at
most levels, state-administered primary elections choose the major party nominees for subsequent
general elections. Since the general election of 1856, the major parties have been the Democratic Party,
founded in 1824, and the Republican Party, founded in 1854. Since the Civil War, only one third-party
presidential candidateformer president Theodore Roosevelt, running as a Progressive in 1912has
won as much as 20% of the popular vote.
Within American political culture, the Republican Party is considered center-right or "conservative" and
the Democratic Party is considered center-left or "liberal". The states of the Northeast and West Coast
and some of the Great Lakes states, known as "blue states", are relatively liberal. The "red states" of the
South and parts of the Great Plains and Rocky Mountains are relatively conservative.
The winner of the 2008 presidential election, Democrat Barack Obama, is the 44th U.S. president. All
previous presidents were men of solely European descent. The 2010 midterm elections saw the
Republican Party take control of the House and make gains in the Senate, where the Democrats retain
the majority. In the 112th United States Congress, the Senate comprises 51 Democrats, two
independents who caucus with the Democrats, and 47 Republicans; the House comprises 242
Republicans and 193 Democrats. There are 29 Republican and 20 Democratic state governors, as well
as one independent.
Political divisions
Main article: U.S. state
Further information: Territorial evolution of the United States and United States territorial
acquisitions
The United States is a federal union of fifty states. The original thirteen states were the successors of
the thirteen colonies that rebelled against British rule. Early in the country's history, three new states
were organized on territory separated from the claims of the existing states: Kentucky from Virginia;
118
Tennessee from North Carolina; and Maine from Massachusetts. Most of the other states have been
carved from territories obtained through war or purchase by the U.S. government. One set of exceptions
comprises Vermont, Texas, and Hawaii: each was an independent republic before joining the union.
During the American Civil War, West Virginia broke away from Virginia. The most recent state
Hawaiiachieved statehood on August 21, 1959. The states do not have the right to secede from the
union.
The states compose the vast bulk of the U.S. land mass; the two other areas considered integral parts of
the country are the District of Columbia, the federal district where the capital, Washington, is located;
and Palmyra Atoll, an uninhabited but incorporated territory in the Pacific Ocean. The United States
also possesses five major overseas territories: Puerto Rico and the United States Virgin Islands in the
Caribbean; and American Samoa, Guam, and the Northern Mariana Islands in the Pacific. Those born
in the major territories (except for American Samoa) possess U.S. citizenship. American citizens
residing in the territories have many of the same rights and responsibilities as citizens residing in the
states; however, they are generally exempt from federal income tax, may not vote for president, and
have only nonvoting representation in the U.S. Congress.[48]

Main articles: Foreign policy of the United States and United States Armed Forces
119
British Foreign Secretary William Hague and U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton, May 2010
The United States exercises global economic, political, and military influence. It is a permanent
member of the United Nations Security Council and New York City hosts the United Nations
Headquarters. It is a member of the G8, G20, and Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development. Almost all countries have embassies in Washington, D.C., and many have consulates
around the country. Likewise, nearly all nations host American diplomatic missions. However, Cuba,
Iran, North Korea, Bhutan, Sudan, and the Republic of China (Taiwan) do not have formal diplomatic
relations with the United States.
The United States has a "special relationship" with the United Kingdom[49] and strong ties with Canada,
Australia, New Zealand, Japan, South Korea, and Israel. It works closely with fellow NATO members
on military and security issues and with its neighbors through the Organization of American States and
free trade agreements such as the trilateral North American Free Trade Agreement with Canada and
Mexico. In 2008, the United States spent a net $25.4 billion on official development assistance, the
most in the world. As a share of gross national income (GNI), however, the U.S. contribution of 0.18%
ranked last among twenty-two donor states. In contrast, private overseas giving by Americans is
relatively generous.[50]
The USS Abraham Lincoln aircraft carrier

The president holds the title of commander-in-chief of the nation's armed forces and appoints its
leaders, the secretary of defense and the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The United States Department of Defense
administers the armed forces, including the Army, Navy, Marine Corps, and Air Force. The Coast
Guard is run by the Department of Homeland Security in peacetime and the Department of the Navy in
time of war. In 2008, the armed forces had 1.4 million personnel on active duty. The Reserves and
National Guard brought the total number of troops to 2.3 million. The Department of Defense also
employed about 700,000 civilians, not including contractors.[51]
120
Military service is voluntary, though conscription may occur in wartime through the Selective Service
System. American forces can be rapidly deployed by the Air Force's large fleet of transport aircraft, the
Navy's eleven active aircraft carriers, and Marine Expeditionary Units at sea with the Navy's Atlantic
and Pacific fleets. The military operates 865 bases and facilities abroad,[52] and maintains deployments
greater than 100 active duty personnel in 25 foreign countries.[53] The extent of this global military
presence has prompted some scholars to describe the United States as maintaining an "empire of
bases."[54]
Total U.S. military spending in 2008, more than $600 billion, was over 41% of global military spending
and greater than the next fourteen largest national military expenditures combined. The per capita
spending of $1,967 was about nine times the world average; at 4% of GDP, the rate was the secondhighest among the top fifteen military spenders, after Saudi Arabia.[55] The proposed base Department
of Defense budget for 2011, $549 billion, is a 3.4% increase over 2010 and 85% higher than in 2001; an
additional $159 billion is proposed for the military campaigns in Iraq and Afghanistan.[56] As of
September 2010, the United States is scheduled to have 96,000 troops deployed to Afghanistan, and
50,000 to Iraq.[57] As of January 5, 2011, the United States had suffered 4,432 military fatalities during
the Iraq War,[58] and 1,448 during the War in Afghanistan.[59]
Economy
Main article: Economy of the United States
Economic indicators
Unemployment
8.9% (March 2011)
[60]
GDP growth
2.8% (4Q 2010), 2.8%
[61]
(2009 2010)
CPI inflation
2.7% (March 2010
[62]
March 2011)
Poverty
14.3% (2009)
[63]
Public debt
$14.22 trillion (March
[64]
21, 2011)
Household net
$54.2 trillion (4Q
worth
2009)
[65]
121
The United States has a capitalist mixed economy, which is fueled by abundant natural resources, a
well-developed infrastructure, and high productivity.[66] According to the International Monetary Fund,
the U.S. GDP of $14.870 trillion constitutes 24% of the gross world product at market exchange rates
and almost 21% of the gross world product at purchasing power parity (PPP).[3] It has the largest
national GDP in the world, though it is about 5% less than the GDP of the European Union at PPP in
2008. The country ranks ninth in the world in nominal GDP per capita and sixth in GDP per capita at
PPP.[3]
The United States is the largest importer of goods and third largest exporter, though exports per capita
are relatively low. In 2008, the total U.S. trade deficit was $696 billion.[67] Canada, China, Mexico,
Japan, and Germany are its top trading partners.[68] In 2007, vehicles constituted both the leading import
and leading export commodity.[69] Japan is the largest foreign holder of U.S. public debt, having
surpassed China in early 2010.[70] The United States ranks second in the Global Competitiveness
Report.[71]
In 2009, the private sector was estimated to constitute 55.3% of the economy, with federal government
activity accounting for 24.1% and state and local government activity (including federal transfers) the
remaining 20.6%.[72] The economy is postindustrial, with the service sector contributing 67.8% of GDP,
though the United States remains an industrial power.[73] The leading business field by gross business
receipts is wholesale and retail trade; by net income it is manufacturing.[74] Chemical products are the
leading manufacturing field.[75] The United States is the third largest producer of oil in the world, as
well as its largest importer.[76] It is the world's number one producer of electrical and nuclear energy, as
well as liquid natural gas, sulfur, phosphates, and salt. While agriculture accounts for just under 1% of
GDP,[73] the United States is the world's top producer of corn[77] and soybeans.[78] The New York Stock
Exchange is the world's largest by dollar volume.[79] Coca-Cola and McDonald's are the two most
recognized brands in the world.[80]
In August 2010, the American labor force comprised 154.1 million people. With 21.2 million people,
government is the leading field of employment. The largest private employment sector is health care
and social assistance, with 16.4 million people.[60] About 12% of workers are unionized, compared to
30% in Western Europe.[81] The World Bank ranks the United States first in the ease of hiring and firing
workers.[82] In 2009, the United States had the third highest labor productivity per person in the world,
behind Luxembourg and Norway. It was fourth in productivity per hour, behind those two countries and
the Netherlands.[83] Compared to Europe, U.S. property and corporate income tax rates are generally
higher, while labor and, particularly, consumption tax rates are lower.[84]
Income and human development

Main article: Income in the United States
See also: Income inequality in the United States, Poverty in the United States, and Affluence in the
United States
According to the United States Census Bureau, the pretax median household income in 2007 was
$49,777. The median ranged from $65,469 among Asian American households to $32,584 among
African American households.[63] Using purchasing power parity exchange rates, the overall median is
similar to the most affluent cluster of developed nations. After declining sharply during the middle of
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the 20th century, poverty rates have plateaued since the early 1970s, with 1115% of Americans below
the poverty line every year, and 58.5% spending at least one year in poverty between the ages of 25 and
75.[85][86] In 2009, 43.6 million Americans lived in poverty.[63]
The U.S. welfare state is one of the least extensive in the developed world, reducing both relative
poverty and absolute poverty by considerably less than the mean for rich nations,[87][88] though combined
private and public social expenditures per capita are higher than in any of the Nordic countries.[89]
While the American welfare state does well in reducing poverty among the elderly,[90] the young receive
relatively little assistance.[91] A 2007 UNICEF study of children's well-being in twenty-one
industrialized nations ranked the United States next to last.[92]
Despite strong increases in productivity, low unemployment, and low inflation, income gains since
1980 have been slower than in previous decades, less widely shared, and accompanied by increased
economic insecurity. Between 1947 and 1979, real median income rose by over 80% for all classes,
with the incomes of poor Americans rising faster than those of the rich.[93][94] Median household income
has increased for all classes since 1980,[95] largely owing to more dual-earner households, the closing of
the gender gap, and longer work hours, but growth has been slower and strongly tilted toward the very
top (see graph).[87][93][96] Consequently, the share of income of the top 1%21.8% of total reported
income in 2005has more than doubled since 1980,[97] leaving the United States with the greatest
income inequality among developed nations.[87][98] The top 1% pays 27.6% of all federal taxes; the top
10% pays 54.7%.[99] Wealth, like income, is highly concentrated: The richest 10% of the adult
population possesses 69.8% of the country's household wealth, the second-highest share among
developed nations.[100] The top 1% possesses 33.4% of net wealth.[101]
A photograph from Apollo 11 of Buzz Aldrin on the surface of the Moon.

Main article: Science and technology in the United States
See also: Technological and industrial history of the United States
The United States has been a leader in scientific research and technological innovation since the late
19th century. In 1876, Alexander Graham Bell was awarded the first U.S. patent for the telephone.
Thomas Edison's laboratory developed the phonograph, the first long-lasting light bulb, and the first
viable movie camera. Nikola Tesla pioneered alternating current, the AC motor, and radio. In the early
20th century, the automobile companies of Ransom E. Olds and Henry Ford promoted the assembly
123
line. The Wright brothers, in 1903, made the first sustained and controlled heavier-than-air powered
flight.[102]
The rise of Nazism in the 1930s led many European scientists, including Albert Einstein and Enrico
Fermi, to immigrate to the United States. During World War II, the Manhattan Project developed
nuclear weapons, ushering in the Atomic Age. The Space Race produced rapid advances in rocketry,
materials science, and computers. The United States largely developed the ARPANET and its
successor, the Internet. Today, the bulk of research and development funding, 64%, comes from the
private sector.[103] The United States leads the world in scientific research papers and impact factor.[104]
Americans possess high levels of technological consumer goods,[105] and almost half of U.S. households
have broadband Internet access.[106] The country is the primary developer and grower of genetically
modified food, representing half of the world's biotech crops.[107]
Transportation
The Interstate Highway System, which extends 46,876 miles (75,440 km)[108]
Everyday personal transportation in the United States is dominated by the automobile driving on one of
13 million roads.[109] As of 2003, there were 759 automobiles per 1,000 Americans, compared to 472 per
1,000 inhabitants of the European Union the following year.[110] About 40% of personal vehicles are
vans, SUVs, or light trucks.[111] The average American adult (accounting for all drivers and nondrivers)
spends 55 minutes driving every day, traveling 29 miles (47 km).[112]
The civil airline industry is entirely privately owned, while most major airports are publicly owned. The
four largest airlines in the world by passengers carried are American; Southwest Airlines is number one.
[113]
Of the world's thirty busiest passenger airports, sixteen are in the United States, including the
busiest, Hartsfield-Jackson Atlanta International Airport.[114] While transport of goods by rail is
extensive, relatively few people use rail to travel, within or between cities.[115] Mass transit accounts for
9% of total U.S. work trips, compared to 38.8% in Europe.[116] Bicycle usage is minimal, well below
European levels.[117]
Energy
124
A coal mine in Wyoming. The United States has 27% of global coal reserves.[118]
See also: Energy policy of the United States
The United States energy market is 29,000 terawatt hours per year. Energy consumption per capita is
7.8 tons of oil equivalent per year, compared to Germany's 4.2 tons and Canada's 8.3 tons. In 2005,
40% of this energy came from petroleum, 23% from coal, and 22% from natural gas. The remainder
was supplied by nuclear power and renewable energy sources.[119] The United States is the world's
largest consumer of petroleum.[120] For decades, nuclear power has played a limited role relative to
many other developed countries, in part due to public perception in the wake of the 1979 Three Mile
Island accident. In 2007, several applications for new nuclear plants were filed.[121]
Demographics
Main article: Demographics of the United States
Largest ancestry groups by county, 2000.

Race/Ethnicity (2010)[122]
White
72.4%
Black/African American
12.6%
125
Asian
4.8%
American Indian and Alaska
0.9%
Native
Native Hawaiian and Pacific
0.2%
Islander
Other
6.2%
Two or more races
2.9%
Hispanic/Latino (of any race)
16.3%
The 2010 U.S. Census reported 308,745,538 residents; the U.S. Census Bureau's Population Clock
projects the country's population now to be 311,228,000,[123] including an estimated 11.2 million illegal
immigrants.[124] The third most populous nation in the world, after China and India, the United States is
the only industrialized nation in which large population increases are projected.[125] With a birth rate of
13.82 per 1,000, 30% below the world average, its population growth rate is 0.98%, significantly higher
than those of Western Europe, Japan, and South Korea.[126] In fiscal year 2010, over 1 million
immigrants were granted legal residence,[127] most of them entered through family reunification.[127]
Mexico has been the leading source of new residents for over two decades; since 1998, China, India,
and the Philippines have been in the top four sending countries every year.[128]
The United States has a very diverse populationthirty-one ancestry groups have more than one
million members.[129] White Americans are the largest racial group; German Americans, Irish
Americans, and English Americans constitute three of the country's four largest ancestry groups.[129]
African Americans are the nation's largest racial minority and third largest ancestry group.[129] Asian
Americans are the country's second largest racial minority; the two largest Asian American ethnic
groups are Chinese Americans and Filipino Americans.[129] In 2010, the U.S. population included an
estimated 5.2 million people with some American Indian or Alaska Native ancestry (2.9 million
exclusively of such ancestry) and 1.2 million with some native Hawaiian or Pacific island ancestry (0.5
million exclusively).[130] The census now includes the category "Some Other Race" for "respondents
unable to identify with any" of its five official race categories; more than 19 million people were placed
in this category in 2010.[130]
The population growth of Hispanic and Latino Americans (the terms are officially interchangeable) is a
major demographic trend. The 50.5 million Americans of Hispanic descent[130] are identified as sharing
a distinct "ethnicity" by the Census Bureau; 64% of Hispanic Americans are of Mexican descent.[131]
Between 2000 and 2010, the country's Hispanic population increased 43% while the non-Hispanic
population rose just 4.9%.[122] Much of this growth is from immigration; as of 2007, 12.6% of the U.S.
population was foreign-born, with 54% of that figure born in Latin America.[132] Fertility is also a
126
factor; the average Hispanic woman gives birth to 3.0 children in her lifetime, compared to 2.2 for nonHispanic black women and 1.8 for non-Hispanic white women (below the replacement rate of 2.1).[125]
Minorities (as defined by the Census Bureau, all those beside non-Hispanic, non-multiracial whites)
constitute 34% of the population; they are projected to be the majority by 2042.[133]
About 82% of Americans live in urban areas (as defined by the Census Bureau, such areas include the
suburbs);[1] about half of those reside in cities with populations over 50,000.[134] In 2008, 273
incorporated places had populations over 100,000, nine cities had more than 1 million residents, and
four global cities had over 2 million (New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, and Houston).[135] There
are fifty-two metropolitan areas with populations greater than 1 million.[136] Of the fifty fastest-growing
metro areas, forty-seven are in the West or South.[137] The metro areas of Dallas, Houston, Atlanta, and
Phoenix all grew by more than a million people between 2000 and 2008.[136]
Leading U.S. population centerssee full lists of largest cities and largest metro areas
Metro
Metropolitan
Metro area
Rank
Core city
Pop.
Region
rank
Statistical Area
pop.
New York-Northern
New York City,
New Jersey-Long
1
8,363,710
1
19,006,798 Northeast
New York
Island, NY-NJ-PA
MSA
Los Angeles-Long
New York City
Los Angeles,
2
3,833,995
2
Beach-Santa Ana, CA 12,872,808
West
California
MSA
Chicago-Naperville3 Chicago, Illinois 2,853,114
3
Joliet, IL-IN-WI
9,569,624 Midwest
MSA
Houston-Sugar Land4 Houston, Texas 2,242,193
6
5,728,143
South
Baytown, TX MSA
Los Angeles
Phoenix,
Phoenix-Mesa5
1,567,924 12
4,281,899
West
Arizona
Glendale, AZ MSA
PhiladelphiaPhiladelphia,
6
1,447,395
5
Camden-Wilmington, 5,838,471 Northeast
Pennsylvania
PA-NJ-DE-MD MSA
San Antonio,
San Antonio-New
7
1,351,305 28
2,031,445
South
Texas
Braunfels, TX MSA
Dallas-Fort Worth8
Dallas, Texas 1,279,910
4
6,300,006
South
Arlington, TX MSA
San Diego-CarlsbadChicago
San Diego,
9
1,279,329 17
San Marcos, CA
3,001,072
West
California
MSA
San Jose,
San Jose-Sunnyvale10
948,279
31
1,819,198
West
California
Santa Clara, CA MSA
Miami-Fort
433,136
42 Miami, Florida
7
Lauderdale-Pompano 5,514,772
South
(2009)
Beach, FL MSA
33 Atlanta, Georgia 540,922
8
Atlanta-Sandy
5,376,285
South
(2009)
Springs-Marietta, GA
MSA
[135]
[138]
[136]
127
WashingtonArlington-Alexandria,
9
5,358,130
South
DC-VA-MD-WV
MSA
Boston-Cambridge645,169
10
Quincy, MA-NH
4,522,858 Northeast
(2009)
MSA
2008 U.S. Census Bureau estimates ( view talk edit )
599,657
27 Washington, DC
(2009)
20
Boston,
Massachusetts
Language
Main article: Languages of the United States
See also: Language Spoken at Home (U.S. Census)
Languages (2007)[139]
English (only)
225.5
million
Spanish, incl.
34.5 million
Creole
Chinese
2.5 million
French, incl.
2.0 million
Creole
Tagalog
1.5 million
Vietnamese
1.2 million
German
1.1 million
Korean
1.1 million
English is the de facto national language. Although there is no official language at the federal level,
some lawssuch as U.S. naturalization requirementsstandardize English. In 2007, about 226
million, or 80% of the population aged five years and older, spoke only English at home. Spanish,
spoken by 12% of the population at home, is the second most common language and the most widely
taught second language.[139][140] Some Americans advocate making English the country's official
128
language, as it is in at least twenty-eight states.[5] Both Hawaiian and English are official languages in
Hawaii by state law.[141]
While neither has an official language, New Mexico has laws providing for the use of both English and
Spanish, as Louisiana does for English and French.[142] Other states, such as California, mandate the
publication of Spanish versions of certain government documents including court forms.[143] Several
insular territories grant official recognition to their native languages, along with English: Samoan and
Chamorro are recognized by American Samoa and Guam, respectively; Carolinian and Chamorro are
recognized by the Northern Mariana Islands; Spanish is an official language of Puerto Rico.
Religion
A Presbyterian church; most Americans identify as Christian.

Main article: Religion in the United States
See also: History of religion in the United States, Freedom of religion in the United States, Separation
of church and state in the United States, and List of religious movements that began in the United
States
The United States is officially a secular nation; the First Amendment of the U.S. Constitution
guarantees the free exercise of religion and forbids the establishment of any religious governance. In a
2002 study, 59% of Americans said that religion played a "very important role in their lives," a far
higher figure than that of any other wealthy nation.[144] According to a 2007 survey, 78.4% of adults
identified themselves as Christian,[145] down from 86.4% in 1990.[146] Protestant denominations
accounted for 51.3%, while Roman Catholicism, at 23.9%, was the largest individual denomination.
The study categorizes white evangelicals, 26.3% of the population, as the country's largest religious
cohort;[145] another study estimates evangelicals of all races at 3035%.[147] The total reporting nonChristian religions in 2007 was 4.7%, up from 3.3% in 1990.[146] The leading non-Christian faiths were
Judaism (1.7%), Buddhism (0.7%), Islam (0.6%), Hinduism (0.4%), and Unitarian Universalism
(0.3%).[145] The survey also reported that 16.1% of Americans described themselves as agnostic, atheist,
or simply having no religion, up from 8.2% in 1990.[145][146]
Education
Main article: Education in the United States
129
See also: Educational attainment in the United States and Higher education in the United States
Saint Anselm College in New Hampshire is an example of a liberal arts college in America.
American public education is operated by state and local governments, regulated by the United States
Department of Education through restrictions on federal grants. Children are required in most states to
attend school from the age of six or seven (generally, kindergarten or first grade) until they turn
eighteen (generally bringing them through twelfth grade, the end of high school); some states allow
students to leave school at sixteen or seventeen.[148] About 12% of children are enrolled in parochial or
nonsectarian private schools. Just over 2% of children are homeschooled.[149]
The United States has many competitive private and public institutions of higher education, as well as
local community colleges with open admission policies. Of Americans twenty-five and older, 84.6%
graduated from high school, 52.6% attended some college, 27.2% earned a bachelor's degree, and 9.6%
earned graduate degrees.[150] The basic literacy rate is approximately 99%.[1][151] The United Nations
assigns the United States an Education Index of 0.97, tying it for 12th in the world.[152]
Health
See also: Health care in the United States, Health care reform in the United States, and Health
insurance in the United States
The United States life expectancy of 77.8 years at birth[153] is a year shorter than the overall figure in
Western Europe, and three to four years lower than that of Norway, Switzerland, and Canada.[154] Over
the past two decades, the country's rank in life expectancy has dropped from 11th to 42nd in the world.
[155]
The infant mortality rate of 6.37 per thousand likewise places the United States 42nd out of 221
countries, behind all of Western Europe.[156] Approximately one-third of the adult population is obese
and an additional third is overweight;[157] the obesity rate, the highest in the industrialized world, has
more than doubled in the last quarter-century.[158] Obesity-related type 2 diabetes is considered epidemic
by health care professionals.[159]
130
The Texas Medical Center in Houston, the world's largest medical center[160]
The U.S. adolescent pregnancy rate, 79.8 per 1,000 women, is nearly four times that of France and five
times that of Germany.[161] Abortion, legal on demand, is highly controversial. Many states ban public
funding of the procedure and restrict late-term abortions, require parental notification for minors, and
mandate a waiting period. While the abortion rate is falling, the abortion ratio of 241 per 1,000 live
births and abortion rate of 15 per 1,000 women aged 1544 remain higher than those of most Western
nations.[162]
The U.S. health care system far outspends any other nation's, measured in both per capita spending and
percentage of GDP.[163] The World Health Organization ranked the U.S. health care system in 2000 as
first in responsiveness, but 37th in overall performance. The United States is a leader in medical
innovation. In 2004, the nonindustrial sector spent three times as much as Europe per capita on
biomedical research.[164]
Unlike in all other developed countries, health care coverage in the United States is not universal. In
2004, private insurance paid for 36% of personal health expenditures, private out-of-pocket payments
covered 15%, and federal, state, and local governments paid for 44%.[165] In 2005, 46.6 million
Americans, 15.9% of the population, were uninsured, 5.4 million more than in 2001. The main cause of
this rise is the drop in the number of Americans with employer-sponsored health insurance.[166] The
subject of uninsured and underinsured Americans is a major political issue.[167] A 2009 study estimated
that lack of insurance is associated with nearly 45,000 deaths a year.[168] In 2006, Massachusetts became
the first state to mandate universal health insurance.[169] Federal legislation passed in early 2010 will
create a near-universal health insurance system around the country by 2014.
Crime and law enforcement

Main articles: Law enforcement in the United States and Crime in the United States
See also: Law of the United States, Incarceration in the United States, and Capital punishment in the
United States
131
Law enforcement in the United States is primarily the responsibility of local police and sheriff's
departments, with state police providing broader services. Federal agencies such as the Federal Bureau
of Investigation (FBI) and the U.S. Marshals Service have specialized duties. At the federal level and in
almost every state, jurisprudence operates on a common law system. State courts conduct most criminal
trials; federal courts handle certain designated crimes as well as certain appeals from the state systems.
Among developed nations, the United States has above-average levels of violent crime and particularly
high levels of gun violence and homicide.[170] In 2007, there were 5.6 murders per 100,000 persons,[171]
three times the rate in neighboring Canada.[172] The U.S. homicide rate, which decreased by 42%
between 1991 and 1999, has been roughly steady since.[171] Gun ownership rights are the subject of
contentious political debate.
The United States has the highest documented incarceration rate[173] and total prison population[174] in
the world. At the start of 2008, more than 2.3 million people were incarcerated, more than one in every
100 adults.[175] The current rate is about seven times the 1980 figure.[176] African American males are
jailed at about six times the rate of white males and three times the rate of Hispanic males.[173] In 2006,
the U.S. incarceration rate was over three times the figure in Poland, the Organisation for Economic
Co-operation and Development (OECD) country with the next highest rate.[177] The country's high rate
of incarceration is largely due to sentencing and drug policies.[173][178]
Though it has been abolished in most Western nations, capital punishment is sanctioned in the United
States for certain federal and military crimes, and in thirty-four states. Since 1976, when the U.S.
Supreme Court reinstated the death penalty after a four-year moratorium, there have been more than
1,000 executions.[179] In 2006, the country had the sixth highest number of executions in the world,
following China, Iran, Pakistan, Iraq, and Sudan.[180] In 2007, New Jersey became the first state to
legislatively abolish the death penalty since the 1976 Supreme Court decision, followed by New
Mexico in 2009 and Illinois in 2011.[181]
Culture
Main article: Culture of the United States
See also: Social class in the United States
132
American cultural icons: apple pie, baseball, and the American flag
The United States is a multicultural nation, home to a wide variety of ethnic groups, traditions, and
values.[6][182] Aside from the now small Native American and Native Hawaiian populations, nearly all
Americans or their ancestors immigrated within the past five centuries.[183] The culture held in common
by most Americansmainstream American cultureis a Western culture largely derived from the
traditions of European immigrants with influences from many other sources, such as traditions brought
by slaves from Africa.[6][184] More recent immigration from Asia and especially Latin America has added
to a cultural mix that has been described as both a homogenizing melting pot and a heterogeneous salad
bowl in which immigrants and their descendants retain distinctive cultural characteristics.[6]
According to Geert Hofstede's cultural dimensions analysis, the United States has the highest
individualism score of any country studied.[185] While the mainstream culture holds that the United
States is a classless society,[186] scholars identify significant differences between the country's social
classes, affecting socialization, language, and values.[187] The American middle and professional class
has initiated many contemporary social trends such as modern feminism, environmentalism, and
multiculturalism.[188] Americans' self-images, social viewpoints, and cultural expectations are associated
with their occupations to an unusually close degree.[189] While Americans tend greatly to value
socioeconomic achievement, being ordinary or average is generally seen as a positive attribute.[190]
Though the American Dream, or the perception that Americans enjoy high social mobility, plays a key
role in attracting immigrants, various studies indicate that the United States has less social mobility
than Canada and the Nordic countries.[191]
Women now mostly work outside the home and receive a majority of bachelor's degrees.[192] In 2007,
58% of Americans age 18 and over were married, 6% were widowed, 10% were divorced, and 25% had
never been married.[193] Same-sex marriage is contentious. Some states permit civil unions in lieu of
marriage. Since 2003, several states have permitted gay marriage as the result of judicial or legislative
action, while voters in more than a dozen states have barred the practice via referendum.
Popular media
Main articles: Cinema of the United States, Television in the United States, and Music of the United
States
133
The Hollywood Sign

The world's first commercial motion picture exhibition was given in New York City in 1894, using
Thomas Edison's Kinetoscope. The next year saw the first commercial screening of a projected film,
also in New York, and the United States was in the forefront of sound film's development in the
following decades. Since the early 20th century, the U.S. film industry has largely been based in and
around Hollywood, California. Director D. W. Griffith was central to the development of film grammar
and Orson Welles's Citizen Kane (1941) is frequently cited as the greatest film of all time.[194] American
screen actors like John Wayne and Marilyn Monroe have become iconic figures, while
producer/entrepreneur Walt Disney was a leader in both animated film and movie merchandising. The
major film studios of Hollywood have produced the most commercially successful movies in history,
such as Star Wars (1977) and Titanic (1997), and the products of Hollywood today dominate the global
film industry.[195]
Americans are the heaviest television viewers in the world,[196] and the average viewing time continues
to rise, reaching five hours a day in 2006.[197] The four major broadcast networks are all commercial
entities. Americans listen to radio programming, also largely commercialized, on average just over twoand-a-half hours a day.[198] Aside from web portals and search engines, the most popular websites are
Facebook, YouTube, Wikipedia, Blogger, eBay, and Craigslist.[199]
The rhythmic and lyrical styles of African-American music have deeply influenced American music at
large, distinguishing it from European traditions. Elements from folk idioms such as the blues and what
is now known as old-time music were adopted and transformed into popular genres with global
audiences. Jazz was developed by innovators such as Louis Armstrong and Duke Ellington early in the
20th century. Country music developed in the 1920s, and rhythm and blues in the 1940s. Elvis Presley
and Chuck Berry were among the mid-1950s pioneers of rock and roll. In the 1960s, Bob Dylan
emerged from the folk revival to become one of America's most celebrated songwriters and James
Brown led the development of funk. More recent American creations include hip hop and house music.
American pop stars such as Presley, Michael Jackson, and Madonna have become global celebrities.[200]
Literature, philosophy, and the arts

Main articles: American literature, American philosophy, American art, and American classical music
134
Jack Kerouac, one of the best-known figures of the Beat Generation, a group of writers that came to
prominence in the 1950s
In the 18th and early 19th centuries, American art and literature took most of its cues from Europe.
Writers such as Nathaniel Hawthorne, Edgar Allan Poe, and Henry David Thoreau established a
distinctive American literary voice by the middle of the 19th century. Mark Twain and poet Walt
Whitman were major figures in the century's second half; Emily Dickinson, virtually unknown during
her lifetime, is now recognized as an essential American poet.[201] A work seen as capturing fundamental
aspects of the national experience and charactersuch as Herman Melville's Moby-Dick (1851),
Twain's The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1885), and F. Scott Fitzgerald's The Great Gatsby (1925)
may be dubbed the "Great American Novel."[202]
Eleven U.S. citizens have won the Nobel Prize in Literature, most recently Toni Morrison in 1993.
William Faulkner and Ernest Hemingway are often named among the most influential writers of the
20th century.[203] Popular literary genres such as the Western and hardboiled crime fiction developed in
the United States. The Beat Generation writers opened up new literary approaches, as have
postmodernist authors such as John Barth, Thomas Pynchon, and Don DeLillo.
The transcendentalists, led by Thoreau and Ralph Waldo Emerson, established the first major American
philosophical movement. After the Civil War, Charles Sanders Peirce and then William James and John
Dewey were leaders in the development of pragmatism. In the 20th century, the work of W. V. Quine
and Richard Rorty, built upon by Noam Chomsky, brought analytic philosophy to the fore of U.S.
academics. John Rawls and Robert Nozick led a revival of political philosophy.
In the visual arts, the Hudson River School was a mid-19th-century movement in the tradition of
European naturalism. The realist paintings of Thomas Eakins are now widely celebrated. The 1913
Armory Show in New York City, an exhibition of European modernist art, shocked the public and
transformed the U.S. art scene.[204] Georgia O'Keeffe, Marsden Hartley, and others experimented with
new styles, displaying a highly individualistic sensibility. Major artistic movements such as the abstract
expressionism of Jackson Pollock and Willem de Kooning and the pop art of Andy Warhol and Roy
Lichtenstein developed largely in the United States. The tide of modernism and then postmodernism
has brought fame to American architects such as Frank Lloyd Wright, Philip Johnson, and Frank Gehry.
135
Times Square in New York City, part of the Broadway theater district
One of the first major promoters of American theater was impresario P. T. Barnum, who began
operating a lower Manhattan entertainment complex in 1841. The team of Harrigan and Hart produced
a series of popular musical comedies in New York starting in the late 1870s. In the 20th century, the
modern musical form emerged on Broadway; the songs of musical theater composers such as Irving
Berlin, Cole Porter, and Stephen Sondheim have become pop standards. Playwright Eugene O'Neill
won the Nobel literature prize in 1936; other acclaimed U.S. dramatists include multiple Pulitzer Prize
winners Tennessee Williams, Edward Albee, and August Wilson.
Though largely overlooked at the time, Charles Ives's work of the 1910s established him as the first
major U.S. composer in the classical tradition; other experimentalists such as Henry Cowell and John
Cage created a distinctive American approach to classical composition. Aaron Copland and George
Gershwin developed a new synthesis of popular and classical music. Choreographers Isadora Duncan
and Martha Graham helped create modern dance, while George Balanchine and Jerome Robbins were
leaders in 20th century ballet. Americans have long been important in the modern artistic medium of
photography, with major photographers including Alfred Stieglitz, Edward Steichen, and Ansel Adams.
The newspaper comic strip and the comic book are both U.S. innovations. Superman, the quintessential
comic book superhero, has become an American icon.[205]
Food
Main article: American cuisine
Mainstream American cuisine is similar to that in other Western countries. Wheat is the primary cereal
grain. Traditional American cuisine uses indigenous ingredients, such as turkey, venison, potatoes,
sweet potatoes, corn, squash, and maple syrup, which were consumed by Native Americans and early
European settlers. Slow-cooked pork and beef barbecue, crab cakes, potato chips, and chocolate chip
cookies are distinctively American foods. Soul food, developed by African slaves, is popular around the
South and among many African Americans elsewhere. Syncretic cuisines such as Louisiana creole,
Cajun, and Tex-Mex are regionally important.
Characteristic dishes such as apple pie, fried chicken, pizza, hamburgers, and hot dogs derive from the
recipes of various immigrants. French fries, Mexican dishes such as burritos and tacos, and pasta dishes
freely adapted from Italian sources are widely consumed.[206] Americans generally prefer coffee to tea.
Marketing by U.S. industries is largely responsible for making orange juice and milk ubiquitous
breakfast beverages.[207] During the 1980s and 1990s, Americans' caloric intake rose 24%;[206] frequent
136
dining at fast food outlets is associated with what public health officials call the American "obesity
epidemic."[208] Highly sweetened soft drinks are widely popular; sugared beverages account for 9% of
the average American's caloric intake.[209]
Sports
Main article: Sports in the United States
A college football quarterback looking to pass the ball

Since the late 19th century, baseball has been regarded as the national sport; American football,
basketball, and ice hockey are the country's three other leading professional team sports. College
football and basketball attract large audiences. Football is now by several measures the most popular
spectator sport.[210] Boxing and horse racing were once the most watched individual sports, but they
have been eclipsed by golf and auto racing, particularly NASCAR. Soccer is played widely at the youth
and amateur levels. Tennis and many outdoor sports are popular as well.
While most major U.S. sports have evolved out of European practices, basketball, volleyball,
skateboarding, snowboarding, and cheerleading are American inventions. Lacrosse and surfing arose
from Native American and Native Hawaiian activities that predate Western contact. Eight Olympic
Games have taken place in the United States. The United States has won 2,301 medals at the Summer
Olympic Games, more than any other country,[211] and 253 in the Winter Olympic Games, the second
most.[212]
Measurement systems
Main article: United States Customary System
The country retains United States customary units, constituted largely by British imperial units such as
miles, yards, and degrees Fahrenheit. Distinct units include the U.S. gallon and U.S. pint volume
measurements. Along with Burma and Liberia, the United States is one of the three countries that have
not adopted the International System of Units. However, metric units are increasingly used in science,
medicine, and many industrial fields.[213]
Germany
137

This article is about the country. For other uses of terms redirecting here, see Germany
(disambiguation) and Deutschland (disambiguation).
Federal Republic of Germany

Bundesrepublik Deutschland
Flag
Coat of arms
Anthem:
The third stanza of Das Lied der Deutschen
Location of Germany (dark green)
138
on the European continent (green & dark grey)

in the European Union (green) [Legend]
Berlin
Capital
5231N 1323E / 52.517N
(and largest city)
13.383E /
Official language(s) German[1]

Demonym
German
Federal parliamentary
Government
republic
President of
Christian Wulff (CDU)
Germany
- Chancellor
Angela Merkel (CDU)
President of the
Norbert Lammert (CDU)
Bundestag
President of the
Hannelore Kraft (SPD)
Bundesrat
Formation
- Holy Roman Empire
2 February 962
- Unification
18 January 1871
- Federal Republic
23 May 1949
- Reunification
3 October 1990
EU accession
25 March 1957
139
Area
357,021 km2 (63rd)
- Total
137,847 sq mi
- Water (%)
2.416
Population
Jan. 1, 2010 estimat

e
- Density
GDP (PPP)
81,757,600 (15th)
229/km2 (55th)
593/sq mi
2010 estimate
- Total
$2.932 trillion[1]
- Per capita
$35,930[1]
GDP (nominal)
2010 estimate
- Total
$3.305 trillion[1]
- Per capita
$40,511[1]
Gini (2006)
27[dated info] (low)

0.885[2] (very high)
HDI (2010)
Currency
Time zone
- Summer (DST)
(10th)
Euro ()[2](2002
present) (EUR)
CET (UTC+1)
CEST (UTC+2)
140
Drives on the
right
ISO 3166 code
DE
Internet TLD
.de
Calling code
49
[3]
^ Danish, Low German, Sorbian, Romany, and Frisian are

officially recognised by the ECRML.
^ Before 2002: Deutsche Mark (DEM).
^ Also .eu, shared with European Union member states.
Germany ( i /drmni/), officially the Federal Republic of Germany (German: Bundesrepublik

Deutschland, pronounced [bndsepublik dtlant] ( listen)),[3][note 1] is a country in Western
and Central Europe. Germany is a federal parliamentary republic of sixteen states. The capital and
largest city is Berlin. It covers an area of 357,021 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate.
With 81.8 million inhabitants, it is the most populous member state and the strongest economy of the
European Union. It is one of the major political players of the European continent and a technological
leader in many fields.
A region named Germania, inhabited by several Germanic peoples, was documented before AD 100.
Beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire of
the German Nation, which lasted until 1806. During the 16th century, northern German regions became
the centre of the Protestant Reformation while southern and western parts remained dominated by
Roman Catholic denominations. The different German states became first unified in 1871, with the
inception of the German Empire. The Weimar Republic was proclaimed in 1918, followed by the Third
Reich in 1933. The latter period was marked by a dictatorship and the initiation of World War II in
1939. After 1945, Germany was divided by allied occupation, and evolved into two states, East
Germany and West Germany. In 1990 Germany was reunified.
Germany was a founding member of the European Community in 1957, which became the EU in 1993.
It is part of the Schengen Area and since 1999 a member of the eurozone. Germany is a member of the
United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, the OECD and the Council of Europe, and took a nonpermanent seat on the UN Security Council for the 20112012 term.
It has the world's fourth largest economy by nominal GDP and the fifth largest by purchasing power
parity. It is the second largest exporter and third largest importer of goods. In absolute terms, Germany
141
spends the third biggest annual development aid budget in the world, while its military expenditure
ranks seventh. The country has developed a very high standard of living and a comprehensive system of
social security. Germany has been the home of many famous scientists and inventors, and is known for
its cultural heritage.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
o
1.1 Germanic tribes and Frankish Empire
1.2 Holy Roman Empire
1.3 German Confederation and Empire
1.4 Weimar Republic and Third Reich
1.5 East and West Germany
1.6 Berlin Republic and the EU
2 Geography
o
2.1 Climate
2.2 Biodiversity
2.3 Environment
3 Politics
o
3.1 Law
3.2 Foreign relations
3.3 Military
4 Economy
o
4.1 Transport
4.2 Energy
142
5 Demographics
o
5.1 Religion
5.2 Languages
5.3 Education
5.4 Health
6 Culture
o
6.1 Literature and philosophy
6.2 Cinema
6.3 Music
6.4 Media
6.5 Sports
6.6 Cuisine
6.7 Society
7 Notes
8 References
9 External links
History
Main article: History of Germany
The English word "Germany" derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius
Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine.[4] In other languages it has very different names.
Germanic tribes and Frankish Empire
Main articles: Germania and Migration Period
143
Expansion of the Germanic tribes 750 BC AD 1
The Germanic tribes are thought to date from the Nordic Bronze Age or the Pre-Roman Iron Age. From
southern Scandinavia and north Germany, they expanded south, east and west from the 1st century BC,
coming into contact with the Celtic tribes of Gaul as well as Iranian, Baltic, and Slavic tribes in Eastern
Europe.[5] Under Augustus, the Roman General Publius Quinctilius Varus began to invade Germania (an
area extending roughly from the Rhine to the Ural Mountains). In AD 9, three Roman legions led by
Varus were defeated by the Cheruscan leader Arminius. By AD 100, when Tacitus wrote Germania,
Germanic tribes had settled along the Rhine and the Danube (the Limes Germanicus), occupying most
of the area of modern Germany; Austria, southern Bavaria and the western Rhineland, however, were
Roman provinces.[6]
In the 3rd century a number of large West Germanic tribes emerged: Alamanni, Franks, Chatti, Saxons,
Frisians, Sicambri, and Thuringii. Around 260, the Germanic peoples broke into Roman-controlled
lands.[7] After the invasion of the Huns in 375, and with the decline of Rome from 395, Germanic tribes
moved further south-west. Simultaneously several large tribes formed in what is now Germany and
displaced the smaller Germanic tribes. Large areas (known since the Merovingian period as Austrasia)
were occupied by the Franks, and Northern Germany was ruled by the Saxons and Slavs.[6]
Holy Roman Empire
Main article: Holy Roman Empire
See also: Medieval demography and Ostsiedlung
144
The Imperial Crown of the Holy Roman Empire, created around AD 1000
On 25 December 800, Charlemagne founded the Carolingian Empire, which was divided in 843.[8] The
Holy Roman Empire resulted from the eastern portion of this division. Its territory stretched from the
Eider River in the north to the Mediterranean coast in the south.[8] Under the reign of the Ottonian
emperors (9191024), several major duchies were consolidated, and the German king was crowned
Holy Roman Emperor of these regions in 962. The Holy Roman Empire absorbed northern Italy and
Burgundy under the reign of the Salian emperors (10241125), although the emperors lost power
through the Investiture Controversy.
Martin Luther initiated the Protestant Reformation.
Under the Hohenstaufen emperors (11381254), the German princes increased their influence further
south and east into territories inhabited by Slavs, preceding German settlement in these areas and
further east (Ostsiedlung). Northern German towns grew prosperous as members of the Hanseatic
League.[9] Starting with the Great Famine in 1315, then the Black Death of 134850, the population of
Germany plummeted.[10] The edict of the Golden Bull in 1356 provided the basic constitution of the
145
empire and codified the election of the emperor by seven prince-electors who ruled some of the most
powerful principalities and archbishoprics.[11]
Martin Luther publicised his 95 Theses in 1517, challenging the Roman Catholic Church and initiating
the Protestant Reformation. A separate Lutheran church became the official religion in many German
states after 1530. Religious conflict led to the Thirty Years' War (16181648), which devastated
German lands.[12] The population of the German states was reduced by about 30 percent.[13] The Peace
of Westphalia (1648) ended religious warfare among the German states, but the empire was de facto
divided into numerous independent principalities. From 1740 onwards, dualism between the Austrian
Habsburg Monarchy and the Kingdom of Prussia dominated German history. In 1806, the Imperium
was overrun and dissolved as a result of the Napoleonic Wars.[14]
German Confederation and Empire
Main articles: German Confederation and German Empire
Frankfurt parliament in 1848
Following the fall of Napoleon I of France, the Congress of Vienna convened in 1814 and founded the
German Confederation (Deutscher Bund), a loose league of 39 sovereign states. Disagreement with
restoration politics partly led to the rise of liberal movements, followed by new measures of repression
by Austrian statesman Metternich. The Zollverein, a tariff union, furthered economic unity in the
German states.[15] National and liberal ideals of the French Revolution gained increasing support among
many, especially young, Germans. In light of a series of revolutionary movements in Europe, which
established a republic in France, intellectuals and commoners started the Revolutions of 1848 in the
German states. King Frederick William IV of Prussia was offered the title of Emperor, but with a loss
of power; he rejected the crown and the proposed constitution, leading to a temporary setback for the
movement.[16]
146
Foundation of the German Empire in Versailles, 1871. Bismarck is at the centre in a white
uniform.
Conflict between King William I of Prussia and the increasingly liberal parliament erupted over
military reforms in 1862, and the king appointed Otto von Bismarck the new Prime Minister of Prussia.
Bismarck successfully waged war on Denmark in 1864. Prussian victory in the Austro-Prussian War of
1866 enabled him to create the North German Federation (Norddeutscher Bund) and to exclude Austria,
formerly the leading German state, from the federation's affairs. After the French defeat in the FrancoPrussian War, the German Empire was proclaimed 1871 in Versailles, uniting all scattered parts of
Germany except Austria (Kleindeutschland, or "Lesser Germany"). With almost two thirds of its
territory and population Prussia was the dominating constituent of the new state; the Hohenzollern King
of Prussia ruled as its concurrent Emperor and Berlin became its capital.[16] In the Grnderzeit period
following the unification of Germany, Emperor William I's foreign policy secured Germany's position
as a great nation by forging alliances, isolating France by diplomatic means, and avoiding war. Under
William II, however, Germany, like other European powers, took an imperialistic course leading to
friction with neighbouring countries. As a result of the Berlin Conference in 1884 Germany claimed
several colonies including German East Africa, German South-West Africa, Togo, and Cameroon.[17]
Most alliances in which Germany had been previously involved were not renewed, and new alliances
excluded the country.[18]
The assassination of Austria's crown prince on 28 June 1914 triggered World War I. Germany, as part of
the unsuccessful Central Powers, suffered defeat against the Allied Powers in one of the bloodiest
conflicts of all time. An estimated two million German soldiers died in World War I.[19] The German
Revolution broke out in November 1918, and Emperor William II and all German ruling princes
abdicated. An armistice ended the war on 11 November, and Germany was forced to sign the Treaty of
Versailles in June 1919. Its negotiation, contrary to traditional post-war diplomacy, excluded the
defeated Central Powers. The treaty was perceived in Germany as a humiliating continuation of the
war, and is often cited as an influence in the rise of Nazism in the country.[20]
Weimar Republic and Third Reich
Main articles: Weimar Republic and Nazi Germany
147
Adolf Hitler, chancellor of the Grodeutsches Reich from 19331945
At the beginning of the German Revolution, Germany was declared a republic and the monarchy
collapsed. However, the struggle for power continued, with radical-left communists seizing power in
Bavaria. The revolution came to an end in August 1919, when the Weimar Republic was formally
established with the signing of the Weimar Constitution by President Friedrich Ebert on 11 August
1919.[21] Suffering from the Great Depression, the harsh peace conditions dictated by the Treaty of
Versailles, and a long succession of unstable governments, Germans increasingly lacked identification
with the government. This was exacerbated by a widespread right-wing (monarchist, vlkisch, and
Nazi) Dolchstolegende, which argued that Germany had lost World War I because of those who
wanted to overthrow the government. The Weimar government was accused of betraying the German
Nation by signing the Versailles Treaty. Discontent with the Weimar government helped fuel the growth
of the German Communist Party. Many conservatives were drawn to the reactionary/revolutionary
right, particularly the National Socialist German Workers Partythe Nazi Party. By 1932, these two
parties controlled the majority of parliament. After a series of unsuccessful cabinets, President Paul von
Hindenburg appointed Adolf Hitler as Chancellor of Germany on 30 January 1933.[22] On 27 February
1933 the Reichstag building went up in flames, and a consequent emergency decree abrogated basic
citizens' rights. An Enabling Act passed in parliament gave Hitler unrestricted legislative power. Only
the Social Democratic Party voted against it, while Communist MPs had already been imprisoned.[23][24]
Using his powers to crush any actual or potential resistance, Hitler established a centralised totalitarian
state within months. Industry was revitalised with a focus on military rearmament.[25] In 1935, Germany
reacquired control of the Saar and in 1936 military control of the Rhineland, both of which had been
lost in the Treaty of Versailles.[26] In 1938 and 1939, Austria and Czechoslovakia were brought under
German control and the invasion of Poland was prepared through the MolotovRibbentrop pact and
Operation Himmler. On 1 September 1939 the German Wehrmacht launched a blitzkrieg on Poland,
148
which was swiftly occupied by Germany and by the Soviet Red Army. The UK and France declared
war on Germany, marking the beginning of World War II. As the war progressed, Germany and its
allies quickly gained control of much of continental Europe while the plan to occupy the United
Kingdom failed. On 22 June 1941, Germany broke the MolotovRibbentrop pact and invaded the
Soviet Union. The same year, Japan attacked the American base at Pearl Harbor, and Germany declared
war on the United States. The Battle of Stalingrad forced the German army to retreat on the Eastern
front.[27] In September 1943, Germany's ally Italy surrendered, and German troops were forced to
defend an additional front in Italy. D-Day opened a Western front, as Allied forces advanced towards
German territory. On 8 May 1945, the German armed forces surrendered after the Red Army occupied
Berlin. Approximately seven million German soldiers and civilians including ethnic Germans from
Eastern Europe died during World War II.[28]
Berlin in ruins after World War II
In what later became known as The Holocaust, the Third Reich regime enacted governmental policies
directly subjugating many dissidents and minorities. About seventeen million people were murdered by
the Nazis during the Holocaust, including six million Jews and a sizeable number of Gypsies, Jehovah's
Witnesses, Poles and other Slavs, including Soviet POWs, people with mental and/or physical
disabilities, homosexuals, and members of the political opposition.[29] World War II and the Nazi
genocide were responsible for more than 40 million dead in Europe.[30] The Nuremberg trials of Nazi
war criminals were held after World War II.[31]
East and West Germany
Main article: History of Germany (19451990)
149
Post-WWII occupation zones of Germany.
The war resulted in the death of over seven million German soldiers and civilians; large territorial
losses; the expulsion of about 15 million Germans from the eastern areas of Germany and other
countries; mass rape of German women;[32] and the destruction of multiple major cities. The remaining
national territory and Berlin were partitioned by the Allies into four military occupation zones. The
western sectors, controlled by France, the United Kingdom, and the United States, were merged on 23
May 1949, to form the Federal Republic of Germany (Bundesrepublik Deutschland); on 7 October
1949, the Soviet Zone became the German Democratic Republic (Deutsche Demokratische Republik,
or DDR). They were, mainly outside Germany, informally known as "West Germany" and "East
Germany". East Germany selected East Berlin as its capital, while West Germany chose Bonn.
However, West Germany declared its capital provisional, to emphasise its stance that the two-state
solution was an artificial and temporary status quo.[33]
The Berlin Wall in front of the Brandenburg Gate shortly after its opening in 1989
West Germany, established as a federal parliamentary republic with a "social market economy", was
allied with the United States, the UK and France. The country enjoyed prolonged economic growth
beginning in the early 1950s (Wirtschaftswunder). West Germany joined NATO in 1955 and was a
founding member of the European Economic Community in 1957. East Germany was an Eastern bloc
150
state under political and military control by the USSR via the latter's occupation forces and the Warsaw
Pact. While claiming to be a democracy, political power was solely executed by leading members
(Politburo) of the communist-controlled Socialist Unity Party of Germany (SED). Their power was
ensured by the Stasi, an immense secret service, and a variety of SED sub-organizations controlling
every aspect of society. A Soviet-style command economy was set up; the GDR later became a
Comecon state. While East German propaganda was based on the benefits of the GDR's social
programmes and the alleged constant threat of a West German invasion, many of her citizens looked to
the West for political freedoms and economic prosperity.[34] The Berlin Wall, built in 1961 to stop East
Germans from escaping to West Germany, became a symbol of the Cold War.[16]
Tensions between East and West Germany were reduced in the early 1970s by Chancellor Willy
Brandt's Ostpolitik, which included the de facto acceptance of Germany's territorial losses in World War
II. In summer 1989, Hungary decided to dismantle the Iron Curtain and open the borders, causing the
emigration of thousands of East Germans to West Germany via Hungary. This had devastating effects
on the GDR, where regular mass demonstrations received increasing support. The East German
authorities unexpectedly eased the border restrictions, allowing East German citizens to travel to the
West. Originally intended to help retain East Germany as a state, the opening of the border actually led
to an acceleration of the Wende reform process. This culminated in the Two Plus Four Treaty a year
later on 12 September 1990, under which the four occupying powers renounced their rights under the
Instrument of Surrender, and Germany regained full sovereignty. This permitted German reunification
on 3 October 1990, with the accession of the five re-established states of the former GDR (new states or
"neue Lnder").[16]
Berlin Republic and the EU
Main article: History of Germany since 1990
A new currency, the Euro, began circulating on 1 January 2002.[35]
Based on the Berlin/Bonn Act, adopted by the parliament on 10 March 1994, Berlin once again became
the capital of the reunified Germany, while Bonn obtained the unique status of a Bundesstadt (federal
city) retaining some federal ministries.[36] The relocation of the government was completed in 1999.[37]
151
Since reunification, Germany has taken a more active role in the European Union and NATO. Germany
sent a peacekeeping force to secure stability in the Balkans and sent a force of German troops to
Afghanistan as part of a NATO effort to provide security in that country after the ousting of the Taliban.
[38]
These deployments were controversial since, after the war, Germany was bound by domestic law
only to deploy troops for defence roles.[39]
In 2005, Angela Merkel became the first female Chancellor of Germany. From 2005 to 2009, she led a
grand coalition supported by her own parliamentary group (consisting of CDU and CSU) and the Social
Democratic Party (SPD). Following general elections on 27 September 2009, Merkel built the current
coalition government replacing the Social Democratic Party with the Free Democratic Party (FDP).[16]
Geography
Main article: Geography of Germany
Topographic map
Germany is in Western and Central Europe, bordering Denmark in the north, Poland and the Czech
Republic in the east, Austria and Switzerland in the south, France and Luxembourg in the south-west,
and Belgium and the Netherlands in the north-west. It lies mostly between latitudes 47 and 55 N (the
tip of Sylt is just north of 55), and longitudes 5 and 16 E. The territory covers 357,021 km2 (137,847
sq mi), consisting of 349,223 km2 (134,836 sq mi) of land and 7,798 km2 (3,011 sq mi) of water. It is
the seventh largest country by area in Europe and the 62nd largest in the world.[40]
Elevation ranges from the mountains of the Alps (highest point: the Zugspitze at 2,962 metres / 9,718
feet) in the south to the shores of the North Sea (Nordsee) in the north-west and the Baltic Sea (Ostsee)
in the north-east. The forested uplands of central Germany and the lowlands of northern Germany
(lowest point: Wilstermarsch at 3.54 metres / 11.6 feet below sea level) are traversed by such major
rivers as the Rhine, Danube and Elbe. Significant natural resources are iron ore, coal, potash, timber,
lignite, uranium, copper, natural gas, salt, nickel, arable land and water.[40]
152
Germany comprises 16 states (Bundeslnder), which are further subdivided into 439 districts (Kreise)
and cities (kreisfreie Stdte).[40]
Lower Saxony
Bremen
Hamburg
MecklenburgVorpommern
SaxonyAnhalt
Saxony
Brandenburg
Berlin
Thuringia
153
Hesse
North RhineWestphalia
RhinelandPalatinate
Bavaria
BadenWrttemberg
Saarland
SchleswigHolstein
State
Capital
Area (km)
Population
Baden-Wrttemberg
Stuttgart
35,752
10,717,000
Bavaria
Munich
70,549
12,444,000
Berlin
Berlin
892
3,400,000
Brandenburg
Potsdam
29,477
2,568,000
Bremen
Bremen
404
663,000
Hamburg
Hamburg
755
1,735,000
Hesse
Wiesbaden
21,115
6,098,000
Mecklenburg-Vorpommern
Schwerin
23,174
1,720,000
Lower Saxony
Hanover
47,618
8,001,000
North Rhine-Westphalia
Dsseldorf
34,043
18,075,000
Rhineland-Palatinate
Mainz
19,847
4,061,000
Saarland
Saarbrcken
2,569
1,056,000
Saxony
Dresden
18,416
4,296,000
Saxony-Anhalt
Magdeburg
20,445
2,494,000
Schleswig-Holstein
Kiel
15,763
2,829,000
154
Thuringia
Erfurt
16,172
2,355,000
Climate
Summer climate on the island Sylt in Schleswig-Holstein
Thuringian Forests during wintertime
Most of Germany has a temperate seasonal climate in which humid westerly winds predominate. The
climate is moderated by the North Atlantic Drift, the northern extension of the Gulf Stream. This
warmer water affects the areas bordering the North Sea; consequently in the north-west and the north
the climate is oceanic. Rainfall occurs year-round, especially in the summer. Winters are mild and
summers tend to be cool, though temperatures can exceed 30 C (86 F).[41]
The east has a more continental climate; winters can be very cold and summers very warm, and long
dry periods are frequent. Central and southern Germany are transition regions which vary from
moderately oceanic to continental. In addition to the maritime and continental climates that
predominate over most of the country, the Alpine regions in the extreme south and, to a lesser degree,
some areas of the Central German Uplands have a mountain climate, characterised by lower
temperatures and greater precipitation.[41]
Biodiversity
155
Red Deer
The territory of Germany can be subdivided into two ecoregions: European-Mediterranean montane
mixed forests and Northeast-Atlantic shelf marine.[42] As of 2008 the majority of Germany is covered by
either arable land (34 percent) or forest and woodland (30.1 percent); only 13.4 percent of the area
consists of permanent pastures, 11.8 percent is covered by settlements and streets.[43]
Plants and animals are those generally common to middle Europe. Beeches, oaks, and other deciduous
trees constitute one third of the forests; conifers are increasing as a result of reforestation. Spruce and
fir trees predominate in the upper mountains, while pine and larch are found in sandy soil. There are
many species of ferns, flowers, fungi, and mosses. Wild animals include deer, wild boar, mouflon, fox,
badger, hare, and small numbers of beavers.[44]
The national parks in Germany include the Wadden Sea National Parks, the Jasmund National Park, the
Vorpommern Lagoon Area National Park, the Mritz National Park, the Lower Oder Valley National
Park, the Harz National Park, the Saxon Switzerland National Park and the Bavarian Forest National
Park. More than 400 registered zoos and animal parks operate in Germany, which is believed to be the
largest number in any country.[45] The Zoologische Garten Berlin is the oldest zoo in Germany and
presents the most comprehensive collection of species in the world.[46]
Environment
The eagle is a protected bird of prey and the national heraldic animal.
Germany is known for its environmental consciousness.[47] The state is committed to the Kyoto protocol
and several other treaties promoting biodiversity, low emission standards, recycling, and the use of
renewable energy, and supports sustainable development at a global level.[48] The German government
has initiated wide-ranging emission reduction activities and the country's overall emissions are falling.
[49]
Nevertheless Germany's carbon dioxide emissions per capita are among the highest in the EU, although
they are significantly lower than those of the United States. Emissions contribute to air pollution and
cause acid rain, which continues to damage German forests. Pollution in the Baltic Sea from raw
156
sewage and industrial effluents has been reduced. Germany's last glaciers in the Alpine region are
experiencing deglaciation.[40]
Politics
Main article: Politics of Germany
Chancellor Angela Merkel hosting the G8 summit in Heiligendamm
Germany is a federal, parliamentary, representative democratic republic. The German political system
operates under a framework laid out in the 1949 constitutional document known as the Grundgesetz
(Basic Law). Amendments generally require a two-thirds majority of both chambers of parliament; the
fundamental principles of the constitution, as expressed in the articles guaranteeing human dignity, the
separation of powers, the federal structure, and the rule of law are valid in perpetuity.[50]
The president, currently Christian Wulff, is the head of state and invested primarily with representative
responsibilities and powers. He is elected by the Bundesversammlung (federal convention), an
institution consisting of the members of the Bundestag and an equal number of state delegates. The
second-highest official in the German order of precedence is the Bundestagsprsident (President of the
Bundestag), who is elected by the Bundestag and responsible for overseeing the daily sessions of the
body. The third-highest official and the head of government is the Chancellor, who is appointed by the
Bundesprsident after being elected by the Bundestag.[16]
The Reichstag in Berlin is the site of the German parliament (Bundestag).
The chancellor, currently Angela Merkel, is the head of government and exercises executive power,
similar to the role of a Prime Minister in other parliamentary democracies. Federal legislative power is
157
vested in the parliament consisting of the Bundestag (Federal Diet) and Bundesrat (Federal Council),
which together form the legislative body. The Bundestag is elected through direct elections, by
proportional representation (mixed-member).[40] The members of the Bundesrat represent the
governments of the sixteen federated states and are members of the state cabinets.[16]
Since 1949, the party system has been dominated by the Christian Democratic Union and the Social
Democratic Party of Germany with all chancellors hitherto being member of either party. However, the
smaller liberal Free Democratic Party (which has had members in the Bundestag since 1949) and the
Alliance '90/The Greens (which has controlled seats in parliament since 1983) have also played
important roles.[51]
Law
Main articles: Judiciary of Germany and Law enforcement in Germany
The Judiciary of Germany is independent of the executive and legislative branches. Germany has a civil
law system based on Roman law with some references to Germanic law. The Bundesverfassungsgericht
(Federal Constitutional Court), located in Karlsruhe, is the German Supreme Court responsible for
constitutional matters, with power of judicial review.[52] It acts as the highest legal authority and ensures
that legislative and judicial practice conforms to the Basic Law.[16]
Germany's supreme court system, called Oberste Gerichtshfe des Bundes, is specialised. For civil and
criminal cases, the highest court of appeal is the Federal Court of Justice, located in Karlsruhe and
Leipzig. The courtroom style is inquisitorial. Other Federal Courts are the Federal Labour Court in
Erfurt, the Federal Social Court in Kassel, the Federal Finance Court in Munich and the Federal
Administrative Court in Leipzig. Criminal and private laws are codified on the national level in the
Strafgesetzbuch and the Brgerliches Gesetzbuch respectively. The German penal system is aimed
towards rehabilitation of the criminal; its secondary goal is the protection of the general public.[53] The
Vlkerstrafgesetzbuch regulates the consequences of crimes against humanity, genocide and war
crimes, and gives German courts universal jurisdiction in some circumstances.[54]
Foreign relations
Main article: Foreign relations of Germany
158
Germany is a founding member of the EEC in 1957, which became the European Union in
1993. It maintains close relations with its neighbours to coordinate EU politics.
Germany maintains a network of 229 diplomatic missions abroad and holds relations with more than
190 countries.[55] It is the largest contributor to the budget of the European Union (providing 20 percent)
and third largest contributor to the UN (providing 8 percent). Germany is a member of NATO, the
Organisation of Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), the G8, the G20, the World Bank
and the International Monetary Fund (IMF). It has played a leading role in the European Union since its
inception and has maintained a strong alliance with France since the end of World War II. Germany
seeks to advance the creation of a more unified European political, defence, and security apparatus.[56]
[57]
During the Cold War, Germany's partition by the Iron Curtain made it a symbol of East-West tensions
and a political battleground in Europe. However, Willy Brandt's Ostpolitik was a key factor in the
dtente of the 1970s.[58] In 1999, Chancellor Gerhard Schrder's government defined a new basis for
German foreign policy by taking part in the NATO decisions surrounding the Kosovo War and by
sending German troops into combat for the first time since World War II.[59] The governments of
Germany and the United States are close political allies.[16] The 1948 Marshall Plan and strong cultural
ties have crafted a strong bond between the two countries, although Schrder's vocal opposition to the
Iraq War suggested the end of Atlanticism and a relative cooling of German-American relations.[60] The
two countries are also economically interdependent: 8.8 percent of German exports are U.S.-bound and
6.6 percent of German imports originate from the U.S.[61]
The development policy of the Federal Republic of Germany is an independent area of German foreign
policy. It is formulated by the Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ)
and carried out by the implementing organisations. The German government sees development policy
as a joint responsibility of the international community.[62] It is the world's third biggest aid donor after
the United States and France.[63][64]
Military
Main article: Bundeswehr
159
The Mecklenburg-Vorpommern participated in a UNIFIL II operation off the coast of

Lebanon.
Germany's military, the Bundeswehr, is organized in Heer (Army), Marine (Navy), Luftwaffe (Air
Force), Zentraler Sanittsdienst (Central Medical Services) and Streitkrftebasis (Joint Support
Service) branches. In 2005, military spending was an estimated 1.5 percent of the country's GDP;
overall military spending is the seventh-highest in the world.[40][65] In peacetime, the Bundeswehr is
commanded by the Minister of Defence. If Germany went to war, which according to the constitution is
allowed only for defensive purposes, the Chancellor would become commander in chief of the
Bundeswehr.[66]
The Bundeswehr employs 200,500 professional soldiers, 55,000 1825 year-old conscripts who serve
for at least six months, and 2,500 active reservists. Roughly 300,000 reservists are available to the
Armed Forces and participate in defence exercises and deployments abroad. As of April 2011, the
German military had about 6,900 troops stationed in foreign countries as part of international
peacekeeping forces, including about 4,900 Bundeswehr troops in the NATO-led ISAF force in
Afghanistan and Uzbekistan, 1,150 German soldiers in Kosovo, and 300 troops with UNIFIL in
Lebanon.[67]
Until 2011, military service was compulsory for men at age 18, and conscripts served six-month tours
of duty; conscientious objectors could instead opt for an equal length of Zivildienst (civilian service), or
a six-year commitment to (voluntary) emergency services like a fire department or the Red Cross.
Conscription has been officially suspended as of 1 July 2011.[68][69] Since 2001 women may serve in all
functions of service without restriction, but they are not subject to conscription. There are presently
some 17,500 women on active duty and a number of female reservists.[70]
Economy
Main article: Economy of Germany
A Mercedes-Benz car. Germany was the world's leading exporter of goods from 2003 to
2008.[71]
160
Germany has a social market economy with a highly qualified labour force, a large capital stock, a low
level of corruption,[72] and a high level of innovation.[73] It has the largest national economy in Europe,
the fourth largest by nominal GDP in the world, and the fifth largest by PPP in 2009. The service sector
contributes around 70 percent of the total GDP, industry 29.1 percent, and agriculture 0.9 percent. In
July 2010 the average national unemployment rate was 7.5 percent. First estimates indicate a 3.6
percent increase in the price-adjusted GDP for 2010, following a 4.7 percent drop in 2009.[74]
Germany is a founding member of the EU, the G8 and the G20, and was the world's largest exporter
from 2003 to 2008. In 2009 it remains the second largest exporter and third largest importer of goods.
Most of the country's exports are in engineering, especially machinery, automobiles, chemical goods
and metals.[40] Germany is a leading producer of wind turbines and solar-power technology. Major
annual international trade fairs and congresses are held in Hanover, Frankfurt, and Berlin.[75]
Germany is an advocate of closer European economic and political integration. Its commercial policies
are increasingly determined by agreements among European Union (EU) members and by EU
legislation. Germany introduced the common European currency, the euro, on 1 January 2002.[35][76] Its
monetary policy is set by the European Central Bank. Two decades after German reunification,
standards of living and per capita incomes remain significantly higher in the states of the former West
Germany than in the former East.[77] The modernisation and integration of the eastern German economy
is a long-term process scheduled to last until the year 2019, with annual transfers from west to east
amounting to roughly $80 billion.[78] In January 2009 the German government approved a 50 billion
economic stimulus plan to protect several sectors from a downturn and a subsequent rise in
unemployment rates.[79]
Of the world's 500 largest stock-market-listed companies measured by revenue in 2010, the Fortune
Global 500, 37 are headquartered in Germany. 30 Germany-based companies are included in the DAX,
the German stock market index. Well-known global brands are Mercedes-Benz, BMW, Siemens,
Volkswagen, Adidas, Audi, Allianz, Porsche, Lufthansa, and Nivea.[80] Germany is recognised for its
specialised small and medium enterprises. Around 1,000 of these companies are global market leaders
in their segment and are labelled hidden champions.[81]
The list includes the largest companies by turnover in 2009. Unranked are the largest bank and the
largest insurance company in 2007:
Rank[82]
Name
Headquarters
1 Volkswagen AG
Wolfsburg
2 Daimler AG
3 Siemens AG
Revenue Profit Employees

(Mil. ) (Mil. )
(World)
108,897
4,120
329,305
Stuttgart
99,399
3,985
272,382
Munich/Berlin
72,488
3,806
398,200
161
4 E.ON AG
Dsseldorf
68,731
7,204
87,815
5 Metro AG
Dsseldorf
64,337
825
242,378
6 Deutsche Post AG
Bonn
63,512
1,389
475,100
7 Deutsche Telekom AG
Bonn
62,516
569
241,426
8 BASF SE
Ludwigshafen
57,951
4,065
95,175
9 BMW AG
Munich
56,018
3,126
107,539
Essen/Duisburg
51,723
2,102
191,350
10 ThyssenKrupp AG
Transport
Main article: Transport in Germany
The ICE 3 train
With its central position in Europe, Germany is a transportation hub. This is reflected in its dense and
modern transport networks. The motorway (Autobahn) network ranks third largest worldwide in length
and has no speed limits on most routes.[83]
Germany has established a polycentric network of high-speed trains. The InterCityExpress or ICE
network of the Deutsche Bahn serves major German cities as well as destinations in neighbouring
countries. Its maximum speed is 300 km/h. Trains run at 30-minute, hour, or two-hour intervals.[84]
The largest German airports are Frankfurt International Airport and Munich International Airport, both
global hubs of Lufthansa. Other major airports are Berlin Tegel, Berlin Schnefeld, Dsseldorf,
Hamburg, Cologne-Bonn, and Leipzig/Halle.[85]
Energy
Main article: Energy in Germany
162
As of 2008, Germany was the world's sixth largest consumer of energy,[86] and 60 percent of its primary
energy was imported.[87] Government policy promotes energy conservation and renewable energy.
Energy efficiency has been improving since the early 1970s; the government aims to meet the country's
electricity demands using only renewable sources by 2050.[88] In 2010, energy sources were: oil (33.7
percent); coal, including lignite (22.9 percent); natural gas (21.8 percent); nuclear (10.8 percent);
hydro-electric and wind power (1.5 percent); and other renewable sources (7.9 percent).[89] In 2000, the
government and the nuclear power industry agreed to phase out all nuclear power plants by 2021.[90]
Main articles: Science and technology in Germany and German inventors and discoverers
Albert Einstein
Germany's achievements in sciences have been significant, and research and development efforts form
an integral part of the economy.[91] The Nobel Prize has been awarded to 103 German laureates.[92] For
most of the 20th century, German laureates had more awards than those of any other nation, especially
in the sciences (physics, chemistry, and physiology or medicine).[93][94]
The work of Albert Einstein and Max Planck was crucial to the foundation of modern physics, which
Werner Heisenberg and Max Born developed further.[95] They were preceded by physicists such as
Hermann von Helmholtz, Joseph von Fraunhofer, and Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit. Wilhelm Conrad
Rntgen discovered X-rays, called Rntgenstrahlen (Rntgen-rays) in German and other languages,
and was the first winner of the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1901.[96] Numerous mathematicians were born
in Germany, including Carl Friedrich Gauss, David Hilbert, Bernhard Riemann, Gottfried Leibniz, Karl
Weierstrass and Hermann Weyl. Research institutions in Germany include the Max Planck Society, the
Helmholtz Association and the Fraunhofer Society. The Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Prize is granted to
ten scientists and academics every year. With a maximum of 2.5 million per award it is one of highest
endowed research prizes in the world.[97]
163
Liquid crystal visualised by a polarising microscope
Germany has been the home of many famous inventors and engineers, such as Johannes Gutenberg,
credited with the invention of movable type printing in Europe; Hans Geiger, the creator of the Geiger
counter; and Konrad Zuse, who built the first fully automatic digital computer.[98] German inventors,
engineers and industrialists such as Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin, Otto Lilienthal, Gottlieb Daimler,
Rudolf Diesel, Hugo Junkers and Karl Benz helped shape modern automotive and air transportation
technology.[99] Aerospace engineer Wernher von Braun developed the first space rocket and later on was
a prominent member of NASA and developed the Saturn V Moon rocket, which paved the way for the
success of the US Apollo program. Heinrich Rudolf Hertz's work in the domain of electromagnetic
radiation was pivotal to the development of modern telecommunication.[100]
Demographics
Main articles: Demographics of Germany, Germans, and Social issues in Germany
Population density in German states (left) and communities (right)
With its estimated population of 81.8 million in January 2010,[101] Germany is the most populous
country in the European Union and ranks as the 15th most populous country in the world.[101] Its
population density stands at 229.4 inhabitants per square kilometre. The overall life expectancy in
Germany at birth is 79.9 years. The fertility rate of 1.4 children per mother, or 7.9 births per 1000
inhabitants in 2009, is one of the lowest in the world.[102] Since the 1990s, Germany's death rate has
continuously exceeded its birth rate.[103] The Federal Statistical Office of Germany forecast that the
164
population will shrink to between 65 and 70 million by 2060 (depending on the level of net migration).
[104]
Germany's population pyramid in 2005
Germans make up 91 percent of the population of Germany. As of 2004, about seven million foreign
citizens were registered in Germany, and 19 percent of the country's residents were of foreign or
partially foreign descent (including persons descending or partially descending from ethnic German
repatriates), 96 percent of whom lived in Western Germany or Berlin. It is estimated by the Federal
Statistical Office of Germany that nearly 30 percent of Germans aged 5 years and younger have at least
one parent who was born abroad. The United Nations Population Fund lists Germany as host to the
third-highest number of international migrants worldwide, about 5 percent or 10 million of all
191 million migrants.[105] As a consequence of restrictions to Germany's formerly rather unrestricted
laws on asylum and immigration, the number of immigrants seeking asylum or claiming German
ethnicity (mostly from the former Soviet Union) has been declining steadily since 2000.[106] In 2009, 20
percent of the population had immigrant roots, the highest since 1945.[107] As of 2008, the largest
national group was from Turkey (2.5 million), followed by Italy (776,000) and Poland (687,000).[108]
About 3 million "Aussiedler"ethnic Germans, mainly from Eastern Europe and the former Soviet
Unionhave resettled in Germany since 1987.[109]
Germany has a number of large cities. The largest conurbation is the Rhine-Ruhr region (12 million),
including Dsseldorf (the capital of North Rhine-Westphalia), Cologne, Essen, Dortmund, Duisburg,
and Bochum.
view talk edit
City
State
Populat
ion
1 Berlin
BE
3,439,10
0
2 Hamburg HH
165
1,769,11
view talk edit
Berlin
3 Munich
BY
1,330,44
0
4 Cologne
Hamburg
NW
5 Frankfurt HE
998,105
Cologne (Kln)
671,927
a. M.
6 Stuttgart BW
600,068
7 Dsseldo NW
586,217
Munich (Mnchen)
Frankfurt am Main
rf
8 Dortmun
NW
581,308
9 Essen
NW
576,259
1 Bremen
HB
547.685
NI
520,966
SN
518,862
SN
517,052
1 Nurembe BY
503,673
0
1 Hanover
1
1 Leipzig
2
1 Dresden
3
4 rg
166
Stuttgart
1 Duisburg NW
491,931
5
Destatis
(2009)[110]
Religion
Main article: Religion in Germany
The Cologne Cathedral at the Rhine river is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Christianity is the largest religion in Germany, with around 49.4 million adherents (62.8 percent) in
2008[111] of which 24.5 million are Protestants (29.9 percent) belonging to the Evangelical Church in
Germany (EKD) and 24.9 million are Catholics (30.0 percent) in 2008, the remainder belong to small
denominations (each considerably less than 0.5 percent of the German population).[112] 1.6 percent of
the country's overall population declare themselves Orthodox Christians, Serbs and Greeks being the
most numerous.[111] Protestantism is concentrated in the north and east and Roman Catholicism is
concentrated in the south and west (Pope Benedict XVI was born in Bavaria).
Non-religious people make up between 34 and 55 percent, especially in the former East Germany and
major metropolitan areas.[113] A poll by Der Spiegel found that 45 percent of Germans believe in God.
[114]
In the 2005 Eurobarometer poll, 47 percent of German citizens agreed with the statement "I believe
there is a God", whereas 25 percent agreed with "I believe there is some sort of spirit or life force" and
25 percent said "I do not believe there is any sort of spirit, god, or life force".[115]
167
The second largest religion is Islam with an estimated 3.8 to 4.3 million adherents (4.6 to 5.2 percent)
[116]
followed by Buddhism and Judaism, both with around 200,000 adherents (0.3 percent). Hinduism
has some 90,000 adherents (0.1 percent) and Sikhism 75,000 (0.1 percent). All other religious
communities in Germany have fewer than 50,000 adherents. Of the roughly 4 million Muslims, most
are Sunnis and Alevites from Turkey, but there are a small number of Shi'ites and other denominations.
[116]
Germany has Europe's third largest Jewish population (after France and the United Kingdom).[117]
Around 250,000 active Buddhists live in Germany; 50 percent of them are Asian immigrants.[118]
Languages
Main article: Languages of Germany
German is the official and predominant spoken language in Germany.[119] It is one of 23 official
languages in the European Union, and one of the three working languages of the European
Commission. German has approximately 100 million native speakers worldwide and about 80 million
non-native speakers.[120] Recognised native minority languages in Germany are Danish, Sorbian,
Romany, and Frisian. They are officially protected by the ECRML. The most used immigrant
languages are Turkish, Kurdish, Polish, the Balkan languages, and Russian. 67 percent of German
citizens claim to be able to communicate in at least one foreign language, 27 percent in at least two
languages other than their own.[119]
Spoken German in Goethe's Faust
Standard German is a West Germanic language and is closely related to and classified alongside
English, Dutch, and the Frisian languages. To a lesser extent, it is also related to the East (extinct) and
North Germanic languages. Most German vocabulary is derived from the Germanic branch of the IndoEuropean language family.[121] Significant minorities of words are derived from Latin and Greek, with a
smaller amount from French and most recently English (known as Denglisch). German is written using
the Latin alphabet. German dialects are distinguished from varieties of standard German. German
dialects are traditional local varieties and are traced back to the different German tribes. Many of them
are not easily understandable to a speaker of standard German, since they often differ in lexicon,
phonology, and syntax.[122]
Education
Main article: Education in Germany
168
The University of Heidelberg was established in 1386.
Over 99 percent of those of age 15 and above are estimated to be able to read and write.[40] However, a
growing number of inhabitants are functionally illiterate.[123] Responsibility for educational oversight in
Germany lies primarily with the individual federated states. Since the 1960s, a reform movement
attempted to unify secondary education in a Gesamtschule (comprehensive school); several West
German states later simplified their school system to two or three tiers. A system of apprenticeship
called Duale Ausbildung ("dual education") allows pupils in vocational training to learn in a company
as well as in a state-run vocational school.[124]
Optional kindergarten education is provided for all children between three and six years old, after
which school attendance is compulsory for at least nine years. Primary education usually lasts for four
years and public schools are not stratified at this stage.[124] In contrast, secondary education includes
three traditional types of schools based on a pupil's ability as determined by teacher recommendations:
the Gymnasium enrols the most gifted children and prepares students for university studies; the
Realschule for intermediate students lasts six years; the Hauptschule prepares pupils for vocational
education.
To enter a university in Germany, high school students are generally required to take the Abitur
examination, which is similar to A-levels in the UK and typically done at the age of 18 or 19. However,
students possessing a diploma from a vocational school may also apply for matriculation in certain
subjects. Germany's universities are recognised internationally; in the ARWU ranking for 2008, six of
the top 100 universities in the world are in Germany, and 18 of the top 200.[125] Nearly all German
universities are public institutions, charging tuition fees of 50500 per semester for each student.[126]
Health
Main article: Health in Germany
169
Department of Surgery in the University Medical Center Freiburg
Germany has the world's oldest universal health care system, dating back to Otto von Bismarck's Social
legislation in 1883.[127] Currently the population is covered by a basic health insurance plan provided by
statute. According to the World Health Organization, Germany's health care system was 77 percent
government-funded and 23 percent privately funded as of 2004.[128] In 2005, Germany spent 10.7
percent of its GDP on health care. Germany ranked 20th in the world in life expectancy with 76,5 years
for men and 82,1 years for woman, and it had a very low infant mortality rate (4.3 per 1,000 live
births).[40]
In 2002 the top diagnosis for male patients released from the hospital was heart disease, followed by
alcohol-related disorders and hernias. For women, the top diagnoses related to pregnancies, breast
cancer, and heart weakness. At the end of 2004, some 44,000 Germans were infected with HIV/AIDS.
According to a 2003 survey, 37 percent of adult males and 28 percent of adult females in Germany are
smokers. A 2007 study shows Germany has the highest number of overweight people in Europe.[129][130]
Culture
Main article: Culture of Germany
From its roots, culture in Germany has been shaped by major intellectual and popular currents in
Europe, both religious and secular. Historically Germany has been called Das Land der Dichter und
Denker (the land of poets and thinkers).[131] The federated states are in charge of the cultural institutions.
There are 240 subsidised theatres, hundreds of symphonic orchestras, thousands of museums and over
25,000 libraries spread in Germany. These cultural opportunities are enjoyed by many: there are over
91 million German museum visits every year; annually, 20 million go to theatres and operas;
3.6 million per year listen to the symphonic orchestras.[132] The UNESCO inscribed 33 properties in
Germany on the World Heritage List.[133]
Numerous German painters have enjoyed international prestige through their work in diverse artistic
styles. Hans Holbein the Younger, Matthias Grnewald, and Albrecht Drer were important artists of
the Renaissance, Caspar David Friedrich of Romanticism, and Max Ernst of Surrealism. Architectural
contributions from Germany include the Carolingian and Ottonian styles, which were precursors of
Romanesque. The region later became the site of Gothic, Renaissance and Baroque art. Germany was
170
particularly important in the early modern movement, especially through the Bauhaus movement
founded by Walter Gropius. Ludwig Mies van der Rohe became one of the world's most renowned
architects in the second half of the 20th century. He conceived of the glass faade skyscraper.[134]
Literature and philosophy
German literature can be traced back to the Middle Ages and the works of writers such as Walther von
der Vogelweide and Wolfram von Eschenbach. Well-known German authors include Johann Wolfgang
von Goethe and Friedrich Schiller. The collections of folk tales published by the Brothers Grimm
popularised German folklore on an international level. Influential authors of the 20th century include
Thomas Mann, Bertolt Brecht, Hermann Hesse, Heinrich Bll, and Gnter Grass.[135]
German philosophy is historically significant. Gottfried Leibniz's contributions to rationalism; the
establishment of classical German idealism by Immanuel Kant, Johann Gottlieb Fichte, Georg Wilhelm
Friedrich Hegel and Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling; Arthur Schopenhauer's composition of
metaphysical pessimism; the formulation of communist theory by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels;
Friedrich Nietzsche's development of perspectivism; Gottlob Frege's contributions to the dawn of
analytic philosophy; Martin Heidegger's works on Being; and the development of the Frankfurt school
by Max Horkheimer, Theodor Adorno, Herbert Marcuse and Jrgen Habermas have been particularly
influential. In the 21st century Germany has contributed to the development of contemporary analytic
philosophy in continental Europe, along with France, Austria, Switzerland and the Scandinavian
countries.[136]
I. Kant
(17241804)
J. W. v.
Goethe
(17491832)
F. Schiller
(17591805)
Cinema
Main article: Cinema of Germany
171
Brothers
Grimm
(17851863)
T. Mann
H. Hesse
(18751955) (18771962)
The Berlinale Palast during the Berlin Film Festival in February 2007
German cinema dates back to the earliest years of the medium with the work of Max Skladanowsky,
which was particularly influential with German expressionists such as Robert Wiene and Friedrich
Wilhelm Murnau. Austrian-based director Fritz Lang, a German citizen since 1926, influenced
Hollywood cinema; his Metropolis (1927) is referred to as the first modern science-fiction film. In 1930
the Austrian-American Josef von Sternberg directed The Blue Angel, the first major German sound film,
which brought fame to actress Marlene Dietrich.[137] The impressionist documentary Berlin: Symphony
of a Great City, directed by Walter Ruttmann, is a prominent example of the city symphony genre. The
Nazi era produced mostly propaganda films, although the work of Leni Riefenstahl still introduced new
aesthetics.[138] During the 1970s and 1980s, New German Cinema directors such as Volker Schlndorff,
Werner Herzog, Wim Wenders, and Rainer Werner Fassbinder put West German cinema on the
international stage.[139]
More recently, films such as Good Bye Lenin! (2003), Gegen die Wand (Head-on) (2004), Der
Untergang (Downfall) (2004), and Der Baader Meinhof Komplex (2008) have had international
success. The Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film went to the German production Die
Blechtrommel (The Tin Drum) in 1979, to Nowhere in Africa in 2002, and to Das Leben der Anderen
(The Lives of Others) in 2007.[140] Among famous German actors are Marlene Dietrich, Klaus Kinski,
Hanna Schygulla, Armin Mueller-Stahl, Jrgen Prochnow, and Thomas Kretschmann. The annual
European Film Awards ceremony is held every other year in Berlin, home of the European Film
Academy (EFA). The Berlin Film Festival, held annually since 1951, is one of the world's foremost
film festivals.[141]
Music
Main article: Music of Germany
172
Ludwig van Beethoven (17701827), composer
The contributions of German musicians and composers have been significant. Germany claims some of
the world's most well-known classical music composers, including Ludwig van Beethoven, Johann
Sebastian Bach, Johannes Brahms, and Richard Wagner. As of 2008, Germany is the fourth largest
music market in the world and has influenced popular music through artists such as Kraftwerk, Boney
M., Nico, Nina Hagen, Scorpions, Toten Hosen, Tokio Hotel, Rammstein and Paul van Dyk.[142]
J.S.Bach
L.v. Beethoven
R. Wagner
Toccata und Fuge
Symphonie 5 c-moll
Die Walkre
Media
Germany's television market is the largest in Europe, with some 34 million TV households. Around 90
percent of German households have cable or satellite TV, with a variety of free-to-view public and
commercial channels.[143] Germany is home to several media conglomerates, including Bertelsmann, the
Axel Springer AG and ProSiebenSat.1 Media.
German-speaking book publishers produce some 700 million books every year, with about 80,000
titles, nearly 60,000 of them new. Germany comes third in quantity of books published, after the
English-speaking book market and the People's Republic of China.[144] The Frankfurt Book Fair is the
most important in the world for international deals and trading, with a tradition spanning over 500
years.[145]
Sports
Main article: Sport in Germany
173
The Allianz Arena is host to the football club Bayern Munich and was a venue for the 2006
FIFA World Cup.
Twenty-seven million Germans are members of a sports club and an additional twelve million pursue
sports individually.[146] Association football is the most popular sport. With more than 6.3 million
official members, the German Football Association (Deutscher Fuball-Bund) is the largest sports
organisation of its kind worldwide.[146] The Bundesliga attracts the second highest average attendance of
any professional sports league in the world. The German national football team won the FIFA World
Cup in 1954, 1974 and 1990 and the UEFA European Football Championship in 1972, 1980 and 1996.
Germany hosted the FIFA World Cup in 1974 and 2006 and the UEFA European Football
Championship in 1988. Among the most well-known footballers are Franz Beckenbauer, Gerd Mller,
Jrgen Klinsmann, Lothar Matthus, and Oliver Kahn. Other popular spectator sports include handball,
volleyball, basketball, ice hockey, and tennis.[146]
Germany is one of the leading motor sports countries in the world. Constructors like BMW and
Mercedes are prominent manufacturers in motor sport. Additionally, Porsche has won the 24 Hours of
Le Mans, an annual endurance race held in France, 16 times, and Audi has won it 9 times. Formula One
driver Michael Schumacher has set many motor sport records during his career, having won more
Formula One World Drivers' Championships and more Formula One races than any other driver; he is
one of the highest paid sportsmen in history.[147]
Historically, German sportsmen have been successful contenders in the Olympic Games, ranking third
in an all-time Olympic Games medal count, combining East and West German medals. In the 2008
Summer Olympics, Germany finished fifth in the medal count,[148] while in the 2006 Winter Olympics
they finished first.[149] Germany has hosted the Summer Olympic Games twice, in Berlin in 1936 and in
Munich in 1972. The Winter Olympic Games took place in Germany once in 1936 in the twin towns of
Garmisch and Partenkirchen.
Cuisine
Main article: German cuisine
174
A Schwarzwlder Kirschtorte (Black Forest cake)
German cuisine varies from region to region. The southern regions of Bavaria and Swabia, for instance,
share a culinary culture with Switzerland and Austria. In all regions, meat is often eaten in sausage
form. More than 1,500 different types of sausage are produced in Germany. Organic food has gained a
market share of around 3.0 percent, and is expected to increase further.[150] Germans have also adopted
international dishes from immigrant communities. Italian dishes like pizza and pasta, and Turkish and
Arab dishes like Dner Kebab and Falafel, are well established, especially in bigger cities. International
burger chains, as well as Chinese and Greek restaurants, are widespread, as are Indian, Thai, Japanese,
and other Asian cuisines.
The Michelin guide has awarded nine restaurants in Germany three stars, the highest designation, while
15 more received two stars.[151] German restaurants have become the world's second-most decorated
after France.[152]
Although wine is becoming more popular in many parts of Germany, the national alcoholic drink is
beer. German beer consumption per person is declining, but at 116 litres annually it is still among the
highest in the world.[153] Beer varieties include Alt, Bock, Dunkel, Klsch, Lager, Malzbier, Pils, and
Weizenbier.
Society
Germany has established a high level of gender equality,[154] promotes disability rights, and is legally
and socially tolerant towards homosexuals. Gays and lesbians can legally adopt their partner's
biological children, and civil unions have been permitted since 2001.[155] Vice-Chancellor Guido
Westerwelle and the mayor of Berlin, Klaus Wowereit, are openly gay.[156] Germany has also changed
its attitude towards immigrants; since the mid-1990s, the government and the majority of Germans
have begun to acknowledge that controlled immigration should be allowed based on qualification
standards.[157]
Since the 2006 FIFA World Cup, the internal and external evaluation of Germany's national image has
changed.[158] Germany has been named the world's second most valued nation among 50 countries in
175
2010.[159] A global opinion poll for the BBC revealed that Germany is recognised for having the most
positive influence in the world in 2011
England
For other uses, see England (disambiguation).
England
Flag
Royal Banner
Motto: Dieu et mon droit
(French)
"God and my right"[1][2]
Anthem: None (de jure)

God Save the Queen, Land of Hope and Glory,
Jerusalem (de facto)
Location of England (orange)

in the European continent (camel & white)
176
in the United Kingdom (camel)
London
Capital
5130N 07W / 51.5N 0.117W /
(and largest city)

Official
English (de facto)[note 1]
language(s)
Recognised
regional languages
Cornish
88.2% White, 5.7% South
Ethnic
Asian, 2.8% Black, 1.7%
groups (2007
Mixed race, 0.8% Chinese,
[3][4]
0.7%
Demonym
Other
English
Non-devolved state within
Government
a constitutional monarchy
- Monarch
Elizabeth II
Prime Minister of
- the United
David Cameron MP
Kingdom
Legislature
Parliament of the United

Kingdom
Area
- Total
130,395 km2
50,346 sq mi
Population
177
- 2008 estimate
51,446,000[5]
- 2001 census
49,138,831
- Density
GDP (PPP)
395/km2
1,023/sq mi
2006 estimate
- Total
$1.9 trillion
- Per capita
US$38,000
GDP (nominal)
2006 estimate
- Total
$2.2 trillion
- Per capita
$44,000
Currency
Time zone
- Summer (DST)
Pound sterling (GBP)

GMT (UTC0)
BST (UTC+1)
Date formats
d/m/yy (AD)
Drives on the
left
ISO 3166 code
GB
Internet TLD
.uk[note 2]
Calling code
44
Patron saint
Saint George
178
Wikisource has original text related to this article:

England portal
England ( i /lnd/) is a country that is part of the United Kingdom.[6][7][8] It shares land borders
with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west; the Irish Sea is to the north west, the Celtic Sea to the
south west and the North Sea to the east, with the English Channel to the south separating it from
continental Europe. Most of England comprises the central and southern part of the island of Great
Britain in the North Atlantic. The country also includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of
Scilly and the Isle of Wight.
The area now called England was first inhabited by modern humans during the Upper Palaeolithic
period, but it takes its name from the Angles, one of the Germanic tribes who settled during the 5th and
6th centuries. England became a unified state in AD 927, and since the Age of Discovery, which began
during the 15th century, has had a significant cultural and legal impact on the wider world.[9] The
English language, the Anglican Church, and English lawthe basis for the common law legal systems
of many other countries around the worlddeveloped in England, and the country's parliamentary
system of government has been widely adopted by other nations.[10] The Industrial Revolution began in
18th-century England, transforming its society into the world's first industrialised nation.[11] England's
Royal Society laid the foundations of modern experimental science.[12]
England's terrain mostly comprises low hills and plains, especially in central and southern England.
However, there are uplands in the north (for example, the mountainous Lake District, Pennines, and
Yorkshire Dales) and in the south west (for example, Dartmoor and the Cotswolds). London, England's
capital, is the largest metropolitan area in the United Kingdom and the largest urban zone in the
European Union by most measures.[note 3] England's population is about 51 million, around 84% of the
population of the United Kingdom, and is largely concentrated in London, the South East and
conurbations in the Midlands, the North West, the North East and Yorkshire, which each developed as
major industrial regions during the 19th century. Meadowlands and pastures are found beyond the
major cities.
The Kingdom of Englandwhich after 1284 included Waleswas a sovereign state until 1 May 1707,
when the Acts of Union put into effect the terms agreed in the Treaty of Union the previous year,
resulting in a political union with the Kingdom of Scotland to create the new Kingdom of Great Britain.
[13][14]
In 1800, Great Britain was united with the Kingdom of Ireland through another Act of Union to
become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922, the Irish Free State was established
as a separate dominion, but the Royal and Parliamentary Titles Act 1927 reincorporated into the
kingdom six Irish counties to officially create the current United Kingdom of Great Britain and
Northern Ireland.
Contents
179
[hide]
1 Etymology
2 History
2.1 Prehistory and antiquity
2.2 Middle Ages
2.3 Early Modern
2.4 Late Modern and contemporary
3 Governance
o
3.1 Politics
3.2 Law
3.3 Regions, counties, and districts
4 Geography
o
4.1 Landscape and rivers
4.2 Climate
4.3 Major conurbations
5 Economy
o
5.1 Infrastructure
6 Demographics
o
6.1 Population
6.2 Language
6.3 Religion
7 Education
8 Science and technology
180
9 Culture
o
9.1 Architecture
9.2 Folklore
9.3 Cuisine
9.4 Visual arts
9.5 Literature, poetry and philosophy
9.6 Performing arts
9.7 Museums, libraries, and galleries
10 Sports
11 National symbols
12 Notes
13 References
o
13.1 Bibliographic
14 External links
Etymology
The name "England" is derived from the Old English name Engla land, which means "land of the
Angles".[15] The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that settled in Great Britain during the Early
Middle Ages. The Angles came from the Angeln peninsula in the Bay of Kiel area of the Baltic Sea.[16]
According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the first known use of "England" to refer to the southern
part of the island of Great Britain occurs in 897, and its modern spelling was first used in 1538.[17]
The earliest attested mention of the name occurs in the 1st century work by Tacitus, Germania, in
which the Latin word Anglii is used.[18] The etymology of the tribal name itself is disputed by scholars;
it has been suggested that it derives from the shape of the Angeln peninsula, an angular shape.[19] How
and why a term derived from the name of a tribe that was less significant than others, such as the
Saxons, came to be used for the entire country and its people is not known, but it seems this is related
to the custom of calling the Germanic people in Britain Angli Saxones or English Saxons.[20]
181
An alternative name for England is Albion. The name Albion originally referred to the entire island of
Great Britain. The earliest record of the name appears in the Aristotelian Corpus, specifically the 4th
century BC De Mundo:[21] "Beyond the Pillars of Hercules is the ocean that flows round the earth. In it
are two very large islands called Britannia; these are Albion and Ierne".[21] The word Albion ()
or insula Albionum has two possible origins. It either derives from the Latin albus meaning white, a
reference to the white cliffs of Dover, which is the first view of Britain from the European Continent,[22]
or from the phrase in Massaliote Periplus, the "island of the Albiones".[23] Albion is now applied to
England in a more poetic capacity.[24] Another romantic name for England is Loegria, related to the
Welsh word for England, Lloegr, and made popular by its use in Arthurian legend.
History
Main article: History of England
Prehistory and antiquity
Main article: Prehistoric Britain
Stonehenge, a Neolithic monument
The earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that of Homo
antecessor, dating to approximately 780,000 years ago. The oldest proto-human bones discovered in
England date from 500,000 years ago.[25] Modern humans are known to have first inhabited the area
during the Upper Paleolithic period, though permanent settlements were only established within the last
6,000 years.[26][27] After the last ice age only large mammals such as mammoths, bison and woolly
rhinoceros remained. Roughly 11,000 years ago, when the ice sheets began to recede, humans
repopulated the area; genetic research suggests they came from the northern part of the Iberian
Peninsula.[28] The sea level was lower than now, and Britain was connected by land to both Ireland and
Eurasia.[29] As the seas rose, it was separated from Ireland 10,000 years ago and from Eurasia two
millennia later.
Beaker culture arrived around 2500 BC, introducing drinking and food vessels constructed from clay,
as well as vessels used as reduction pots to smelt copper ores.[30] It was during this time that major
Neolithic monuments such as Stonehenge and Avebury were constructed. By heating together tin and
182
copper, both of which were in abundance in the area, the Beaker culture people were able to make
bronze, and later iron from iron ores. According to John T. Koch and others, England in the Late
Bronze Age was part of a maritime trading-networked culture called the Atlantic Bronze Age that
included all of Britain and also Ireland, France, Spain and Portugal. In those areas, Celtic languages
developed; Tartessian may have been the earliest written Celtic language.[31][32][33]
Boudica led an uprising against the Roman Empire.
During the Iron Age, Celtic culture, deriving from the Hallstatt and La Tne cultures, arrived from
Central Europe. The development of iron smelting allowed the construction of better ploughs,
advancing agriculture (for instance, with Celtic fields), as well as the production of more effective
weapons.[34] Brythonic was the spoken language during this time. Society was tribal; according to
Ptolemy's Geographia there were around 20 different tribes in the area. However, earlier divisions are
unknown because the Britons were not literate. Like other regions on the edge of the Empire, Britain
had long enjoyed trading links with the Romans. Julius Caesar of the Roman Republic attempted to
invade twice in 55 BC; although largely unsuccessful, he managed to set up a client king from the
Trinovantes.
The Romans conquered Britain in AD 43 during the reign of Emperor Claudius, and the area was
incorporated into the Roman Empire as Britannia province.[35] The best-known of the native tribes who
attempted to resist were the Catuvellauni led by Caratacus. Later, an uprising led by Boudica, queen of
the Iceni, ended with Boudicas suicide following her defeat at the Battle of Watling Street.[36] This era
saw a Greco-Roman culture prevail with the introduction of Roman law, Roman architecture, sewage
systems, many agricultural items, and silk.[37][38][39] In the 3rd century, Emperor Septimius Severus died
at York, where Constantine was subsequently proclaimed emperor.[40] Christianity was first introduced
around this time, though there are traditions linked to Glastonbury claiming an introduction through
Joseph of Arimathea, while others claim through Lucius of Britain.[41] By 410, as the empire declined,
183
Britain was left exposed by the withdrawal of Roman army units, to defend the frontiers in continental
Europe and take part in civil wars.[42]
Middle Ages
Main article: England in the Middle Ages
A 7th century ceremonial helmet from the Kingdom of East Anglia, found at Sutton Hoo.
Roman military withdrawals left Britain open to invasion by pagan, seafaring warriors from northwestern continental Europe, chiefly the Angles, Saxons and Jutes who had long raided the coasts of the
Roman province and now began to settle, initially in the eastern part of the country.[42] Their advance
was contained for some decades after the Britons' victory at the Battle of Mount Badon, but
subsequently resumed, over-running the fertile lowlands of Britain and reducing the area under
Brythonic control to a series of separate enclaves in the more rugged country to the west by the end of
the 6th century. Contemporary texts describing this period are extremely scarce, giving rise to its
description as a Dark Age. The nature and progression of the Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain is
consequently subject to considerable disagreement. Christianity had in general disappeared from the
conquered territories, but was reintroduced by missionaries from Rome led by Augustine from 597
onwards and by Irish missionaries led by Aidan around the same time.[43] Disputes between the varying
influences represented by these missions ended in victory for the Roman tradition.
During the settlement period the lands ruled by the incomers seem to have been fragmented into
numerous tribal territories, but by the 7th century, when substantial evidence of the situation again
becomes available, these had coalesced into roughly a dozen kingdoms including Northumbria, Mercia,
Wessex, East Anglia, Essex, Kent and Sussex. Over the following centuries this process of political
consolidation continued.[44] The 7th century saw a struggle for hegemony between Northumbria and
Mercia, which in the 8th century gave way to Mercian preeminence.[45] In the early 9th century Mercia
was displaced as the foremost kingdom by Wessex. Later in that century escalating attacks by the
Danes culminated in the conquest of the north and east of England, overthrowing the kingdoms of
184
Northumbria, Mercia and East Anglia. Wessex under Alfred the Great was left as the only surviving
English kingdom, and under his successors it steadily expanded at the expense of the kingdoms of the
Danelaw. This brought about the political unification of England, first accomplished under thelstan in
927 and definitively established after further conflicts by Eadred in 953. A fresh wave of Scandinavian
attacks from the late 10th century ended with the conquest of this united kingdom by Sweyn Forkbeard
in 1013 and again by his son Cnut in 1016, turning it into the centre of a short-lived North Sea empire
that also included Denmark and Norway. However the native royal dynasty was restored with the
accession of Edward the Confessor in 1042.
King Henry V at the Battle of Agincourt, fought on Saint Crispin's Day and concluded with
an English victory against a larger French army in the Hundred Years' War.
A dispute over the succession to Edward led to the Norman conquest of England in 1066, accomplished
by an army led by Duke William of Normandy.[46] The Normans themselves originated from
Scandinavia and had settled in Normandy in the late 9th and early 10th centuries.[47] This conquest led
to the almost total dispossession of the English elite and its replacement by a new French-speaking
aristocracy, whose speech had a profound and permanent effect on the English language.[48]
The House of Plantagenet from Anjou inherited the English throne under Henry II, adding England to
the budding Angevin Empire of fiefs the family had inherited in France including Aquitaine.[49] They
reigned for three centuries, proving noted monarchs such as Richard I, Edward I, Edward III and Henry
V.[49] The period saw changes in trade and legislation, including the signing of the Magna Carta, an
English legal charter used to limit the sovereign's powers by law and protect the privileges of freemen.
Catholic monasticism flourished, providing philosophers and the universities of Oxford and Cambridge
were founded with royal patronage. The Principality of Wales became a Plantagenet fief during the 13th
century[50] and the Lordship of Ireland was gifted to the English monarchy by the Pope.
During the 14th century, the Plantagenets and House of Valois both claimed to be legitimate claimants
to House of Capet and with it Francethe two powers clashed in the Hundred Years' War.[51] The Black
Death epidemic hit England, starting in 1348, it eventually killed up to half of England's inhabitants.[52]
[53]
From 1453 to 1487 civil war between two branches of the royal family occurredthe Yorkists and
Lancastriansknown as the Wars of the Roses.[54] Eventually it led to the Yorkists losing the throne
entirely to a Welsh noble family the Tudors, a branch of the Lancastrians headed by Henry Tudor who
185
invaded with Welsh and Breton mercenaries, gaining victory at the Battle of Bosworth Field where the
Yorkist king Richard III was killed.[55]
Early Modern
King Henry VIII became Supreme Head of the Church of England.
During the Tudor period, the Renaissance reached England through Italian courtiers, who reintroduced
artistic, educational and scholarly debate from classical antiquity.[56] During this time England began to
develop naval skills, and exploration to the West intensified.[57][58]
Henry VIII broke from communion with the Catholic Church, over issues relating to divorce, under the
Acts of Supremacy in 1534 which proclaimed the monarch head of the Church of England. Contrary to
much of European Protestantism, the roots of the split were more political than theological.[note 4] He also
legally incorporated his ancestral land Wales into the Kingdom of England with the 15351542 acts.
There were internal religious conflicts during the reigns of Henry's daughters; Mary I and Elizabeth I.
The former attempted to bring the country back to Catholicism, while the later broke from it again more
forcefully asserting the supremacy of Anglicanism.
An English fleet under Francis Drake defeated an invading Spanish Armada during the Elizabethan
period. Competing with Spain, the first English colony in the Americas was founded in 1585 by
explorer Walter Raleigh in Virginia and named Roanoke. The Roanoke colony failed and is known as
the lost colony after it was found abandoned on the return of the late arriving supply ship.[60] With the
East India Company, England also competed with the Dutch and French to the East. The nature of the
island was changed, when the Stuart King of Scotland, from a kingdom which was previously a long
time rival, inherited the throne of Englandcreating a personal union under James I in 1603.[61][62] He
styled himself King of Great Britain, despite having no basis in English law.[63]
186
The English Restoration restored the monarchy under King Charles II and peace after the
English Civil War.
Based on conflicting political, religious and social positions, there was an English Civil War between
the supporters of Parliament and those of king Charles I, known as Roundheads and Cavaliers
respectively. This was an interwoven part of the wider multifaceted Wars of the Three Kingdoms,
involving Scotland and Ireland. The Parliamentarians were victorious, Charles I was executed and the
kingdom replaced with the Commonwealth. Leader of the Parliament forces, Oliver Cromwell declared
himself Lord Protector in 1653, a period of personal rule followed.[64] After Cromwell's death, and his
son Richard's resignation as Lord Protector, Charles II was invited to return as monarch in 1660 with
the Restoration. It was now constitutionally established that King and Parliament should rule together
though Parliament would have the real power. This was established with the Bill of Rights in 1689.
Among the statutes set down were that the law could only be made by Parliament and could not be
suspended by the King, and the King could not impose taxes or raise an army without prior approval by
Parliament.[65] With the founding of the Royal Society in 1660, science was greatly encouraged.
The Great Fire of London in 1666 gutted the capital but it was rebuilt shortly after.[66] In Parliament two
factions had emergedthe Tories and Whigs. The former were royalists while the latter were classical
liberals. Though the Tories initially supported Catholic king James II, some of them, along with the
Whigs deposed him at the Revolution of 1688 and invited Dutch prince William III to become
monarch. Some English people, especially in the north were Jacobites and continued to support James
and his sons. After the parliaments of England and Scotland both agreed,[67] the two countries joined in
political union, to create the Kingdom of Great Britain in 1707.[61] To accommodate the union,
institutions such as the law and national church of each remained separate.[68]
Late Modern and contemporary
187
Saltaire, West Yorkshire, is a model mill town from the Industrial Revolution, and a World
Heritage Site.
Under the newly formed Kingdom of Great Britain, output from the Royal Society and other English
initiatives combined with the Scottish Enlightenment to create innovations in science and engineering.
This paved the way for the establishment of the British Empire. Domestically it drove the Industrial
Revolution, a period of profound change in the socioeconomic and cultural conditions of England,
resulting in industrialised agriculture, manufacture, engineering and mining, as well as new and
pioneering road, rail and water networks to facilitate their expansion and development.[69] The opening
of Northwest England's Bridgewater Canal in 1761 ushered in the canal age in Britain.[70][71] In 1825 the
world's first permanent steam locomotive-hauled passenger railwaythe Stockton and Darlington
Railwayopened to the public.[70]
During the Industrial Revolution, many workers moved from England's countryside to new and
expanding urban industrial areas to work in factories, for instance at Manchester and Birmingham,
dubbed "Warehouse City" and "Workshop of the World" respectively.[72][73] England maintained relative
stability throughout the French Revolution; William Pitt the Younger was British Prime Minister for the
reign of George III. During the Napoleonic Wars, Napoleon planned to invade from the south-east.
However this failed to manifest and the Napoleonic forces were defeated by the British at sea by Lord
Nelson and on land by the Duke of Wellington. The Napoleonic Wars fostered a concept of Britishness
and a united national British people, shared with the Scots and Welsh.[74]
188
The Cenotaph at Whitehall is a memorial to members of the British Armed Forces who
died during the two World Wars.
London became the largest and most populous metropolitan area in the world during the Victorian era,
and trade within the British Empireas well as the standing of the British military and navywas
prestigious.[75] Political agitation at home from radicals such as the Chartists and the suffragettes
enabled legislative reform and universal suffrage.[76] Power shifts in east-central Europe led to World
War I; hundreds of thousands of English soldiers died fighting for the United Kingdom as part of the
Allies.[note 5] Two decades later, in World War II, the United Kingdom was again one of the Allies. At the
end of the Phoney War, Winston Churchill became the wartime Prime Minister. Developments in
warfare technology saw many cities damaged by air-raids during the Blitz. Following the war, the
British Empire experienced rapid decolonisation, and there was a speeding up of technological
innovations; automobiles became the primary means of transport and Frank Whittle's development of
the jet engine led to wider air travel.[78] Residential patterns were altered in England by private
motoring, and by the creation of the National Health Service (NHS) in 1948. England's NHS provided
publicly funded health care to all UK permanent residents free at the point of need, being paid for from
general taxation. Combined, these changes prompted the reform of local government in England in the
mid-20th century.[79][80]
Since the 20th century there has been significant population movement to England, mostly from other
parts of the British Isles, but also from the Commonwealth, particularly the Indian subcontinent.[81]
Since the 1970s there has been a large move away from manufacturing and an increasing emphasis on
the service industry.[82] As part of the United Kingdom, the area joined a common market initiative
called the European Economic Community which became the European Union. Since the late 20th
century the administration of the United Kingdom has moved towards devolved governance in
Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland.[83] England and Wales continues to exist as a jurisdiction within
the United Kingdom.[84] Devolution has stimulated a greater emphasis on a more English-specific
189
identity and patriotism.[85][86] There is no devolved English government, but an attempt to create a
similar system on a sub-regional basis was rejected by referendum.[87]
Governance
Politics
Main article: Politics of England
Palace of Westminster, the seat of the Parliament of the United Kingdom
As part of the United Kingdom, the basic political system in England is a constitutional monarchy and
parliamentary system.[88] There has not been a Government of England since 1707, when the Acts of
Union 1707, putting into effect the terms of the Treaty of Union, joined England and Scotland to form
the Kingdom of Great Britain.[67] Before the union England was ruled by its monarch and the
Parliament of England. Today England is governed directly by the Parliament of the United Kingdom,
although other countries of the United Kingdom have devolved governments.[89] In the House of
Commons which is the lower house of the British Parliament based at the Palace of Westminster, there
are 532 Members of Parliament (MPs) for constituencies in England, out of the 650 total.[90]
In the United Kingdom general election, 2010 the Conservative Party had won an absolute majority in
England's 532 contested seats with 61 seats more than all other parties combined (the Speaker of the
House not being counted as a Conservative). However, taking Scotland, Northern Ireland and Wales
into account this was not enough to secure an overall majority, resulting in a hung parliament.[91] In
order to achieve a majority the Conservative party, headed by David Cameron, entered into a coalition
agreement with the third largest party, the Liberal Democrats, led by Nick Clegg. Subsequently Gordon
Brown announced he was stepping down as prime minister[92] and leader of the Labour party, now led
by Ed Miliband.
190
Changing of the Queen's Guard at the royal residence, Buckingham Palace
As the United Kingdom is a member of the European Union, there are elections held regionally in
England to decide who is sent as Members of the European Parliament. The 2009 European Parliament
election saw the regions of England elect the following MEPs: twenty-three Conservatives, ten Labour,
nine UK Independence Party (UKIP), nine Liberal Democrats, two Greens and two British National
Party (BNP).[93]
Since devolution, in which other countries of the United KingdomScotland, Wales and Northern
Irelandeach have their own devolved parliament or assemblies for local issues, there has been debate
about how to counterbalance this in England. Originally it was planned that various regions of England
would be devolved, but following the proposal's rejection by the North East in a referendum, this has
not been carried out.[87]
One major issue is the West Lothian question, in which MPs from Scotland and Wales are able to vote
on legislation affecting only England, while English MPs have no equivalent right to legislate on
devolved matters.[94] This when placed in the context of England being the only country of the United
Kingdom not to have free cancer treatment, prescriptions, residential care for the elderly and free topup university fees,[95] has led to a steady rise in English nationalism.[96] Some have suggested the
creation of a devolved English parliament,[97] while others have proposed simply limiting voting on
legislation which only affects England to English MPs.[98]
Law
Main article: English law
191
The Royal Courts of Justice
The English law legal system, developed over the centuries, is the foundation of many legal systems
throughout the Anglosphere.[99] Despite now being part of the United Kingdom, the legal system of the
Courts of England and Wales continued, under the Treaty of Union, as a separate legal system from the
one used in Scotland. The general essence of English law is that it is made by judges sitting in courts,
applying their common sense and knowledge of legal precedentstare decisisto the facts before
them.[100]
The court system is headed by the Supreme Court of Judicature, consisting of the Court of Appeal, the
High Court of Justice for civil cases, and the Crown Court for criminal cases.[101] The Supreme Court of
the United Kingdom is the highest court for criminal and civil cases in England and Wales. It was
created in 2009 after constitutional changes, taking over the judicial functions of the House of Lords.
[102]
A decision of the Supreme Court is binding on every other court in the hierarchy, which must follow
its directions.[103]
Crime increased between 1981 and 1995, but fell by 42% in the period 19952006.[104] The prison
population doubled over the same period, giving it the highest incarceration rate in Western Europe at
147 per 100,000.[105] Her Majesty's Prison Service, reporting to the Ministry of Justice, manages most
prisons, housing over 80,000 convicts.[105]
Regions, counties, and districts
Main article: Subdivisions of England
See also: Regions of England, Counties of England, and Districts of England
192
Northumberland
Tyne and Wear
Durham
Cumbria
Lancashire
North Yorkshire
E. Riding of Yorks.
S. Yorks.
W. Yorks.
Gr. Manc.
Mers.
Cheshire
Derbs.
Notts.
Lincolnshire
Rutland
Leics.
Staffs.
Shropshire
Heref.
193
Worcs.
W. Mids.
Warks.
Northants.
Cambs.
Norfolk
Suffolk
Essex
Herts.
Beds.
Gr. London
Kent
E. Sussex
Surrey
W. Sussex
Berkshire
Bucks.
Oxon.
Glos.
Bristol
Hampshire
Wiltshire
Somerset
Isle of Wight
Dorset
Devon
Cornwall
The subdivisions of England consist of up to four levels of subnational division controlled through a
variety of types of administrative entities created for the purposes of local government. The highest tier
of local government are the nine regions of England: North East, North West, Yorkshire and the
Humber, East Midlands, West Midlands, East, South East, South West, and London. These were created
194
in 1994 as Government Offices, used by the British Government to deliver a wide range of policies and
programmes regionally, but there are no elected bodies at this level, except in London.[106] The same
boundaries are used for electing Members of the European Parliament on a regional basis.
After devolution began to take place in other parts of the United Kingdom it was planned that
referendums for the regions of England would take place for their own elected regional assemblies as a
counterweight. London accepted in 1998: the London Assembly was created two years later. However,
when the proposal was rejected by the northern England devolution referendums, 2004 in the North
East, further referendums were cancelled.[87] There are plans to abolish the remaining regional
assemblies in 2010 and transfer their functions to respective Regional Development Agencies and a
new system of Local authority leaders' boards.[107]
Below the regional level, all of England is divided into 48 ceremonial counties.[108] These are used
primarily as a geographical frame of reference and have developed gradually since the Middle Ages,
with some established as recently as 1974.[109] Each has a Lord Lieutenant and High Sheriff; these posts
are used to represent the British monarch locally.[108] Outside Greater London and the Isles of Scilly,
England is also divided into 83 metropolitan and non-metropolitan counties; these correspond to areas
used for the purposes of local government[110] and may consist of a single district or be divided into
several.
There are six metropolitan counties based on the most heavily urbanised areas, which do not have
county councils.[110] In these areas the principal authorities are the councils of the subdivisions, the
metropolitan boroughs. Elsewhere, 27 non-metropolitan "shire" counties have a county council and are
divided into districts, each with a district council. They are typically, though not always, found in more
rural areas. The remaining non-metropolitan counties are of a single district and usually correspond to
large towns or counties with low populations; they are known as unitary authorities. Greater London
has a different system for local government, with 32 London boroughs, plus the City of London
covering a small area at the core, governed by the City of London Corporation.[111] At the most localised
level, much of England is divided into civil parishes with councils; they do not exist in Greater London.
[112]
Geography
Main article: Geography of England
Landscape and rivers
195
Wastwater in the Lake District
Geographically England comprises the central and southern two-thirds of the island of Great Britain,
plus such offshore islands as the Isle of Wight and the Isles of Scilly. It is bordered by two fellow
countries of the United Kingdomto the north by Scotland and to the west by Wales. England is closer
to the European Continent than any other part of mainland Britain. It is separated from France by a 34kilometre (21 mi)[113] sea gap, though the two countries are connected by the Channel Tunnel near
Folkestone.[114] As England is on an island, it is surrounded by the water of the Irish Sea, North Sea and
Atlantic Ocean.
The major ports of London, Liverpool, and Newcastle, lie on the tidal rivers of the Thames, Mersey and
Tyne respectively. The tides raise the level of water in their estuaries and enable ships to enter the ports.
At 354 kilometres (220 mi), the Severn is the longest river flowing through England.[115] It empties into
the Bristol Channel and is notable for its Severn Bore tidal waves, which can reach 2 metres (6.6 ft) in
height.[116] However, the longest river entirely in England is the Thames, which is 346 kilometres
(215 mi) in length.[117] There are many lakes in England; the largest is Windermere, within the aptly
named Lake District.[118]
Terrain of Dartmoor, Devon
In geological terms, the Pennines, known as the "backbone of England", are the oldest range of
mountains in the country, originating from the end of the Paleozoic Era around 300 million years ago.
[119]
The total length of the Pennines is 400 kilometres (250 mi), peaking at Cross Fell in Cumbria.[120]
196
The material of which they are composed is mostly sandstone and limestone, but also coal. There are
karst landscapes in calcite areas such as parts of Yorkshire and Derbyshire. The Pennine landscape is
high moorland in upland areas, indented by fertile valleys of the region's rivers. They contain three
national parks, the Yorkshire Dales, Northumberland, and the Peak District. The highest point in
England, at 978 metres (3,209 ft), is Scafell Pike in Cumbria.[118] Straddling the border between
England and Scotland are the Cheviot Hills.
The English Lowlands are to the south of the Pennines, consisting of green rolling hills, including the
Cotswold Hills, Chiltern Hills, North and South Downswhere they meet the sea they form white rock
exposures such as the cliffs of Dover. The granitic Southwest Peninsula in the West Country provides
upland moorland, such as Dartmoor and Exmoor, which flourish with a mild climate; both are national
parks.[121]
Climate
Main article: Climate of England
England has a temperate maritime climate meaning that it is mild with temperatures not much lower
than 0 C (32 F) in winter and not much higher than 32 C (90 F) in summer.[122] The weather is damp
relatively frequently and is subject to change. The coldest months are January and February, the latter
particularly on the English coast, while July is normally the warmest month. Months with mild to warm
weather with least rainfall are May, June, September and October.[122]
The biggest influences on the climate of England comes from the proximity to the Atlantic Ocean, its
northern latitude and warming of the waters around the Gulf Stream.[122] England receives quite a
significant proportion of rainfall during the year, with autumn and winter being the wettest time
geographically the Lake District receives more rain than anywhere else in the country.[122] Since weather
recording records began, the highest temperature received was 38.5 C (101.3 F) on 10 August 2003 at
Brogdale in Kent,[123] while the lowest was 26.1 C (15.0 F) on 10 January 1982 in Edgmond,
Shropshire.[124]
[hide]Climate data for England
Month
Average high C
(F)
Jan Feb Mar Apr
Ma
Au
Jun Jul
Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
y
g
7
7
9
12 15 18 21 21 18 14 10
7
13
(45) (45) (48) (54) (59) (64) (70) (70) (64) (57) (50) (45) (55)
197
Average low C
(F)
1
1
2
4
6
9
11 11
9
7
4
2
6
(34) (34) (36) (39) (43) (48) (52) (52) (48) (45) (39) (36) (43)
84
60
67
57
56
63
54
67
73
84
84
90
838
1)
6)
4)
4)
8)
3)
4)
7)
1)
1)
4)
9)
Precipitation mm
(3.3 (2.3 (2.6 (2.2 (2.2 (2.4 (2.1 (2.6 (2.8 (3.3 (3.3 (3.5 (32.9
(inches)
Source: Met Office[125]
Major conurbations
See also: List of places in England
The Greater London Urban Area is by far the largest metropolitan area in England[126] and one of the
busiest cities in the world. It is considered a global city and has a population larger than other countries
in the United Kingdom besides England itself.[126] Other urban areas of considerable size and influence
tend to be in northern England or the English Midlands.[126] There are fifty settlements which have been
designated city status in England, while the wider United Kingdom has sixty-six.
While many cities in England are quite large in size, such as Birmingham, Sheffield, Manchester,
Liverpool, Leeds, Newcastle, Bradford, Nottingham and others, a large population is not necessarily a
prerequisite for a settlement to be afforded city status.[127] Traditionally the status was afforded to towns
with diocesan cathedrals and so there are smaller cities like Wells, Ely, Ripon, Truro and Chichester.[127]
According to the Office for National Statistics the ten largest, continuous built-up urban areas are:[126]
Ran
k
Urban area
Populati Localit
on
ies
Major localities
Greater London Urban Area 8,278,251
67
Greater London, divided into the City

of London and 32 London boroughs
including Croydon, Barnet, Ealing,
Bromley[128]
West Midlands Urban Area 2,284,093
22
Birmingham, Wolverhampton, Dudley,

Walsall
Greater Manchester Urban

2,240,230
Area
57
Manchester, Salford, Bolton,

Stockport, Oldham
West Yorkshire Urban Area 1,499,465
26
Leeds, Bradford, Huddersfield,

Wakefield, Halifax
25
Newcastle, North Shields, South
Tyneside
879,996
198
Shields, Gateshead, Jarrow

6
Liverpool Urban Area
816,216
Liverpool, St Helens, Bootle, Huytonwith-Roby
Nottingham Urban Area
666,358
15
Nottingham, Beeston and Stapleford,

Carlton, Long Eaton
Sheffield Urban Area
640,720
Sheffield, Rotherham, Chapeltown,

Mosborough
Bristol Urban Area
551,066
Bristol, Kingswood, Mangotsfield,

Stoke Gifford
10
Brighton/Worthing/Littleha
mpton
461,181
10
Brighton, Worthing, Hove,

Littlehampton, Shoreham, Lancing
Economy
Main article: Economy of England
See also: Banknotes of the pound sterling
The City of London is the world's largest financial centre.[129][130]
England's economy is one of the largest in the world, with an average GDP per capita of 22,907.[131]
Usually regarded as a mixed market economy, it has adopted many free market principles, yet
maintains an advanced social welfare infrastructure.[132] The official currency in England is the pound
sterling, also known as the GBP. Taxation in England is quite competitive when compared to much of
the rest of Europeas of 2009 the basic rate of personal tax is 20% on taxable income up to 37,400,
and 40% on any additional earnings above that amount.[133]
The economy of England is the largest part of the UK's economy,[131] which has the 18th highest GDP
PPP per capita in the world. England is a leader in the chemical and pharmaceutical sectors and in key
technical industries, particularly aerospace, the arms industry, and the manufacturing side of the
software industry. London, home to the London Stock Exchange, the United Kingdom's main stock
exchange and the largest in Europe, is England's financial centre100 of Europe's 500 largest
199
corporations are based in London.[134] London is the largest financial centre in Europe, and as of 2009 is
also the largest in the world.[135]
The Bentley Mulsanne. Bentley is a well-known English automobile company.
The Bank of England, founded in 1694 by Scottish banker William Paterson, is the United Kingdom's
central bank. Originally instituted to act as private banker to the Government of England, it carried on
in this role as part of the United Kingdomsince 1946 it has been a state-owned institution.[136] The
Bank has a monopoly on the issue of banknotes in England and Wales, although not in other parts of the
United Kingdom. Its Monetary Policy Committee has devolved responsibility for managing the
monetary policy of the country and setting interest rates.[137]
England is highly industrialised, but since the 1970s there has been a decline in traditional heavy and
manufacturing industries, and an increasing emphasis on a more service industry oriented economy.[82]
Tourism has become a significant industry, attracting millions of visitors to England each year. The
export part of the economy is dominated by pharmaceuticals, automobilesalthough many English
marques are now foreign-owned, such as Rolls-Royce, Lotus, Jaguar and Bentleycrude oil and
petroleum from the English parts of North Sea oil along with Wytch Farm, aircraft engines and
alcoholic beverages.[138] Agriculture is intensive and highly mechanised, producing 60% of food needs
with only 2% of the labour force.[139] Two thirds of production is devoted to livestock, the other to
arable crops.[140]
Infrastructure
Main articles: Transport in England and Healthcare in England
200
A Routemaster double-decker bus in London
The Department for Transport is the government body responsible for overseeing transport in England.
There are several motorways in England, one of the most important trunk roads is the A1 Great North
Road, stretching across the country from London to Newcastle.[141] The longest motorway in England is
the M6, stretching from Rugby to the North West up to the Anglo-Scottish border.[141] There are other
major roads; the M1 from London to Leeds, the M25 which encircles London, the M60 which encircles
Manchester, the M4 from London to South Wales, the M62 from Liverpool to Manchester and East
Yorkshire and the M5 from Birmingham to Bristol and the South West.[141]
Bus transport across the country is common, major companies include National Express, Arriva and
Go-Ahead Group. The red double-decker buses in London have become a symbol of England. There is
a rapid rail network in two English cities; the London Underground and the Tyne and Wear Metro, the
latter in Newcastle, Gateshead and Sunderland.[142] There are tram networks, such as; Blackpool,
Manchester Metrolink, Sheffield Supertram and Midland Metro.[142]
London Heathrow Airport has more international passenger traffic than any other airport
in the world.[143]
Rail transport in England is the oldest in the world, with the system originating there in 1825.[144] Much
of Britain's 16,116 kilometres (10,014 mi) of rail network lies in England, covering the country
extensively. These lines are mostly single, double or quadruple track, though there are narrow gauge
lines. There is rail transport access to France and Belgium through an undersea rail link, the Channel
Tunnel which was completed in 1994.
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England has extensive domestic and international aviation links. The largest airport is London
Heathrow, which is the world's busiest airport measured by number of international passengers.[145]
Other large airports include Manchester Airport, London Stansted Airport, Luton Airport and
Birmingham Airport.[143] By sea there is ferry transport, both for internal and external trips, some of the
most common links are to Ireland, the Netherlands and Belgium.[146] Travel by waterways such as
rivers, canals, docks is common with around 7,100 km (4,400 mi) of navigable waterways in England,
half of which is owned by British Waterways (Waterscape).[146] The Thames is the major waterway in
England, with imports and exports focused at the Port of Tilbury, one of the United Kingdom's three
major ports.[146]
Norfolk and Norwich University Hospital, an NHS hospital.
The National Health Service (NHS) is the publicly funded healthcare system in England responsible for
providing the majority of healthcare in the country. The NHS began on 5 July 1948, putting into effect
the provisions of the National Health Service Act 1946. It was based on the findings of the Beveridge
Report, prepared by economist and social reformer William Beveridge.[147] The NHS is largely funded
from general taxation including National Insurance payments,[148] and it provides most of its services
free at the point of use, although there are charges for some people for eye tests, dental care,
prescriptions and aspects of personal care.[149]
The government department responsible for the NHS is the Department of Health, headed by the
Secretary of State for Health, who sits in the British Cabinet. Most of the expenditure of the
Department of Health is spent on the NHS98.6 billion was spent in 20082009.[150] In recent years
the private sector has been increasingly used to provide more NHS services despite opposition by
doctors and trade unions.[151] The average life expectancy of people in England is 77.5 years for males
and 81.7 years for females, the highest of the four countries of the United Kingdom.[152]
Demographics
Population
Main articles: Demography of England, English people, and English diaspora
202
The non-metropolitan counties and unitary authorities of England, colour-coded to show

population.
With over 51 million inhabitants, England is by far the most populous country of the United Kingdom,
accounting for 84% of the combined total.[5] England taken as a unit and measured against international
states has the fourth largest population in the European Union and would be the 25th largest country by
population in the world.[153] With a density of 395 people per square kilometre, it would be the second
most densely populated country in the European Union after Malta.[154][155]
The English people are a British people[3] Genetic evidence suggests that 7595% descend in the
paternal line from prehistoric settlers who originally came from the Iberian Peninsula.[156][157][158] There is
a significant Norse element, as well as a 5% contribution from Angles and Saxons,[156] though other
geneticists place the Norse-Germanic estimate up to half.[159][160] Over time, various cultures have been
influential: Prehistoric, Brythonic,[161] Roman, Anglo-Saxon,[162] Norse Viking,[163] Gaelic cultures, as
well as a large influence from Normans. There is an English diaspora in former parts of the British
Empire; especially the United States, Canada, Australia, Chile, South Africa and New Zealand.[note 6]
Since the late 1990s, English people have migrated to Spain.[168][169]
2007 estimates of ethnic groups in England

203
At the time of the Domesday Book, compiled in 1086, more than 90% of the English population of
about two million lived in the countryside.[170] By 1801 the population had grown to 8.3 million, and by
1901 had grown to 30.5 million.[171] Due in particular to the economic prosperity of South East England,
there are many economic migrants from the other parts of the United Kingdom.[3] There has been
significant Irish migration, with 24% of British people and 77% of Londoners claiming Irish ancestry.
[172]
The European population totals at 89.90%, including Germans[173] and Poles.[3]
Other people from much further afield in the former British colonies have arrived since the 1950s: in
particular, 5.30% of people living in England have migrated from the Indian subcontinent, mostly India
and Pakistan.[3][173] 2.30% of the population are black, mostly from the Caribbean.[3][173] There is a
significant number of Chinese and British Chinese.[3][173] As of 2007, 22% of primary school children in
England were from ethnic minority families.[174] About half of the population increase between 1991
and 2001 was due to immigration.[175] Debate over immigration is politically prominent;[176] according to
a Home Office poll, 80% of people want to cap it.[177] The ONS has projected that the population will
grow by six million between 2004 and 2029.[178]
Language
Main articles: English language and History of the English language
The English-speaking world. Countries in dark blue have a majority of native speakers.
Countries in light blue have English as an official language, de jure or de facto. English is
also one of the official languages of the European Union.[179]
As its name suggests, the English language, today spoken by hundreds of millions of people around the
world, originated as the language of England, where it remains the principal tongue today. It is an IndoEuropean language in the Anglo-Frisian branch of the Germanic family.[180] After the Norman conquest,
the Old English language was displaced and confined to the lower social classes as Norman French and
Latin were used by the aristocracy.
By the 15th century, English came back into fashion among all classes, though much changed; the
Middle English form showed many signs of French influence, both in vocabulary and spelling. During
the English Renaissance, many words were coined from Latin and Greek origins.[181] Modern English
has extended this custom of flexibility, when it comes to incorporating words from different languages.
204
Thanks in large part to the British Empire, the English language is the world's unofficial lingua franca.
[182]
English language learning and teaching is an important economic activity, and includes language
schooling, tourism spending, and publishing. There is no legislation mandating an official language for
England,[183] but English is the only language used for official business. Despite the country's relatively
small size, there are many distinct regional accents, and individuals with particularly strong accents
may not be easily understood everywhere in the country.
Cornish, which died out as a community language in the 18th century, is being revived,[184][185][186][187] and
is now protected under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages.[188] It is spoken by
0.1% of people in Cornwall,[189] and is taught to some degree in several primary and secondary schools.
[190][191]
State schools teach students a second language, usually French, German or Spanish.[192] Due to
immigration, it was reported in 2007 that around 800,000 school students spoke a foreign language at
home,[174] the most common being Punjabi and Urdu.[193]
Religion
Main article: Religion in England
Canterbury Cathedral, seat of the Archbishop of Canterbury
Christianity is the most widely practised religion in England, as it has been since the Early Middle
Ages, although it was first introduced much earlier, in Gaelic and Roman times. It continued through
Early Insular Christianity, and today about 71.6% of English people identify as Christians.[194] The
largest form practised in the present day is Anglicanism,[195][citation needed] dating from the 16th century
Reformation period, with the 1536 split from Rome over Henry VIII wanting to divorce Catherine of
Aragon; the religion regards itself as both Catholic and Reformed.
There are High Church and Low Church traditions, and some Anglicans regard themselves as AngloCatholics, after the Tractarian movement. The monarch of the United Kingdom is the head of the
Church, acting as its Supreme Governor. It has the status of established church in England. There are
205
around 26 million adherents to the Church of England and they form part of the Anglican Communion
with the Archbishop of Canterbury acting as the symbolic worldwide head.[196] Many cathedrals and
parish churches are historic buildings of significant architectural importance, such as Westminster
Abbey, York Minster, Durham Cathedral and Salisbury Cathedral.
Saint George, the patron saint of England
The second largest Christian practice is the Latin Rite of the Catholic Church, which traces its formal,
corporate history in England to the 6th century with Augustine's mission and was the main religion on
the entire island for around a thousand years. Since its reintroduction after the Catholic Emancipation,
the Church has organised ecclesiastically on an England and Wales basis where there are 4.5 million
members (most of whom are English).[197] There has been one Pope from England to date, Adrian IV;
while saints Bede and Anselm are regarded as Doctors of the Church.
A form of Protestantism known as Methodism is the third largest and grew out of Anglicanism through
John Wesley.[198] It gained popularity in the mill towns of Lancashire and Yorkshire, and amongst tin
miners in Cornwall.[199] There are other non-conformist minorities, such as Baptists, Quakers,
Congregationalists, Unitarians and The Salvation Army.[200]
The patron saint of England is Saint George; he is represented in the national flag, as well as the Union
Flag as part of a combination.[201][201] There are many other English and associated saints; some of the
best known include: Cuthbert, Alban, Wilfrid, Aidan, Edward the Confessor, John Fisher, Thomas
More, Petroc, Piran, Margaret Clitherow and Thomas Becket. There are non-Christian religions
practised. Jews have a history of a small minority on the island since 1070.[202] They were expelled from
England in 1290 following the Edict of Expulsion, only to be allowed back in 1656.[202]
Especially since the 1950s, Eastern religions from the former British colonies have begun to appear,
due to foreign immigration; Islam is the most common of these, accounting for around 3.1% in
206
England.[194] Hinduism, Sikhism and Buddhism are next in number, adding up to 2% combined,[194]
introduced from India and South East Asia.[194] Around 14.6% claim to have no religion.[194]
Education
Main articles: Education in England and List of universities in England
Senate House , the administrative centre of the University of London
The Department for Education is the government department responsible for issues affecting people in
England up to the age of 19, including education.[203] State-run and -funded schools are attended by
approximately 93% of English schoolchildren.[204] Of these, a minority are faith schools, primarily
Church of England or Catholic. Between three and four is nursery school, four and eleven is primary
school, and eleven to sixteen is secondary school, with an option for a two-year extension to attend
sixth form college.
Although most English secondary schools are comprehensive, in some areas there are selective intake
grammar schools, to which entrance is subject to passing the eleven plus exam. Around 7.2% of
English schoolchildren attend private schools, which are funded by private sources.[205] Standards in
state schools are monitored by the Office for Standards in Education, and in private schools by the
Independent Schools Inspectorate.[206]
207
King's College, University of Cambridge
After finishing compulsory education, pupils take a GCSE examination, following which they may
decide to continue in further education and attend a further education college. Students normally enter
universities in the United Kingdom from 18 onwards, where they study for an academic degree. There
are over 90 universities England, all but one of which are public. The Department for Business,
Innovation and Skills is the government department responsible for higher education in England.[207]
Students are generally entitled to student loans for maintenance.[note 7] The first degree offered to
undergraduates is the Bachelor's degree, which usually takes three years to complete. Students are then
eligible for a postgraduate degree, a Master's degree, taking one year, or a Doctorate degree, which
takes three.
England's universities include some of the highest-ranked universities in the world; the University of
Cambridge, Imperial College London, the University of Oxford and University College London are all
ranked in the global top 10 in the 2010 QS World University Rankings.[208] The London School of
Economics has been described as the world's leading social science institution for both teaching and
research.[209] The London Business School is considered one of the world's leading business schools and
in 2010 its MBA programme was ranked best in the world by the Financial Times.[210] Academic
degrees in England are usually split into classes: first class (I), upper second class (II:1), lower second
class (II:2) and third (III), and unclassified (below third class).
The King's School, Canterbury and King's School, Rochester are the oldest schools in the Englishspeaking world.[211] Many of England's better-known schools, such as Winchester College, Eton
College, St Paul's School, Rugby School, and Harrow School are fee-paying institutions.[212]
Main articles: List of English inventions and discoveries and Royal Society
208
Sir Isaac Newton is one of the most influential figures in the history of science.
Prominent English figures from the field of science and mathematics include Sir Isaac Newton,
Michael Faraday, Robert Hooke, Robert Boyle, Joseph Priestley, J. J. Thomson, Charles Babbage,
Charles Darwin, Stephen Hawking, Christopher Wren, Alan Turing, Francis Crick, Joseph Lister, Tim
Berners-Lee, Andrew Wiles and Richard Dawkins. Some experts claim that the earliest concept of a
metric system was invented by John Wilkins, first secretary of the Royal Society in 1668.[213] As
birthplace of the Industrial Revolution, England was home to many significant inventors during the late
18th and early 19th century. Famous English engineers include Isambard Kingdom Brunel, best known
for the creation of the Great Western Railway, a series of famous steamships, and numerous important
bridges, hence revolutionising public transport and modern-day engineering.[214] Thomas Newcomen's
steam engine helped spawn the Industrial Revolution.[215] The physician Edward Jenner's smallpox
vaccine is said to have "saved more lives [...] than were lost in all the wars of mankind since the
beginning of recorded history."[216][217][218]
Inventions and discoveries of the English include; the jet engine, the first industrial spinning machine,
the first computer and the first modern computer, the World Wide Web along with HTTP and HTML,
the first successful human blood transfusion, the motorised vacuum cleaner,[219] the lawn mower, the
seat belt, the hovercraft, the electric motor, steam engines, and theories such as the Darwinian theory of
evolution and atomic theory.[220] Newton developed the ideas of universal gravitation, Newtonian
mechanics, and infinitesimal calculus, and Robert Hooke his eponymously named law of elasticity.
Other inventions include the iron plate railway, the thermosiphon, tarmac, the rubber band, the
mousetrap, "cat's eye" road safety device, joint development of the light bulb, steam locomotives, the
modern seed drill and many modern techniques and technologies used in precision engineering.[220]
Culture
Main articles: Culture of England and English Renaissance
Architecture
209
St Paul's Cathedral, English Baroque
Many ancient standing stone monuments were erected during the prehistoric period, amongst the best
known are Stonehenge, Devil's Arrows, Rudston Monolith and Castlerigg.[221] With the introduction of
Ancient Roman architecture there was a development of basilicas, baths, amphitheaters, triumphal
arches, villas, Roman temples, Roman roads, Roman forts, stockades and aqueducts.[222] It was the
Romans who founded the first cities and towns such as London, Bath, York, Chester and St Albans.
Perhaps the best known example is Hadrian's Wall stretching right across northern England.[222] Another
well preserved example is the Roman Baths at Bath, Somerset.[222]
Early Medieval architecture's secular buildings were simple constructions mainly using timber with
thatch for roofing. Ecclesiastical architecture ranged from a synthesis of HibernoSaxon monasticism,
[223][224]
to Early Christian basilica and architecture characterised by pilaster-strips, blank arcading,
baluster shafts and triangular headed openings. After the Norman conquest in 1066 various Castles in
England were created so law lords could uphold their authority and in the north to protect from
invasion. Some of the best known medieval castles include the Tower of London, Warwick Castle,
Durham Castle and Windsor Castle amongst others.[225]
210
The Broadway Tower is a folly, or mock tower, in Worcestershire.
Throughout the Plantagenet era an English Gothic architecture flourishedthe medieval cathedrals
such as Canterbury Cathedral, Westminster Abbey and York Minster are prime examples.[225] Expanding
on the Norman base there was also castles, palaces, great houses, universities and parish churches.
Medieval architecture was completed with the 16th century Tudor style; the four-centred arch, now
known as the Tudor arch, was a defining feature as were wattle and daub houses domestically. In the
aftermath of the Renaissance a form of architecture echoing classical antiquity, synthesised with
Christianity appearedthe English Baroque style, architect Christopher Wren was particularly
championed.[226]
Georgian architecture followed in a more refined style, evoking a simple Palladian form; the Royal
Crescent at Bath is one of the best examples of this. With the emergence of romanticism during
Victorian period, a Gothic Revival was launchedin addition to this around the same time the
Industrial Revolution paved the way for buildings such as The Crystal Palace. Since the 1930s various
modernist forms have appeared whose reception is often controversial, though traditionalist resistance
movements continue with support in influential places.[note 8]
Folklore
Main article: English folklore
Robin Hood illustrated in 1912 wearing Lincoln green
English folklore developed over many centuries. Some of the characters and stories are present across
England, but most belong to specific regions. Common folkloric beings include pixies, giants, elfs,
bogeymen, trolls, goblins and dwarves. While many legends and folk-customs are thought to be
ancient, for instance the tales featuring Offa of Angel and Wayland the Smith,[228] others date from after
211
the Norman invasion; Robin Hood and his Merry Men of Sherwood and their battles with the Sheriff of
Nottingham being, perhaps, the best known.[229]
During the High Middle Ages tales originating from Brythonic traditions entered English folklorethe
Arthurian myth.[230][231][232] These were derived from Anglo-Norman, French and Welsh sources,[231]
featuring King Arthur, Camelot, Excalibur, Merlin and the Knights of the Round Table such as
Lancelot. These stories are most centrally brought together within Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia
Regum Britanniae.[note 9] Another early figure from British tradition, King Cole, may have been based on
a real figure from Sub-Roman Britain. Many of the tales and pseudo-histories make up part of the wider
Matter of Britain, a collection of shared British folklore.
Morris dance, an English folk dance
Some folk figures are based on semi or actual historical people whose story has been passed down
centuries; Lady Godiva for instance was said to have ridden naked on horseback through Coventry,
Hereward the Wake was a heroic English figure resisting the Norman invasion, Herne the Hunter is an
equestrian ghost associated with Windsor Forest and Great Park and Mother Shipton is the archetypal
witch.[234] On 5 November people make bonfires, set off fireworks and eat toffee apples in
commemoration of the foiling of the Gunpowder Plot centred around Guy Fawkes. The chivalrous
bandit, such as Dick Turpin, is a recurring character, while Blackbeard is the archetypal pirate. There
are various national and regional folk activities, participated in to this day, such as Morris dancing,
Maypole dancing, Rapper sword in the North East, Long Sword dance in Yorkshire, Mummers Plays,
bottle-kicking in Leicestershire, and cheese-rolling at Cooper's Hill.[235] There is no official national
costume, but a few are well established such as the Pearly Kings and Queens associated with cockneys,
the Royal Guard, the Morris costume and Beefeaters.[236]
Cuisine
Main article: English cuisine
212
Fish and chips is a widely consumed part of English cuisine.
Since the Early Modern Period the food of England has historically been characterised by its simplicity
of approach, honesty of flavour, and a reliance on the high quality of natural produce.[237] During the
Middle Ages and through the Renaissance period, English cuisine enjoyed an excellent reputation,
though a decline began during the Industrial Revolution with the move away from the land and
increasing urbanisation of the populace. The French sometimes referred to English people as les rosbifs,
as a stereotype to suggest English food is unsophisticated or crude.[238] The cuisine of England has,
however, recently undergone a revival, which has been recognised by the food critics with some good
ratings in Restaurant's best restaurant in the world charts.[239] An early book of English recipes is the
Forme of Cury from the royal court of Richard II.[240]
Apple pie has been consumed in England since the Middle Ages.
Traditional examples of English food include the Sunday roast; featuring a roasted joint, usually beef,
lamb or chicken, served with assorted boiled vegetables, Yorkshire pudding and gravy.[241] Other
prominent meals include fish and chips and the full English breakfastconsisting of bacon, grilled
tomatoes, fried bread, black pudding, baked beans, fried mushrooms, sausages and eggs. Various meat
pies are consumed such as steak and kidney pie, cottage pie, Cornish pasty and pork pie, the latter of
which is consumed cold.[241]
Sausages are commonly eaten, either as bangers and mash or toad in the hole. Lancashire hotpot is a
well known stew. Some of the most popular cheeses are Cheddar and Wensleydale. Many Anglo-Indian
213
hybrid dishes, curries, have been created such as chicken tikka masala and balti. Sweet English dishes
include apple pie, mince pies, spotted dick, scones, Eccles cakes, custard and sticky toffee pudding.
Common drinks include tea, which became far more widely drunk due to Catherine of Braganza,[242]
while alcoholic drinks include wines and English beers such as bitter, mild, stout, and brown ale.[243]
Visual arts
Main articles: English art and Arts Council England
The Lady of Shalott by John William Waterhouse in the Pre-Raphaelite style.
The earliest known examples are the prehistoric rock and cave art pieces, most prominent in North
Yorkshire, Northumberland and Cumbria, but also feature further south, for example at Creswell Crags.
[244]
With the arrival of Roman culture in the 1st century, various forms of art utilising statues, busts,
glasswork and mosaics were the norm. There are numerous surviving artefacts, such as those at
Lullingstone and Aldborough.[245] During the Early Middle Ages the style was sculpted crosses and
ivories, manuscript painting, gold and enamel jewellery, demonstrating a love of intricate, interwoven
designs such as in the Staffordshire Hoard discovered in 2009. Some of these blended Gaelic and
Anglian styles, such as the Lindisfarne Gospels and Vespasian Psalter.[246] Later Gothic art was popular
at Winchester and Canterbury, examples survive such as Benedictional of St. thelwold and Luttrell
Psalter.[247]
The Tudor era saw prominent artists as part of their court, portrait painting which would remain an
enduring part of English art, was boosted by German Hans Holbein, natives such as Nicholas Hilliard
built on this.[247] Under the Stuarts, Continental artists were influential especially the Flemish, examples
from the period includeAnthony van Dyck, Peter Lely, Godfrey Kneller and William Dobson.[247] The
18th century was a time of significance with the founding of the Royal Academy, a classicism based on
the High Renaissance prevailedThomas Gainsborough and Joshua Reynolds became two of
England's most treasured artists.[247]
The Norwich School continued the landscape tradition, while the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood with
their vivid and detailed style revived the Early Renaissance styleHolman Hunt, Dante Gabriel
214
Rossetti and John Everett Millais were leaders.[247] Prominent amongst twentieth century artists was
Henry Moore, regarded as the voice of British sculpture, and of British modernism in general.[248]
Contemporary painters include Lucian Freud, whose work Benefits Supervisor Sleeping in 2008 set a
world record for sale value of a painting by a living artist.[249]
Literature, poetry and philosophy
Main article: English literature
Geoffrey Chaucer was an English author, poet and philosopher, best remembered for his
unfinished frame narrative The Canterbury Tales.
Early authors wrote in Latin such as Bede and Alcuin.[250] The period of Old English literature provided
the epic poem Beowulf, the secular prose the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle,[251] along with Christian writings
such as Judith, Cdmon's Hymn and saintly hagiographies.[250] Following the Norman conquest Latin
continued amongst the educated classes, as well as an Anglo-Norman literature.
Middle English literature emerged with Geoffrey Chaucer author of The Canterbury Tales, along with
Gower, the Pearl Poet and Langland. Franciscans, William of Ockham and Roger Bacon were major
philosophers of the Middle Ages. Julian of Norwich with her Revelations of Divine Love was a
prominent Christian mystic. With the English Renaissance literature in the Early Modern English style
appeared. William Shakespeare, whose works include Hamlet, Romeo and Juliet, Macbeth, and A
Midsummer Night's Dream, remains one of the most championed authors in English literature.[252]
Marlowe, Spenser, Sydney, Kyd, Donne, Jonson are other established authors of the Elizabethan age.
[253]
Francis Bacon and Thomas Hobbes wrote on empiricism and materialism, including scientific
method and social contract.[253] Filmer wrote on the Divine Right of Kings. Marvell was the best known
poet of the Commonwealth,[254] while John Milton authored Paradise Lost during the Restoration.
215
This royal throne of kings, this sceptred isle, this earth of majesty, this seat of Mars, this other Eden, demi-paradise;
this fortress, built by nature for herself. This blessed plot, this earth, this realm, this England.
William Shakespeare.[255]
Some of the most prominent philosophers from the Enlightenment were Locke, Paine, Johnson and
Benthem. More radical elements were later countered by Edmund Burke who is regarded as the founder
of conservatism.[256] The poet Alexander Pope with his satirical verse became well regarded. The
English played a significant role in romanticismColeridge, Byron, Keats, M Shelley, PB Shelley,
Blake and Wordsworth were major figures.[257]
In response to the Industrial Revolution, agrarian writers looked to find a way between liberty and
tradition; Cobbett, Chesterton and Belloc were main exponents, while founder of guild socialism, Penty
and cooperative movement advocate Cole are somewhat related.[258] Empiricism continued through Mill
and Russell, while Williams was involved in analytics. Authors from around the time of the Victorian
era include Dickens, the Bront sisters, Austen, Eliot, Kipling, Hardy, H. G. Wells, Carroll and
Underhill.[259] Since then England has continued to produce novellists such as C. S. Lewis, Orwell, D.
H. Lawrence, Woolf, Blyton, Huxley, Christie, Pratchett, J. R. R. Tolkien, and J. K. Rowling.[260]
Performing arts
Main articles: Folk music of England and Music of the United Kingdom
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The traditional folk music of England is centuries old and has contributed to several genres
prominently; mostly sea shanties, jigs, hornpipes and dance music. It has its own distinct variations and
regional peculiarities. Wynkyn de Worde printed ballads of Robin Hood from the 16th century are an
important artefact, as are John Playford's The Dancing Master and Robert Harley's Roxburghe Ballads
collections.[261] Some of the best known songs are The Good Old Way, Pastime with Good Company,
Maggie May and Spanish Ladies amongst others. Many nursery rhymes are of English origin such as
Twinkle Twinkle Little Star, Roses are red, Jack and Jill, Here We Go Round the Mulberry Bush and
Humpty Dumpty.[262]
Early English composers in classical music include Renaissance artists Thomas Tallis and William
Byrd, followed up by Henry Purcell from the Baroque period. German-born George Frideric Handel
became a British subject[263] and spent most of his composing life in London, creating some of the most
well-known works of classical music, The Messiah, Water Music, and Music for the Royal Fireworks.
There was a revival in the profile of composers from England in the 20th century led by Benjamin
Britten, Frederick Delius, Edward Elgar, Gustav Holst, Ralph Vaughan Williams and others.[264]
Present-day composers from England include Michael Nyman, best known for The Piano.
In the field of popular music many English bands and solo artists have been cited as the most influential
and best-selling musicians of all time. Acts such as The Beatles, Led Zeppelin, Pink Floyd, Elton John,
Queen, Rod Stewart and The Rolling Stones are among the highest selling recording artists in the
world.[265] Many musical genres have origins or strong associations with England, such as British
invasion, hard rock, glam rock, heavy metal, mod, britpop, drum and bass, progressive rock, punk rock,
indie rock, gothic rock, shoegazing, acid house, UK garage, trip hop and dubstep.[266]
Large outdoor music festivals in the summer and autumn are popular, such as Glastonbury, V Festival,
Reading and Leeds Festivals. The most prominent opera house in England is the Royal Opera House at
Covent Garden.[267] The Proms, a season of orchestral classical music concerts held at the Royal Albert
Hall, is a major cultural event held annually.[267] The Royal Ballet is one of the world's foremost
classical ballet companies, its reputation built on two prominent figures of 20th century dance, prima
ballerina Margot Fonteyn and choreographer Frederick Ashton.
Museums, libraries, and galleries
Further information: Museums in England
217
The Natural History Museum in London
English Heritage is a governmental body with a broad remit of managing the historic sites, artefacts and
environments of England. It is currently sponsored by the Department for Culture, Media and Sport.
The charity National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty holds a contrasting role.
Seventeen of the twenty-five United Kingdom UNESCO World Heritage Sites fall within England.[268]
Some of the best known of these include; Hadrian's Wall, Stonehenge, Avebury and Associated Sites,
Tower of London, Jurassic Coast, Saltaire, Ironbridge Gorge, Studley Royal Park and various others.[269]
There are many museums in England, but the most notable is London's British Museum. Its collection
of more than seven million objects[270] is one of the largest and most comprehensive in the world,[271]
sourced from every continent, illustrating and documenting the story of human culture from its
beginning to the present. The British Library in London is the national library and is one of the world's
largest research libraries, holding over 150 million items in all known languages and formats; including
around 25 million books.[272] The most senior art gallery is the National Gallery in Trafalgar Square,
which houses a collection of over 2,300 paintings dating from the mid-13th century to 1900.[273] The
Tate galleries house the national collections of British and international modern art; they also host the
famously controversial Turner Prize.[274]
Sports
Main article: Sport in England
Inside Wembley Stadium, one of the most expensive stadiums ever built[275]
England has a strong sporting heritage, and during the 19th century codified many sports that are now
played around the world. Sports originating in England include association football,[276] cricket, rugby
union, rugby league, tennis, badminton, squash,[277] rounders,[278] hockey, boxing, snooker, billiards,
darts, table tennis, bowls, netball, thoroughbred horseracing and fox hunting. It has helped the
development of sailing and Formula One. Football is the most popular of these sports. The England
national football team, whose home venue is Wembley Stadium, won the 1966 FIFA World Cup, the
year the country hosted the competition.
218
At club level England is recognised by FIFA as the birth-place of club football, due to Sheffield FC
founded in 1857 being the oldest club.[276] The Football Association is the oldest of its kind, FA Cup and
The Football League were the first cup and league competitions respectively. In the modern day the
Premier League is the world's most lucrative football league[279] and amongst the elite.[280] The European
Cup has been won by Liverpool, Manchester United, Nottingham Forest and Aston Villa, while
Arsenal, Chelsea and Leeds United have reached the final.[281]
England on the way to victory against Australia in the 2009 Ashes series at Lord's Cricket
Ground
Cricket is generally thought to have been developed in the early medieval period among the farming
and metalworking communities of the Weald.[282] The England cricket team is a composite England and
Wales team. One of the game's top rivalries is The Ashes series between England and Australia,
contested since 1882. The finale of the 2009 Ashes was watched by nearly 2 million people, although
the climax of the 2005 Ashes was viewed by 7.4 million as it was available on terrestrial television.[283]
England are the current holders of the trophy and are fifth in both Test and One Day International
cricket.[284]
England has hosted four Cricket World Cups (1975, 1979, 1983, 1999) and the ICC World Twenty20 in
2009. There are several domestic level competitions, including the County Championship in which
Yorkshire are by far the most successful club having won the competition 31 times.[285] Lord's Cricket
Ground situated in London is sometimes referred to as the "Mecca of Cricket".[286] William Penny
Brookes was prominent in organising the format for the modern Olympic Games. London hosted the
Summer Olympic Games in 1908 and 1948, and will host them again in 2012. England competes in the
Commonwealth Games, held every four years. Sport England is the governing body responsible for
distributing funds and providing strategic guidance for sporting activity in England. A Grand Prix is
held at Silverstone.[287]
219
The England rugby union team during their victory parade after winning the 2003 Rugby
World Cup
The England rugby union team won the 2003 Rugby World Cup, the country was one of the host
nations of the competition in the 1991 Rugby World Cup and is set to host the 2015 Rugby World Cup.
[288]
The top level of club participation is the English Premiership. Leicester Tigers, London Wasps,
Bath Rugby and Northampton Saints have had success in the Europe-wide Heineken Cup. In another
form of the sportrugby league which was born in Huddersfield in 1895, the England national rugby
league team are ranked third in the world and first in Europe.
Since 2008 England has been a full test nation in lieu of the Great Britain national rugby league team,
which won three World Cups but is now retired. Club sides play in Super League, the present-day
embodiment of the Rugby Football League Championship. Some of the most successful clubs include
Wigan Warriors, St Helens, Leeds Rhinos and Huddersfield Giants; the former three have all won the
World Club Challenge previously. The United Kingdom is to host the 2013 Rugby League World Cup.
[289]
In tennis, the Wimbledon Championships are the oldest tennis tournament in the world and is
widely considered the most prestigious.[290][291]
National symbols
Main article: National symbols of England
220
The Royal Arms of England
The national flag of England, known as St. George's Cross, has been the national flag since the 13th
century. Originally the flag was used by the maritime state the Republic of Genoa. The English
monarch paid a tribute to the Doge of Genoa from 1190 onwards, so that English ships could fly the
flag as a means of protection when entering the Mediterranean. A red cross acted as a symbol for many
Crusaders in the 12th and 13th centuries. It became associated with Saint George, along with countries
and cities, which claimed him as their patron saint and used his cross as a banner.[292] Since 1606 the St
George's Cross has formed part of the design of the Union Flag, a Pan-British flag designed by King
James I.[201]
The Tudor rose, England's national floral emblem
There are numerous other symbols and symbolic artefacts, both official and unofficial, including the
Tudor rose, the nation's floral emblem, the White Dragon and the Three Lions featured on the Royal
Arms of England. The Tudor rose was adopted as a national emblem of England around the time of the
Wars of the Roses as a symbol of peace.[293] It is a syncretic symbol in that it merged the white rose of
the Yorkists and the red rose of the Lancastrianscadet branches of the Plantagenets who went to war
over control of the royal house. It is also known as the Rose of England.[294] The oak tree is a symbol of
England, representing strength and endurance. The term Royal Oak is used to denote the escape of
King Charles II from the grasps of the parliamentarians after his father's execution; he hid in an oak tree
to avoid detection before making it safely into exile.
The Royal Arms of England, a national coat of arms featuring three lions, dates back to its adoption by
Richard the Lionheart from 11981340. It is described as gules, three lions passant guardant or and
provide one of the most prominent symbols of England; it is similar to the traditional arms of
Normandy. England does not have an official designated national anthem, as the United Kingdom as a
whole has God Save the Queen. However, the following are often considered unofficial English
national anthems: Jerusalem, Land of Hope and Glory (used for England during the 2002
221
Commonwealth Games),[295] and I Vow to Thee, My Country. England's National Day is St George's
Day, as Saint George is the patron saint of England, it is held annually on 23 April.[296]
Canada
This article is about the country. For other uses, see Canada (disambiguation).
Canada
Flag
Arms
Motto: A Mari Usque Ad Mare
(Latin)
"From Sea to Sea"
Anthem: "O Canada"

Royal anthem: "God Save the Queen"[1][2]
222
Ottawa
Capital
4524N 7540W / 45.4N 75.667W /
Largest city
Toronto
Official
English and French
language(s)
Inuktitut, Inuinnaqtun, Cree,
Recognised
regional languag
es
Dne Sin, Gwichin,

Inuvialuktun, Slavey and
Tch Yati[3]
Demonym
Canadian
Federal parliamentary
Government
democracy and constitutional

monarchy[4]
- Monarch
Elizabeth II
Governor
David Johnston
General
- Prime Minister
Legislature
Stephen Harper
Parliament
- Upper House
Senate
- Lower House
House of Commons
Establishment
- British North
July 1, 1867
223
America Acts
Statute of
Westminster
- Canada Act
December 11, 1931
April 17, 1982

Area
- Total
- Water (%)
9,984,670 km2 (2nd)

3,854,085 sq mi
8.92
(891,163 km2/344,080 mi2)
Population
- 2011 estimate 34,430,000[5] (36th)

- 2006 census
- Density
GDP (PPP)
32,623,490[6]
3.41/km2 (228th)
8.3/sq mi
2010 estimate
- Total
$1.330 trillion[7]
- Per capita
$39,057[7]
GDP (nominal)
2010 estimate
- Total
$1.574 trillion[7]
- Per capita
$46,215[7]
224
Gini (2005)
HDI (2010)
Currency
Time zone
- Summer (DST)
Date formats
Drives on the
32.1[8] (medium)
0.888[9] (very high) (8th)
Canadian dollar ($) (CAD)
(UTC3.5 to 8)
(UTC2.5 to 7)
dd-mm-yyyy, mm-dd-yyyy,
and yyyy-mm-dd (CE)
Right
ISO 3166 code CA

Internet TLD
.ca
Calling code
+1
Canada portal
Canada ( /knd/) is a North American country consisting of ten provinces and three territories.
Located in the northern part of the continent, it extends from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the
Pacific Ocean in the west and northward into the Arctic Ocean. It is the world's second largest country
by total area. Canada's common border with the United States to the south and northwest is the longest
in the world.
The land that is now Canada was inhabited for millennia by various groups of Aboriginal peoples.
Beginning in the late 15th century, British and French expeditions explored, and later settled, along the
Atlantic coast. France ceded nearly all of its colonies in North America in 1763 after the Seven Years'
War. In 1867, with the union of three British North American colonies through Confederation, Canada
was formed as a federal dominion of four provinces. This began an accretion of provinces and
territories and a process of increasing autonomy from the United Kingdom. This widening autonomy
was highlighted by the Statute of Westminster 1931 and culminated in the Canada Act 1982, which
severed the vestiges of legal dependence on the British parliament.
225
Canada is a federal state that is governed as a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy
with Queen Elizabeth II as its head of state. It is a bilingual nation with both English and French as
official languages at the federal level. One of the world's highly developed countries, Canada has a
diversified economy that is reliant upon its abundant natural resources and upon tradeparticularly
with the United States, with which Canada has had a long and complex relationship. It is a member of
the G7, G8, G20, NATO, OECD, WTO, Commonwealth, Francophonie, OAS, APEC, and UN. With
the eighth-highest Human Development Index globally, it has one of the highest standards of living in
the world.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
o
1.1 Etymology
1.2 Aboriginal peoples
1.3 European colonization
1.4 Confederation and expansion
1.5 Early 20th century
1.6 Modern times
2 Geography
3 Politics
3.1 Law
3.2 Foreign relations and military
3.3 Provinces and territories
4 Economy
o
5 Demographics
o
5.1 Language
226
6 Culture
7 See also
8 References
9 Further reading
10 External links
History
Main article: History of Canada
See also: Timeline of Canadian history
Etymology
Main article: Name of Canada
The name Canada comes from a St. Lawrence Iroquoian word, kanata, meaning "village" or
"settlement".[10] In 1535, indigenous inhabitants of the present-day Quebec City region used the word to
direct French explorer Jacques Cartier towards the village of Stadacona.[11] Cartier later used the word
Canada to refer not only to that particular village, but also the entire area subject to Donnacona (the
chief at Stadacona); by 1545, European books and maps had begun referring to this region as Canada.
[11]
In the 17th and early 18th century, Canada referred to the part of New France that lay along the Saint
Lawrence River and the northern shores of the Great Lakes. The area was later split into two British
colonies, Upper Canada and Lower Canada. They were re-unified as the Province of Canada in 1841.[12]
Upon Confederation in 1867, the name Canada was adopted as the legal name for the new country, and
Dominion (a term from Psalm 72:8)[13] was conferred as the country's title. Combined, the term
Dominion of Canada was in common usage until the 1970s.[14] As Canada asserted its political
autonomy from the United Kingdom, the federal government increasingly used simply Canada on state
documents and treaties, a change that was reflected in the renaming of the national holiday from
Dominion Day to Canada Day in 1982.[15]
Aboriginal peoples
Main article: Aboriginal peoples in Canada
Archaeological and Indigenous genetic studies support a human presence in the northern Yukon from
26,500 years ago, and in southern Ontario from 9,500 years ago.[16][17][18] Old Crow Flats and Bluefish
Caves are two of the earliest archaeological sites of human (Paleo-Indians) habitation in Canada.[19][20][21]
227
Among the First Nations peoples, there are eight unique stories of creation and their adaptations.[22] The
characteristics of Canadian Aboriginal societies included permanent settlements,[23] agriculture,[24] civic
and ceremonial architecture,[25] complex societal hierarchies and trading networks.[26] Some of these
cultures had long faded by the time of the first permanent European arrivals (c. late 15thearly 16th
centuries), and have been discovered through archaeological investigations.
The aboriginal population is estimated to have been between 200,000[27] and two million in the late 15th
century,[28] with a figure of 500,000 currently accepted by Canada's Royal Commission on Aboriginal
Health.[29] Repeated outbreaks of European infectious diseases such as influenza, measles, and smallpox
(to which they had no natural immunity), combined with other effects of European contact, resulted in a
forty to eighty percent aboriginal population decrease post-contact.[27] Aboriginal peoples in Canada
include the First Nations,[30] Inuit,[31] and Mtis.[32] The Mtis a culture of mixed blood originated in the
mid-17th century when First Nation and Inuit married European settlers.[33] The Inuit had more limited
interaction with European settlers during the colonization period.[34]
European colonization
Main articles: New France and Canada under British Imperial control
Further information: Former colonies and territories in Canada
Benjamin West's The Death of General Wolfe (1771) dramatizes Wolfe's death during the
Battle of the Plains of Abraham at Quebec in 1759; the battle was part of the Seven Years'
War
Europeans first arrived when Norse sailors settled briefly at L'Anse aux Meadows in Newfoundland
around 1000.[35][36] No further European exploration occurred until 1497, when Italian seafarer Giovanni
Caboto (John Cabot) explored Canada's Atlantic coast for England.[37] Between 1498 and 1521, Basque
and Portuguese mariners established seasonal whaling and fishing outposts along the Atlantic coast.[38]
[39]
In 1534 Jacques Cartier explored the Saint Lawrence River for France.[40] French explorer Samuel de
Champlain arrived in 1603 and established the first permanent European settlements at Port Royal in
1605 and Quebec City in 1608.[40] Among French colonists of New France, Canadiens extensively
settled the Saint Lawrence River valley and Acadians settled the present-day Maritimes, while French
228
fur traders and Catholic missionaries explored the Great Lakes, Hudson Bay, and the Mississippi
watershed to Louisiana. The Beaver Wars broke out over control of the North American fur trade.[40]
The English established fishing outposts in Newfoundland around 1610 and established the Thirteen
Colonies to the south.[41] A series of four Intercolonial Wars erupted between 1689 and 1763.[40]
Mainland Nova Scotia came under British rule with the Treaty of Utrecht (1713); the Treaty of Paris
(1763) ceded Canada and most of New France to Britain after the Seven Years' War.[42]
The Royal Proclamation (1763) carved the Province of Quebec out of New France and annexed Cape
Breton Island to Nova Scotia.[15] St. John's Island (now Prince Edward Island) became a separate colony
in 1769.[43] To avert conflict in Quebec, the British passed the Quebec Act of 1774, expanding Quebec's
territory to the Great Lakes and Ohio Valley. It re-established the French language, Catholic faith, and
French civil law there. This angered many residents of the Thirteen Colonies and helped to fuel the
American Revolution.[15]
The Treaty of Paris (1783) recognized American independence and ceded territories south of the Great
Lakes to the United States. Around 50,000 United Empire Loyalists fled the United States to Canada.[44]
New Brunswick was split from Nova Scotia as part of a reorganization of Loyalist settlements in the
Maritimes. To accommodate English-speaking Loyalists in Quebec, the Constitutional Act of 1791
divided the province into French-speaking Lower Canada (later the province of Quebec) and Englishspeaking Upper Canada (later Ontario), granting each its own elected Legislative Assembly.[45]
Robert Harris's Fathers of Confederation,[46] an amalgamation of the Charlottetown and

Quebec conferences
Canada (Upper and Lower) was the main front in the War of 1812 between the United States and the
British Empire. Following the war, large-scale immigration to Canada from Britain and Ireland began
in 1815.[28] From 1825 to 1846, 626,628 European immigrants landed at Canadian ports.[47] Between
one-quarter and one-third of all Europeans who immigrated to Canada before 1891 died of infectious
diseases.[27] The timber industry surpassed the fur trade in economic importance in the early 19th
century.
229
The desire for responsible government resulted in the aborted Rebellions of 1837. The Durham Report
subsequently recommended responsible government and the assimilation of French Canadians into
British culture.[15] The Act of Union 1840 merged The Canadas into a united Province of Canada.
Responsible government was established for all British North American provinces by 1849.[48] The
signing of the Oregon Treaty by Britain and the United States in 1846 ended the Oregon boundary
dispute, extending the border westward along the 49th parallel. This paved the way for British colonies
on Vancouver Island (1849) and in British Columbia (1858).[49] Canada launched a series of exploratory
expeditions to claim Rupert's Land and the Arctic region.
Confederation and expansion
Main articles: Canadian Confederation and Territorial evolution of Canada
An animated map, exhibiting the growth and change of Canada's provinces and territories
since Confederation
Following several constitutional conferences, the Constitution Act, 1867 officially proclaimed
Canadian Confederation, creating "one Dominion under the name of Canada" on July 1, 1867, with
four provinces: Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick.[50][51][52] Canada assumed control of
Rupert's Land and the North-Western Territory to form the Northwest Territories, where the Mtis'
grievances ignited the Red River Rebellion and the creation of the province of Manitoba in July 1870.
[53]
British Columbia and Vancouver Island (which had united in 1866) and the colony of Prince Edward
Island joined the Confederation in 1871 and 1873, respectively.[54] Prime Minister John A. Macdonald's
Conservative government established a National Policy of tariffs to protect nascent Canadian
manufacturing industries.[55]
To open the West, the government sponsored construction of three transcontinental railways (including
the Canadian Pacific Railway), opened the prairies to settlement with the Dominion Lands Act, and
230
established the North-West Mounted Police to assert its authority over this territory.[56][57] In 1898, after
the Klondike Gold Rush in the Northwest Territories, the Canadian government created the Yukon
Territory. Under Liberal Prime Minister Wilfrid Laurier, continental European immigrants settled the
prairies, and Alberta and Saskatchewan became provinces in 1905.[54]
Early 20th century
Main article: Canada in the World Wars and Interwar Years
Canadian soldiers at the Battle of Vimy Ridge in 1917
Because Britain still maintained control of Canada's foreign affairs under the Confederation Act, its
declaration of war in 1914 automatically brought Canada into World War I.[58] Volunteers sent to the
Western Front later became part of the Canadian Corps.[58] The Corps played a substantial role in the
Battle of Vimy Ridge and other major battles of the war.[58] Out of approximately 625,000 who served,
about 60,000 were killed and another 173,000 were wounded.[59] The Conscription Crisis of 1917
erupted when conservative Prime Minister Robert Borden brought in compulsory military service over
the objection of French-speaking Quebecers.[58] In 1919, Canada joined the League of Nations
independently of Britain and,[58] in 1931, the Statute of Westminster affirmed Canada's independence.[60]
The Great Depression brought economic hardship all over Canada. In response, the Co-operative
Commonwealth Federation (CCF) in Alberta and Saskatchewan enacted many measures of a welfare
state (as pioneered by Tommy Douglas) into the 1940s and 1950s.[61] Canada declared war on Germany
independently during World War II under Liberal Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King, three
days after Britain. The first Canadian Army units arrived in Britain in December 1939.[58]
Canadian troops played important roles in the failed 1942 Dieppe Raid in France, the Allied invasion of
Italy, the Normandy landings, the Battle of Normandy, and the Battle of the Scheldt in 1944.[58] Canada
provided asylum and protection for the monarchy of the Netherlands while that country was occupied,
and is credited by the country for leadership and major contribution to its liberation from Nazi
Germany.[62] The Canadian economy boomed as industry manufactured military materiel for Canada,
Britain, China, and the Soviet Union.[58] Despite another Conscription Crisis in Quebec, Canada
231
finished the war with one of the largest armed forces in the world and the second-wealthiest economy.
[63][64]
Modern times
Main articles: History of Canada (19451960), (19601981), (19821992), and (1992
present)
At Rideau Hall, Governor General the Viscount Alexander of Tunis (centre) receives for his
signature the bill finalizing the union of Newfoundland and Canada, March 31, 1949
Newfoundland (now Newfoundland and Labrador) joined Canada in 1949.[65] Canada's post-war
economic growth, combined with the policies of successive Liberal governments, led to the emergence
of a new Canadian identity, marked by the adoption of the current Maple Leaf Flag in 1965,[66] the
implementation of official bilingualism (English and French) in 1969,[67] and official multiculturalism in
1971.[68] There was also the founding of socially democratic programmes, such as universal health care,
the Canada Pension Plan, and Canada Student Loans, though provincial governments, particularly
Quebec and Alberta, opposed many of these as incursions into their jurisdictions.[69] Finally, another
series of constitutional conferences resulted in the 1982 patriation of Canada's constitution from the
United Kingdom, concurrent with the creation of the Charter of Rights and Freedoms.[70] In 1999,
Nunavut became Canada's third territory after a series of negotiations with the federal government.[71]
At the same time, Quebec underwent profound social and economic changes through the Quiet
Revolution of the 1960s, giving birth to a modern nationalist movement. The radical Front de libration
du Qubec (FLQ) ignited the October Crisis in 1970.[72] The sovereignist Parti Qubcois was elected in
1976 and organized an unsuccessful referendum on sovereignty-association in 1980.[72] Attempts to
accommodate Quebec nationalism constitutionally through the Meech Lake Accord failed in 1990. This
led to the formation of the Bloc Qubcois in Quebec and invigoration of the Reform Party of Canada
in the West.[73][74] A second referendum followed in 1995, in which sovereignty was rejected by a
slimmer margin of just 50.6% to 49.4%.[75] In 1997, the Supreme Court ruled that unilateral secession
by a province would be unconstitutional, and the Clarity Act was passed by parliament, outlining the
terms of a negotiated departure from Confederation.[75]
232
In addition to the issues of Quebec sovereignty, a number of crises shook Canadian society in the late
1980s and early 1990s. These included the explosion of Air India Flight 182 in 1985, the largest mass
murder in Canadian history;[76] the cole Polytechnique massacre in 1989, a university shooting
targeting female students;[77] and the Oka Crisis in 1990,[78] the first of a number of violent
confrontations between the government and Aboriginal groups.[79] Canada also joined the Gulf War in
1990 as part of a US-led coalition force, and was active in several peacekeeping missions in the late
1990s.[80] It sent troops to Afghanistan in 2001, but declined to send forces to Iraq when the US invaded
in 2003.[81]
Geography
Main article: Geography of Canada
A satellite composite image of Canada. Boreal forests prevail on the rocky Canadian
Shield. Ice and tundra are prominent in the Arctic. Glaciers are visible in the Canadian
Rockies and Coast Mountains. Flat and fertile prairies facilitate agriculture. The Great
Lakes feed the Saint Lawrence River (in the southeast), where lowlands host much of
Canada's population.
Canada occupies a major northern portion of North America, sharing the land borders with the
contiguous United States to the south and the U.S. state of Alaska to the northwest, stretching from the
Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west; to the north lies the Arctic Ocean.[82][83] By
total area (including its waters), Canada is the second-largest country in the worldafter Russia.[83] By
land area, Canada ranks fourth.[83] The country lies between latitudes 41 and 84N, and longitudes 52
and 141W.
Since 1925, Canada has claimed the portion of the Arctic between 60 and 141W longitude,[84] but this
claim is not universally recognized. The northernmost settlement in Canada (and in the world) is
Canadian Forces Station Alert on the northern tip of Ellesmere Islandlatitude 82.5N
817 kilometres (450 nautical miles, 508 miles) from the North Pole.[85] Much of the Canadian Arctic is
covered by ice and permafrost. Canada also has the longest coastline in the world: 202,080 kilometres
(125,570 mi).[83]
233
The Horseshoe Falls in Niagara Falls, Ontario, is one of the world's most voluminous
waterfalls,[86] renowned for both its beauty and as a valuable source of hydroelectric
power.
The population density, 3.3 inhabitants per square kilometre (8.5 /sq mi), is among the lowest in the
world. The most densely populated part of the country is the Quebec City Windsor Corridor, (situated
in Southern Quebec and Southern Ontario) along the Great Lakes and the Saint Lawrence River in the
southeast.[87]
Canada has an extensive coastline on its north, east, and west, and since the last glacial period it has
consisted of eight distinct forest regions, including extensive boreal forest on the Canadian Shield.[88]
The vastness and variety of Canada's geography, ecology, vegetation and landforms have given rise to a
wide variety of climates throughout the country.[89] Because of its vast size, Canada has more lakes than
any other country, containing much of the world's fresh water.[90] There are also fresh-water glaciers in
the Canadian Rockies and the Coast Mountains.
Canada is also geologically active, having many earthquakes and potentially active volcanoes, notably
Mount Meager, Mount Garibaldi, Mount Cayley, and the Mount Edziza volcanic complex.[91] The
volcanic eruption of Tseax Cone in 1775 caused a catastrophic disaster, killing 2,000 Nisga'a people
and destroying their village in the Nass River valley of northern British Columbia; the eruption
produced a 22.5-kilometre (14.0 mi) lava flow, and according to legend of the Nisga'a people, it
blocked the flow of the Nass River.[92]
Average winter and summer high temperatures across Canada vary according to the location. Winters
can be harsh in many regions of the country, particularly in the interior and Prairie provinces, which
experience a continental climate, where daily average temperatures are near 15 C (5 F) but can drop
below 40 C (40 F) with severe wind chills.[93] In noncoastal regions, snow can cover the ground
almost six months of the year (more in the north). Coastal British Columbia enjoys a temperate climate,
with a mild and rainy winter. On the east and west coasts, average high temperatures are generally in
the low 20s C (70s F), while between the coasts, the average summer high temperature ranges from
234
25 to 30 C (77 to 86 F), with occasional extreme heat in some interior locations exceeding 40 C
(104 F).[94]
Politics
Main articles: Politics of Canada and Government of Canada
See also: Elections in Canada and List of political parties in Canada
Parliament Hill in Canada's capital, Ottawa
Canada has strong democratic traditions upheld through a parliamentary government within the
construct of constitutional monarchy, the monarchy of Canada being the foundation of the executive,
legislative, and judicial branches and its authority stemming from the Canadian populace.[95][96][97][98] The
sovereign is Queen Elizabeth II, who also serves as head of state of 15 other Commonwealth countries
and resides predominantly in the United Kingdom. As such, the Queen's representative, the Governor
General of Canada (presently David Lloyd Johnston[99]), carries out most of the royal duties in Canada.
[100]
The direct participation of the royal and viceroyal figures in any of these areas of governance is limited,
though;[98][101][102][103] in practice, their use of the executive powers is directed by the Cabinet, a
committee of ministers of the Crown responsible to the elected House of Commons and headed by the
Prime Minister of Canada (presently Stephen Harper[104]), the head of government. To ensure the
stability of government, the governor general will usually appoint as prime minister the person who is
the current leader of the political party that can obtain the confidence of a plurality in the House of
Commons and the prime minister chooses the Cabinet.[105] The Prime Minister's Office (PMO) is thus
one of the most powerful institutions in government, initiating most legislation for parliamentary
approval and selecting for appointment by the Crown, besides the aforementioned, the governor
general, lieutenant governors, senators, federal court judges, and heads of Crown corporations and
government agencies.[101] The leader of the party with the second-most seats usually becomes the
Leader of Her Majesty's Loyal Opposition (presently Michael Ignatieff[106]) and is part of an adversarial
parliamentary system intended to keep the government in check.
235
The Senate chamber within the Centre Block on Parliament Hill
Each Member of Parliament in the House of Commons is elected by simple plurality in an electoral
district or riding. General elections must be called by the governor general, on the advice of the prime
minister, within four years of the previous election, or may be triggered by the government losing a
confidence vote in the House.[107] Members of the Senate, whose seats are apportioned on a regional
basis, serve until age 75.[108] Four parties had representatives elected to the federal parliament in the
2008 elections: the Conservative Party of Canada (governing party), the Liberal Party of Canada (the
Official Opposition), the New Democratic Party (NDP), and the Bloc Qubcois. The list of historical
parties with elected representation is substantial.
Canada's federal structure divides government responsibilities between the federal government and the
ten provinces. Provincial legislatures are unicameral and operate in parliamentary fashion similar to the
House of Commons.[109] Canada's three territories also have legislatures, but these are not sovereign and
have fewer constitutional responsibilities than the provinces and with some structural differences.[110][111]
Law
Main article: Law of Canada
See also: Court system of Canada
The Constitution of Canada is the supreme law of the country, and consists of written text and
unwritten conventions.[112] The Constitution Act, 1867 (known as the British North America Act prior to
1982) affirmed governance based on parliamentary precedent "similar in principle to that of the United
Kingdom"[113] and divided powers between the federal and provincial governments; the Statute of
Westminster 1931 granted full autonomy; and the Constitution Act, 1982 added the Canadian Charter of
Rights and Freedoms, which guarantees basic rights and freedoms that usually cannot be overridden by
any level of governmentthough a notwithstanding clause allows the federal parliament and provincial
legislatures to override certain sections of the Charter for a period of five yearsand added a
constitutional amending formula.[112]
236
The Indian Chiefs Medal, presented to commemorate Treaties 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7, bearing the
effigy of Queen Victoria
Although not without conflict, European Canadians' early interactions with First Nations and Inuit
populations were relatively peaceful. Combined with Canada's late economic development in many
regions, this peaceful history has allowed Canadian Indigenous peoples to have a relatively strong
influence on the national culture while preserving their own identity.[114] The Canadian Crown and
Aboriginal peoples began interactions during the European colonialization period. Numbered treaties,
the Indian Act, the Constitution Act of 1982 and case laws were established.[115] A series of eleven
treaties were signed between Aboriginals in Canada and the reigning Monarch of Canada from 1871 to
1921.[116] These treaties are agreements with the Government of Canada administered by Canadian
Aboriginal law and overseen by the Minister of Indian Affairs and Northern Development. The role of
the treaties was reaffirmed by Section Thirty-five of the Constitution Act, 1982, which "recognizes and
affirms existing Aboriginal and treaty rights".[115] These rights may include provision of services such as
health care, and exemption from taxation.[117] The legal and policy framework within which Canada and
First Nations operate was further formalized in 2005, through the First NationsFederal Crown
Political Accord, which established cooperation as "a cornerstone for partnership between Canada and
First Nations".[115]
The Supreme Court of Canada in Ottawa, west of Parliament Hill
Canada's judiciary plays an important role in interpreting laws and has the power to strike down laws
that violate the Constitution. The Supreme Court of Canada is the highest court and final arbiter and has
been led by the Right Honourable Madam Chief Justice Beverley McLachlin, P.C. (the first female
Chief Justice) since 2000.[118] Its nine members are appointed by the governor general on the advice of
237
the Prime Minister and Minister of Justice. All judges at the superior and appellate levels are appointed
after consultation with nongovernmental legal bodies. The federal cabinet also appoints justices to
superior courts at the provincial and territorial levels. Judicial posts at the lower provincial and
territorial levels are filled by their respective governments.[119]
Common law prevails everywhere except in Quebec, where civil law predominates.[120] Criminal law is
solely a federal responsibility and is uniform throughout Canada.[120] Law enforcement, including
criminal courts, is a provincial responsibility, but in rural areas of all provinces except Ontario and
Quebec, policing is contracted to the federal Royal Canadian Mounted Police.[121]
Main articles: Foreign relations of Canada and Canadian Forces
A Canadian CF-18 Hornet in Cold Lake, Alberta. CF-18s have supported NORAD air
sovereignty patrols and participated in combat during the Gulf War and the Kosovo and
Bosnia crises.
Canada and the United States share the world's longest undefended border, co-operate on military
campaigns and exercises, and are each other's largest trading partner.[122] Canada nevertheless has an
independent foreign policy, most notably maintaining full relations with Cuba and declining to
officially participate in the Iraq War. Canada also maintains historic ties to the United Kingdom and
France and to other former British and French colonies through Canada's membership in the
Commonwealth of Nations and the Francophonie.[123] Canada is noted for having a strong and positive
relationship with the Netherlands, and the Dutch government traditionally gives tulips, a symbol of the
Netherlands, to Canada each year in remembrance of the latter country's contribution to its liberation.[62]
Canada currently employs a professional, volunteer military force of over 67,000 regular and
approximately 43,000 reserve personnel including supplementary reserves.[124] The unified Canadian
Forces (CF) comprise the army, navy, and air force. Canada is an industrial nation with a highly
developed science and technology sector. Since the First World War, Canada has produced its own
Frigate and Destroyer, infantry fighting vehicle, anti-tank guided missile and small arms for the
Canadian Forces and particularly for the army and the navy. The Canadian Forces operate state of the
art equipments able to handle modern threats through 20302035.
238
Strong attachment to the British Empire and Commonwealth led to major participation in British
military efforts in the Second Boer War, the First World War, and the Second World War. Since then,
Canada has been an advocate for multilateralism, making efforts to resolve global issues in
collaboration with other nations.[125][126] Canada was a founding member of the United Nations in 1945
and of NATO in 1949. During the Cold War, Canada was a major contributor to UN forces in the
Korean War and founded the North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD) in cooperation
with the United States to defend against potential aerial attacks from the Soviet Union.[127]
The Halifax-class frigate HMCS Regina, a warship of the Canadian Navy in 2004
During the Suez Crisis of 1956, future Prime Minister Lester B. Pearson eased tensions by proposing
the inception of the United Nations Peacekeeping Force, for which he was awarded the 1957 Nobel
Peace Prize.[128] As this was the first UN peacekeeping mission, Pearson is often credited as the inventor
of the concept. Canada has since served in 50 peacekeeping missions, including every UN
peacekeeping effort until 1989,[58] and has since maintained forces in international missions in Rwanda,
the former Yugoslavia, and elsewhere; Canada has sometimes faced controversy over its involvement in
foreign countries, notably in the 1993 Somalia Affair.[129] The number of Canadian military personnel
participating in peacekeeping missions has decreased greatly in the past two decades.
Canada joined the Organization of American States (OAS) in 1990 and hosted the OAS General
Assembly in Windsor, Ontario, in June 2000 and the third Summit of the Americas in Quebec City in
April 2001.[130] Canada seeks to expand its ties to Pacific Rim economies through membership in the
Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum (APEC).[131]
Canadian Army soldiers from the Royal 22e Rgiment setting a perimeter position after
disembarking a U.S Navy LCAC during a simulated amphibious landing during UNITAS
Gold (April 25, 2009)
Since 2001, Canada has had troops deployed in Afghanistan as part of the U.S. stabilization force and
the UN-authorized, NATO-commanded International Security Assistance Force. Canada has committed
to withdraw from Kandahar Province by 2011,[132] by which time it will have spent an estimated total of
239
$11.3 billion on the mission.[133] Canada and the U.S. continue to integrate state and provincial agencies
to strengthen security along the Canada-United States border through the Western Hemisphere Travel
Initiative.[134]
In February 2007, Canada, Italy, Britain, Norway, and Russia announced their funding commitments to
launch a $1.5 billion project to help develop vaccines they said could save millions of lives in poor
nations, and called on others to join them.[135] In August 2007, Canadian sovereignty in Arctic waters
was challenged after a Russian underwater expedition to the North Pole; Canada has considered that
area to be sovereign territory since 1925.[136] In July 2010 the largest purchase in Canadian military
history, totaling C$9 billion for the acquisition of 65 F-35 fighters was announced by the federal
government.[137] Canada is one of several nations that assisted in the development of the F-35 and has
invested over C$168 million into the program.[138]
Provinces and territories
Main article: Provinces and territories of Canada
See also: Canadian federalism
Canada is a federation composed of ten provinces and three territories. In turn, these may be grouped
into regions: Western Canada, Central Canada, Atlantic Canada, and Northern Canada (the latter made
up of the three territories: Yukon, Northwest Territories, and Nunavut). Eastern Canada refers to Central
Canada and Atlantic Canada together. Provinces have more autonomy than territories. The provinces
are responsible for most of Canada's social programs (such as health care, education, and welfare) and
together collect more revenue than the federal government, an almost unique structure among
federations in the world. Using its spending powers, the federal government can initiate national
policies in provincial areas, such as the Canada Health Act; the provinces can opt out of these, but
rarely do so in practice. Equalization payments are made by the federal government to ensure that
reasonably uniform standards of services and taxation are kept between the richer and poorer provinces.
[139]
A clickable map of Canada exhibiting its ten provinces and three territories, and their capitals.
240
Economy
Main article: Economy of Canada
241
Current Canadian banknotes, depicting (top to bottom) Wilfrid Laurier, John A. Macdonald,
Queen of Canada (Elizabeth II), William Lyon Mackenzie King, and Robert Borden
Canada is one of the world's wealthiest nations, with a high per-capita income, and it is a member of the
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and the G8. It is one of the world's
top ten trading nations.[140] Canada is a mixed market, ranking above the U.S. on the Heritage
Foundation's index of economic freedom and higher than most western European nations.[141] The
largest foreign importers of Canadian goods are the United States, the United Kingdom, and Japan.[142]
In the past century, the growth of the manufacturing, mining, and service sectors has transformed the
nation from a largely rural economy to a more industrial and urban one. Like other First World nations,
the Canadian economy is dominated by the service industry, which employs about three quarters of
Canadians.[143] Canada is unusual among developed countries in the importance of its primary sector, in
which the logging and petroleum industries are two of the most important.[144]
242
Canada is one of the few developed nations that are net exporters of energy.[145] Atlantic Canada has
vast offshore deposits of natural gas, and Alberta has large oil and gas resources. The immense
Athabasca Oil Sands give Canada the world's second-largest oil reserves, behind Saudi Arabia.[146]
Canada is one of the world's largest suppliers of agricultural products; the Canadian Prairies are one of
the most important producers of wheat, canola, and other grains.[147] Canada is the largest producer of
zinc and uranium, and is a global source of many other natural resources, such as gold, nickel,
aluminum, and lead.[145] Many towns in northern Canada, where agriculture is difficult, are sustainable
because of nearby mines or sources of timber. Canada also has a sizable manufacturing sector centred
in southern Ontario and Quebec, with automobiles and aeronautics representing particularly important
industries.[148]
Representatives of the governments of Canada, Mexico, and the United States sign the
North American Free Trade Agreement in 1992
Economic integration with the United States has increased significantly since World War II. This has
drawn the attention of Canadian nationalists, who are concerned about cultural and economic autonomy
in an age of globalization, as American goods and media products have become ubiquitous.[149] The
Automotive Products Trade Agreement of 1965 opened the borders to trade in the auto manufacturing
industry. In the 1970s, concerns over energy self-sufficiency and foreign ownership in the
manufacturing sectors prompted Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau's Liberal government to enact the
National Energy Program (NEP) and the Foreign Investment Review Agency (FIRA).[150]
In the 1980s, Prime Minister Brian Mulroney's Progressive Conservatives abolished the NEP and
changed the name of FIRA to "Investment Canada" in order to encourage foreign investment.[151] The
Canada United States Free Trade Agreement (FTA) of 1988 eliminated tariffs between the two
countries, while the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) expanded the free-trade zone to
include Mexico in the 1990s.[147] In the mid-1990s, the Liberal government under Jean Chrtien began
to post annual budgetary surpluses and steadily paid down the national debt.[152] The 2008 global
financial crisis caused a recession, which could increase the country's unemployment rate to 10%.[153] In
2008, Canada's imported goods were worth over $442.9 billion, of which $280.8 billion was from the
243
United States, $11.7 billion from Japan, and $11.3 billion from the United Kingdom.[142] The countrys
2009 trade deficit totaled C$4.8 billion, compared with a C$46.9 billion surplus in 2008.[154]
As of October 2009, Canada's national unemployment rate was 8.6%. Provincial unemployment rates
vary from a low of 5.8% in Manitoba to a high of 17% in Newfoundland and Labrador.[155] Between
October 2008, and October 2010, the Canadian labour market lost 162,000 full-time jobs and a total of
224,000 permanent jobs.[156] Canada's federal debt is estimated to be $566.7 billion for 201011, up
from $463.7 billion in 200809.[157] Canadas net foreign debt rose by $40.6-billion to $193.8-billion in
the first quarter of 2010.[158]
Main article: Science and technology in Canada
Canada is an industrial nation with a highly developed science and technology sector. Nearly 1.88% of
Canada's GDP is allocated to research & development (R&D).[159] The country has eighteen Nobel
laureates in physics, chemistry and medicine.[160] Canada ranks 12 in the world for Internet usage with
28.0 million users, 84.3% of the total population.[161]
The Canadarm in action on the Space Shuttle Discovery during STS-116
The Defence Research and Development Canada is an agency of the Department of National
Defence ,whose purpose is to respond to the scientific and technological needs of the Canadian Forces.
Over the years, DRDC have been responsible for numerous innovations and inventions of practical
application both in civilian and military world. It has also contributed in the development of the most
advanced Active Electronically Scanned Array in the world as part of an international effort involving
Canada, Germany, and the Netherlands.[162]
The Canadian Space Agency conducts space, planetary, and aviation research, as well as develops
rockets and satellites. In 1984, Marc Garneau became Canada's first astronaut, serving as payload
specialist of STS-41-G. Canada was ranked third among 20 top countries in space sciences.[163] Canada
is a participant in the International Space Station and one of the world's pioneers in space robotics with
the Canadarm, Canadarm2 and Dextre. Since the 1960s, Canada Aerospace Industries have designed
244
and built 10 satellites, including RADARSAT-1, RADARSAT-2 and MOST.[164] Canada also produced
one of the most successful sounding rockets, the Black Brant; over 1000 have been launched since they
were initially produced in 1961.[165] Universities across Canada are working on the first domestic
landing spacecraft: the Northern Light, designed to search for life on Mars and investigate Martian
electromagnetic radiation environment and atmospheric properties. If the Northern Light is successful,
Canada will be the third country to land on another planet.[166]
Demographics
Historical
populations
Year
Pop.
1851
2,415,000
1861
3,174,000
31.4%
1871
3,689,000
16.2%
1881
4,325,000
17.2%
1891
4,833,000
11.7%
1901
5,371,000
11.1%
1911
7,207,000
34.2%
1921
8,788,000
21.9%
1931
10,377,000
18.1%
1941
11,507,000
10.9%
1951
14,009,000
21.7%
1961
18,238,000
30.2%
1971
21,962,000
20.4%
1981
24,820,000
13.0%
1991
28,031,000
12.9%
2001
31,021,000
10.7%
2010
34,430,000
11.0%
245
est.
Source: Statistics Canada[167]
Main article: Demographics of Canada

See also: Ethnic groups in Canada
Canada's 2006 census counted a total population of 31,612,897, an increase of 5.4% since 2001.[168]
Population growth is from immigration and, to a lesser extent, natural growth. About four-fifths of
Canada's population lives within 150 kilometres (93 mi) of the United States border.[169] A similar
proportion live in urban areas concentrated in the Quebec City Windsor Corridor (including Toronto,
Montreal, and Ottawa), the BC Lower Mainland (consisting of the region surrounding Vancouver), and
the CalgaryEdmonton Corridor in Alberta.[170]
According to the 2006 census, the largest self-reported ethnic origin is Canadian (32%), followed by
English (21%), French (15.8%), Scottish (15.1%), Irish (13.9%), German (10.2%), Italian (4.6%),
Chinese (4.3%), North American Indian (4.0%), Ukrainian (3.9%), and Dutch (Netherlands) (3.3%).[171]
There are 600 recognized First Nations governments or bands encompassing 1,172,790 people.[172]
Canada's Aboriginal population is growing at almost twice the national rate, and 3.8% of Canada's
population claimed aboriginal identity in 2006. Another 16.2% of the population belonged to nonaboriginal visible minorities.[173] The largest visible minority groups in Canada are South Asian (4%),
Chinese (3.9%) and Black (2.5%).[174] In 1961, less than 2% of Canada's population (about 300,000
people) could be classified as belonging to a visible minority group and less than 1% as aboriginal.[175]
In 2006, 51.0% of Vancouver's population and 46.9% of Toronto's population were members of visible
minority groups.[176][177] Between 2001 and 2006, the visible minority population rose by 27.2%.[174] As
of 2007, almost one in five Canadians (19.8%) were foreign-born.[178] Nearly 60% of new immigrants
come from Asia (including the Middle East).[178] The leading emigrating countries to Canada were
China, Philippines and India.[179] By 2031, one in three Canadians could belong to a visible minority
group.[180]
Canada has one of the highest per-capita immigration rates in the world,[181] driven by economic policy
and family reunification, and is aiming for between 240,000 and 265,000 new permanent residents in
2011, the same number of immigrants as in recent years.[182] New immigrants settle mostly in major
urban areas like Toronto and Vancouver.[183] Canada also accepts large numbers of refugees.[184] The
country resettles over one in 10 of the worlds refugees.[185]
Religion in Canada (2001 Census)[186]
Religion
Percent
Catholic
246
43.6%
Protestant
29.2%
No affiliation
16.5%
Christian (other)
2.6%
Muslim
2.0%
Christian Orthodox
1.5%
Jewish
1.1%
Buddhist
1.0%
Hindu
1.0%
Sikh
0.9%
In common with many other developed countries, Canada is experiencing a demographic shift towards
an older population, with more retirees and fewer people of working age. In 2006, the average age of
the population was 39.5 years.[187] The census results also indicate that despite an increase in
immigration since 2001 (which gave Canada a higher rate of population growth than in the previous
intercensal period), the aging of Canada's population did not slow during the period.
Support for religious pluralism is an important part of Canada's political culture.[188] According to the
2001 census, 77.1% of Canadians identify as being Christians; of this, Catholics make up the largest
group (43.6% of Canadians).[186] The largest Protestant denomination is the United Church of Canada
(9.5% of Canadians), followed by the Anglicans (6.8%), Baptists (2.4%), Lutherans (2%), and other
Christians (4.4%).[186] About 16.5% of Canadians declare no religious affiliation, and the remaining
6.3% are affiliated with non-Christian religions, the largest of which is Islam (2.0%), followed by
Judaism (1.1%).[186]
Canadian provinces and territories are responsible for education. Each system is similar, while
reflecting regional history, culture and geography.[189] The mandatory school age ranges between 57 to
1618 years,[189] contributing to an adult literacy rate of 99%.[83] In 2002, 43% of Canadians aged 25 to
64 possessed a post-secondary education; for those aged 25 to 34, the rate of post-secondary education
reached 51%.[190]
Language
Main article: Spoken languages of Canada
Canada's two official languages are English and French. Official bilingualism is defined in the
Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, the Official Languages Act, and Official Language
Regulations; it is applied by the Commissioner of Official Languages. English and French have equal
status in federal courts, Parliament, and in all federal institutions. Citizens have the right, where there is
247
sufficient demand, to receive federal government services in either English or French, and officiallanguage minorities are guaranteed their own schools in all provinces and territories.[191]
Notre-Dame-des-Victoires in the historic Basse-Ville (Lower Town) of Quebec City, Quebec.

The population is mainly French-speaking, with a small English-speaking minority.
English and French are the mother tongues of 59.7% and 23.2% of the population respectively.[192]
Approximately 98% of Canadians speak English or French (57.8% speak English only, 22.1% speak
French only, and 17.4% speak both).[192] English and French Official Language Communities, defined
by First Official Language Spoken, constitute 73.0% and 23.6% of the population respectively.[193]
The Charter of the French Language makes French the official language in Quebec.[194] Although more
than 85% of French-speaking Canadians live in Quebec, there are substantial Francophone populations
in Ontario, Alberta, and southern Manitoba; Ontario has the largest French-speaking population outside
Quebec.[195] New Brunswick, the only officially bilingual province, has a French-speaking Acadian
minority constituting 33% of the population. There are also clusters of Acadians in southwestern Nova
Scotia, on Cape Breton Island, and through central and western Prince Edward Island.[196]
Other provinces have no official languages as such, but French is used as a language of instruction, in
courts, and for other government services in addition to English. Manitoba, Ontario, and Quebec allow
for both English and French to be spoken in the provincial legislatures, and laws are enacted in both
languages. In Ontario, French has some legal status but is not fully co-official.[197] There are 11
Aboriginal language groups, made up of more than 65 distinct dialects.[198] Of these, only Cree,
Inuktitut and Ojibway have a large enough population of fluent speakers to be considered viable to
survive in the long term.[199] Several aboriginal languages have official status in the Northwest
Territories.[200] Inuktitut is the majority language in Nunavut, and one of three official languages in the
territory.[201]
Over six million people in Canada list a non-official language as their mother tongue.[202] Some of the
most common non-official first languages include Chinese (mainly Cantonese; 1,012,065 first-language
248
speakers), Italian (455,040), German (450,570), Punjabi (367,505) and Spanish (345,345).[203] and the
languages most spoken at home by 68.3% and 22.3% of the population respectively.[204]
Largest metropolitan areas in Canada by population
view
(2006 Census)
talk
edit
Name
Toronto
Province
Ontario
Pop.
5,113,1 Kitchener
49
Montreal
Quebec
British
Columbia
Ottawa
Ontario
Gatineau
Quebec
Calgary
Alberta
Province
Pop.
Ontario
451,2
Waterloo
3,635,5 St. Catharines

71
Vancouver
Name
35
Ontario
Niagara
2,116,5 Halifax
17
Nova Scotia
81
Alberta
1,130,7 Oshawa
Ontario
61
Quebec
1,079,3 Victoria
British Columbia
Manitoba
1,034,9 Windsor
Ontario
Ontario
323,3
42
0715,5 Saskatoon
Saskatchewan
233,9
23
0694,8 Regina
Saskatchewan
98
Hamilton
330,0
88
15
Winnipeg
330,5
94
45
Quebec City
372,8
58
10
Edmonton
390,3
194,9
71
0692,9 Sherbrooke
11
Quebec
186,9
52
249
London
Ontario
0457,7 St. John's

20
Newfoundland and 181,1

Labrador
13
Culture
Main article: Culture of Canada
See also: Canadian Art, Music of Canada, Sport in Canada, and National symbols of
Canada
Canada has a diverse makeup of nationalities and cultures and constitutional protection for policies that
promote multiculturalism rather than a single national myth.[205][206] In Quebec, cultural identity is
strong, and many French-speaking commentators speak of a Quebec culture as distinguished from
English Canadian culture,[207] however as a whole Canada is a cultural mosaic collection of several
regional, aboriginal, and ethnic subcultures.[208][209] It is often asserted that Canadian Government
policies such as publicly-funded health care, higher taxation to distribute wealth, outlawing capital
punishment, strong efforts to eliminate poverty, an emphasis on multiculturalism, imposing strict gun
control, leniency in regard to drug use and most recently legalizing same-sex marriage are social
indicators of how Canada's political and cultural evolution differ from that of the United States.[210]
Bill Reid's sculpture Raven and The First Men, showing part of a Haida creation myth. The
Raven is a figure common to many mythologies in aboriginal culture.
Historically Canada has been influenced by British, French, and aboriginal cultures and traditions.
Many North American Indigenous words, inventions and games have become an everyday part of
Canadian language and use. Through their culture, languages, art and music, aboriginals continue to
exert influence on the Canadian identity.[211][212]
250
Many Canadians value multiculturalism and see Canada as being inherently multicultural.[70] However,
the country's culture has been heavily influenced by American culture because of its proximity and the
high rate of migration between the two countries. The great majority of English-speaking immigrants to
Canada between 1755 and 1815 were Americans from the Thirteen Colonies; during and immediately
after the American Revolutionary War, 46,000 Americans loyal to the British crown immigrated to
Canada to join 20,000 Anglophone settlers who had largely immigrated prior to the War of
Independence.[213] Between 1785 and 1812, thousands more Americans immigrated to Canada in
response to promises of land. In 1812 the vast majority of English-speaking Canadians were
immigrants from what had been the thirteen southern colonies or were their descendants.[214]
American media and entertainment are popular, if not dominant, in English Canada; conversely, many
Canadian cultural products and entertainers are successful in the United States and worldwide.[215]
Many cultural products are marketed toward a unified "North American" or global market. The creation
and preservation of distinctly Canadian culture are supported by federal government programs, laws,
and institutions such as the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC), the National Film Board of
Canada, and the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission.[216]
The Jack Pine, by Tom Thomson, 1916; oil on canvas, in the collection of the National
Gallery of Canada
Canadian visual art has been dominated by Tom Thomson Canada's most famous painter and by
the Group of Seven. Thomson's brief career painting Canadian landscapes spanned just a decade up to
his death in 1917 at age 39.[217] The Group were painters with a nationalistic and idealistic focus, who
first exhibited their distinctive works in May 1920. Though referred to as having seven members, five
artists Lawren Harris, A. Y. Jackson, Arthur Lismer, J. E. H. MacDonald, and Frederick Varley
were responsible for articulating the Group's ideas. They were joined briefly by Frank Johnston, and by
commercial artist Franklin Carmichael. A. J. Casson became part of the Group in 1926.[218] Associated
with the Group was another prominent Canadian artist, Emily Carr, known for her landscapes and
portrayals of the indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast.[219]
251
The Canadian music industry has developed a music infrastructure, that includes church halls, chamber
halls, conservatories, academies, performing arts centres, record companies, radio stations, and
television music video channels.[220] The Canadian music industry has produced internationally
renowned composers, musicians and ensembles.[221] Canada's music broadcasting is regulated by the
Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC). The Canadian Academy of
Recording Arts and Sciences administers Canada's music industry awards, the Juno Awards, which
commenced in 1970.[222] The national anthem of Canada O Canada adopted in 1980, was originally
commissioned by the Lieutenant Governor of Quebec, the Honourable Thodore Robitaille, for the
1880 St. Jean-Baptiste Day ceremony.[223] Calixa Lavalle wrote the music, which was a setting of a
patriotic poem composed by the poet and judge Sir Adolphe-Basile Routhier. The text was originally
only in French, before it was translated to English in 1906.[224]
A scene at the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver seconds after Team Canada won gold
in men's ice hockey
Canada's official national sports are hockey in the winter and lacrosse in the summer.[225] Hockey is a
national pastime and the most popular spectator sport in the country. It is also the sport most played by
Canadians, with 1.65 million participants in 2004.[226] Canada's six largest metropolitan areasToronto,
Montreal, Vancouver, Ottawa, Calgary, and Edmontonhave franchises in the National Hockey
League (NHL), and there are more Canadian players in the NHL than from all other countries
combined. Other popular spectator sports include curling and football; the latter is played
professionally in the Canadian Football League (CFL).[226] Golf, baseball, skiing, soccer, cricket,
volleyball, and basketball are widely played at youth and amateur levels, but professional leagues and
franchises are not widespread.[226]
Canada has hosted several high-profile international sporting events, including the 1976 Summer
Olympics in Montreal, the 1988 Winter Olympics in Calgary, and the 2007 FIFA U-20 World Cup.
Canada was the host nation for the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver and Whistler, British
Columbia.[227]
Canada's National symbols are influenced by natural, historical, and Aboriginal sources. The use of the
maple leaf as a Canadian symbol dates to the early 18th century. The maple leaf is depicted on Canada's
252
current and previous flags, on the penny, and on the Coat of Arms.[228] Other prominent symbols include
the beaver, Canada Goose, Common Loon, the Crown, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police,[228] and
more recently, the totem pole and Inukshuk.
253

Countries by Continents

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COUNTRIES OF AFRICA

List of African Countries

Dodoma, Dar es Salaam

Central Africa (Middle Africa)

Central African Republic

Congo, Rep. (Brazzaville)

Congo, Dem. Rep. (Kinshasa)

Libyan Arab Jamahiriya

Pretoria, Bloemfontein, Cape Town

COUNTRIES OF THE AMERICAS AND THE CARIBBEAN

States and Territories of the Americas and the Caribbean

Antigua and Barbuda

Map of Southwestern Asia

Countries and Areas of Asia

China, Hong Kong SAR

China, Macau SAR

127 700 000

141 300 000

159 200 000

Bandar Seri Begawan

218 700 000

Western Asia and Middle East

United Arab Emirates

COUNTRIES OF AUSTRALIA AND OCEANIA

States of Australia and Oceania

Capital City - Largest City

Melanesia - the islands in the southwestern part of Oceania.

Papua New Guinea

Micronesia, the islands in the northwestern part of Oceania.

Micronesia (Federated States

Northern Mariana Islands

Polynesia, the islands in the eastern part of Oceania.

French Polynesia (Tahiti)

Capital City - Largest City

144 100 000

Capital City - Largest City

Northern Ireland (UK)

Holy See (Vatican City

Capital City - Largest City

MAP OF THE WORLD CONTINENTS

Tokyo (de facto)

Aynu itak, Ryukyuan languages, Eastern

Japanese, Western Japanese, and several

other Japanese dialects

0.5% Korean, 0.4% Chinese,

Naoto Kan (DPJ)

February 11, 660 BC[3]

November 29, 1890

April 28, 1952

$4.308 trillion[6] (3rd)

$5.390 trillion[6] (3rd)

Japanese Symbol (or in

ISO 3166 code

Japan ( i /dpn/; Japanese: Nihon or Nippon, officially Nippon-koku or

2.1 Prehistory and ancient history

2.2 Feudal era

2.3 Modern era

5 Foreign relations and military

7.1 Science and technology

An example of Jmon pottery, 3000-2000 BC

The Mongol invasions in 1274 and 1281 were successfully repelled

The Meiji Emperor

Emperor Akihito and Empress Michiko