Chapter 16: Ethics and Other Informal Controls

PERSONAL ETHICS 個人倫理

 Ethics are rules of conduct (行為規範) or principles of morality (道德原則) that point
us toward the right or best way to act in a situation.

 There are many ethical systems in use throughout the world.

Five Ethical Systems

1. Principle of the Golden Mean(中庸之道 ) – Aristotle

Moral values lie between two extremes. Moderation is the key. The proper way of
behaving lies between doing too much and doing too little.

2. The Categorical Imperative(普適原則 ) – Immanuel Kant

What’s right for one is right for all. We act according to rules we want to see
universally applied. Conscience informs us what is right.

3. Principle of Utility (功利原則 ) – Bentham and Mill

The best ratio of good to evil for the general society. How much good is done? How
much evil is avoided?
1. Calculate the consequences.
2. Choose the path that maximizes good and/or minimizes evil.

4. Veil of Ignorance (無知之幕 ) – John Rawls

Justice is blind (正義不看人面) . Justice emerges when we treat everyone without

social differentiations. All parties in a dispute should be placed behind a veil of
ignorance.（一視同仁）

5. Principle of Self-Determination (自決原則 ) – Judeo-Christian

Human beings have value apart from any circumstances. They should not be used to
accomplish an end if that violates their self-determination.

“Don't do unto others what you don't want others do unto you.” ( 己所不欲勿施於人).
“Love your neighbor as yourself.”(愛人如己).

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Model for Making Individual Ethical Decisions

 Definitions －> Values －> Principles －> Loyalties －> Action

 Consider four things about a situation before taking action:

 Define the situation.

 What are the facts, and what are our alternative possible actions?

 What values are involved?

 Which values are more relevant to deciding a course of action?

 What ethical principles apply?

 Many other systems are available besides these five

 Where do our loyalties lie?

 To whom do we owe our highest moral duty and obligation?

Acculturation（文化適應、同化過程）

 Acculturation in a media context is the tendency of media professionals to accept the

ideas, attitudes, and opinions of the group they cover or with whom they have significant
contact.

Performance Codes

 Print Media

American Society of Newspaper Editors:

Seven Canons of Journalism (1923)
Responsibility
Freedom of the press
Decency
Accuracy
Impartiality
Fair play
Independence

Society of Professional Journalists (1923, 1973, 1984, 1987, 1996)

See the truth and report it

Minimize harm
Act independently
Be accountable

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 Broadcasting
 Though a few broadcast organizations have attempted to codify broadcasting and
programming ethical systems, none has survived with any specificity or self-
enforceability.

 Motion Pictures
 MPPDA (Motion Picture Producers and Distributors of America) sets first film
code in the 1920s; lasts over 25 years
 original code replaced with voluntary movie rating system of G, PG, PG-13, R,
and NC-17 adopted by Motion Picture Association of America

Internal Controls

 Television

 Since 1950s, TV networks maintained large “Standards and Practices” departments

which made thousands of decisions on the acceptability of dialog, plot lines, and
visual portrayals.

 Since 1980s, staff cutbacks, S&P departments are smaller, handle fewer programs,
and make far less content decisions. Networks now rely on program producers to
follow guidelines of good taste.

 Self-Criticism: Some papers employ an ombudsperson (a person who independently

handles and reports on reader complaints about the paper 督察專員), but the practice is
still rare.

 Boosterism (地方保護主義） is a pro-community philosophy that sometimes can

cause unpleasant news to go unreported; this practice continues to be a problem with
some area newspapers.

 Self-Regulation in Advertising

 The National Advertising Review Council（廣告評議會） is responsible for

sustaining high standards of truth and accuracy in advertising; it’s composed of two
divisions:

 The National Advertising Division handles complaints about ads from consumers
and competitors. If a complaint cannot be resolved on this level, it’s then submitted
to . . .

 The National Advertising Review Board for appeal.

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Outside Influences

 Economic Pressures

In commercial media, the loss—or threat of loss—of revenue can be an important
consideration in controlling what gets filmed, published, or broadcast.

 Pressure from Advertisers

 The more a medium depends on ad revenues, the more susceptible it is to

advertising pressures, and when the economy is bad, the influence of

advertisers can be great.

 Business Policies
 Trading news coverage for ad space can be an issue.

 Trading positive news coverage for ad space

 Trading away negative news coverage for ad space

 Pressure Groups
 Various audience segments can band together and try to exert pressure on the

media in economic ways (boycotts), or through bad publicity, or even through legal
pressures (civil suits or attempts to revoke licenses).

 Press Councils
 A press council is an independent agency who monitors the performance of the

media on a day-to-day basis.

 Education
 Teaching ethical media practices in universities may have a direct though long-

term impact on future media performance.