55788

IEEEstd1094-1991
- IEEE Recommended Practice

for the Electrical Design and
Operation of Windfarm
Generating Stations
- -
Standards Coordinating Committee 23
Sponsored by the
IEEE Standards Coordinating Committee on
Dispersed Storage and Generation
Published by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc., 345 East 47th Street, New York, NY 1001Z USA.
ApriI30.1991 SH13S37
IEEE Std 1094-1991
IEEE Recommended Practice
for the Electrical Design and
Operation of Windfarm
Generating Stations
Circuits and Det'ices
Comm unications Technology
Computer
Electromagnetics and
Radiation
Energy and Power
Industrial Applications
Standards Coordinating Committee 23
Sponsored by the
IEEE Standards Coordinating Committee on
Dispersed Storage and Generation
+
Published by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc., 345 East 47th Street, New York, NY 10017, USA.
IEEE
Apri/30,1991 SHI3987
IEEE Recommended Practice for the Electrical
Design and Operation of Windfarm Generating
Stations
1. Introduction
1.1 Scope. This recommended practice con-
tains design information and procedures for
the interconnection of multiple wind turbines
(a windfarm generating station) with an
electric utility. This document addresses is-
sues relating to the interface and the electrical
system between the utility and the individual
wind turbines (an intraplant electrical sys-
tem). It also provides recommended practices
for monitoring systems, protection systems,
and safe operations for personnel and
equipment.
1.2 Scope Limitations. This document does not
discuss protection of the windfarm-utility in-
terface, which is covered by IEEE Std 1001-1988
[351, or protection of the utility system. It also
does not address the control or protection func-
tions of individual wind turbines. Informa-
tion on these functions is provided in AWEA
Standard 3.1-1988 [612 and IEEE Std 1021-1988
[361. The unique aspects of wind-turbine gen-
erators using power electronics are not dis-
cussed in this document since they are not
currently in widespread use in windfarms.
However, this document does not preclude
their use.
utility requirements, and sound engineering
practices.
1.4 References. This standard shall be used in
conjunction with t he following publications.
When the following standards are superseded
by an approved revision, the revision shall
apply.
[ l l ANSI C2-1990, National Electrical Safety
Code.3
[21 ANSI C84.1-1989, American National
Standard Electric Power Systems and Equip-
ment Voltage Ratings (60 Hz).
[31 ANSI C93.1-1981, Requirements for Power
Line Carrier Coupling Capacitors.
[41 ANSI C93.2-1976, Requirements for Power
Li ne Coupl i ng Capaci t or Vol t age
transformer^.^
[51 ANSVNFPA 70-1990, National Electrical
Code.5
[61 AWEA Standard 3.1-1988, Design Criteria
Recommended Practices Wind Energy Con-
version Systems.6
1.3 Significance and Use. This document is 3ANSI Dublications ar e available from t he Sales
intended to facilitate sound, economic en@-
Department, American National Standards Institute, ,11
West 42nd Street, 13th Floor, New York, NY 10036, USA.
4ANSI C93.2-1976 has been withdrawn; however, copies
can be obtained from t he Sales Department, American
National Standards Institute, 11 West 42nd Street, 13th
Floor, New York, NY 10036, USA.
%TFA publications are available from Publications
Sales, National Fire Protection Association, Battery-
march Park, Quincy, MA 02269, USA.
6AWEA publications are available from t he American
Wind Energy Association, Standards Program, 777 North
Capital Street NE, #805, Washington, D.C. 20002, USA.
neering design and safe operations of a wind-
farm generating station. It should be utilized
in conjunction with other standards, local
The numbers in brackets correspond to those of the
2AWEA is the acronym for the American Wind Energy
references in 1.4.
Association.
7
IEEE Recommended Practice for the Electrical
Design and Operation of Windfarm Generating
Stations
1. Introduction
1.1 Scope. This recommended practice con-
tains design information and procedures for
the interconnection of multiple wind turbines
(a windfarm generating station) with an
electric utility. This document addresses is-
sues relating to the interface and the electrical
system between the utility and the individual
wind turbines (an intraplant electrical sys-
tem). It also provides recommended practices
for monitoring systems, protection systems,
and safe operations for personnel and
equipment.
1.2 Scope Limitations. This document does not
discuss protection of the windfarm-utility in-
terface, which is covered by IEEE Std 1001-1988
[35]1, or protection of the utility system. It also
does not address the control or protection func-
tions of individual wind turbines. Informa-
tion on these functions is provided in A WEA
Standard 3.1-1988 [6]2 and IEEE Std 1021-1988
[36]. The unique aspects of wind-turbine gen-
erators using power electronics are not dis-
cussed in this document since they are not
currently in widespread use in windfarms.
However, this document does not preclude
their use.
1.3 Significance and Use. This document is
intended to facilitate sound, economic engi-
neering design and safe operations of a wind-
farm generating station. It should be utilized
in conjunction with other standards, local
1The numbers in brackets correspond to those of the
references in 1.4.
2A WEA is the acronym for the American Wind Energy
Association.
7
utility requirements, and sound engineering
practices.
1.4 References. This standard shall be used in
conjunction with the following publications.
When the following standards are superseded
by an approved revision, the revision shall
apply.
[1] ANSI C2-1990, National Electrical Safety
Code.
3
[2] ANSI C84.1-1989, American National
Standard Electric Power Systems and Equip-
ment Voltage Ratings (60 Hz).
[3] ANSI C93.1-1981, Requirements for Power
Line Carrier Coupling Capacitors.
[4] ANSI C93.2-1976, Requirements for Power
Line Coupling Capacitor Voltage
Transformers.
4
[5] ANSVNFPA 70-1990, National Electrical
Code.
5
[6] AWEA Standard 3.1-1988, Design Criteria
Recommended Practices Wind Energy Con-
version Systems.
6
3ANSI publications are available from the Sales
Department, American National Standards Institute, .11
West 42nd Street, 13th Floor, New York, NY 10036, USA.
4ANSI C93.2-1976 has been withdrawn; however, copies
can be obtained from the Sales Department, American
National Standards Institute, 11 West 42nd Street, 13th
Floor, New York, NY 10036, USA.
5NFPA publications are available from Publications
Sales, National Fire Protection Association, Battery-
march Park, Quincy, MA 02269, USA.
6AWEA publications are available from the American
Wind Energy Association, Standards Program, 777 North
Capital Street NE, #805, Washington, D.C. 20002, USA.
The Standard is downloaded from www.bzfxw.com Standard Sharing
IEEE
std 1094-1991 IEEE RECOMMENDED PRACTICE FOR THE ELECTRICAL DESIGN
[71 AWEA Standard 5.1-1985, Wind Energy
Conversion Systems Terminology.
181 IEEE C37.1-1987, IEEE Standard Defini-
tion, Specification, and Analysis of Systems
Used for Supervisory Control, Data Acquisi-
tion, and Automatic Control.'
[93 IEEE C37.90-1989, IEEE Standard for Re-
lays and Relay Systems Associated With
Electric Power Apparatus (ANSI).
[lo1 IEEE C37.91-1985, IEEE Guide for Protec-
tive Relay Applications to Power Transform-
ers (ANSI).
[ l l l IEEE C37.95-1989, IEEE Guide for Protec-
tive Relaying of Utilities-Consumer Inter-
connections (ANSI).
[12] IEEE C37.97-1979 (Reaff. 1984), IEEE
Guide for Protective . Relay Applications to
Power System Buses (ANSI).
[131 IEEE C37.99-1990, IEEE Guide for Protec-
tion of Shunt Capacitor Banks.
[141 IEEE C37.101-1985, IEEE Guide for Gen-
erator Ground Protection (ANSI).
[151 IEEE C37.102-1987, IEEE Guide for AC
Generator Protection.
[l6] IEEE C37.010-1979 (Re&. 1988), IEEE Ap-
plication Guide for AC High-Voltage Circuit
Breakers Rated on a Symmetrical Current
Basis (ANSI).
[17] IEEE C37.012-1979 ( Re d. 1988), IEEE Ap-
plication Guide for Capacitance Current
Switching for AC High-Voltage Circuit
Basis (ANSI).
[181 IEEE C57.12.00-1987, IEEE Standard Gen-
er al Requirements for Liquid-Immersed
Distribution, Power and Regulating Trans-
formers (ANSI).
~~
'IEEE publications are available from the Institute of
Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Service Center, 445
Hoes Lane, P.O. Box 1331, Piscataway, NJ 08855-1331,
USA.
[191 IEEE C57.12.01-1989, IEEE Standard Gen-
eral Requirements for Dry-Type Distribution
and Power Transformers Including Those
with Solid Cast and/or Resin-Encapsulated
Wi ndi ngs.
[203 IEEE C57.13-1978 (Reaff. 1986), IEEE
St andar d Requirements for I nst r ument
Transformers (ANSI).
[211 IEEE C62.2-1987, IEEE Guide for the Appli-
cation of Gapped Silicon-Carbide Surge Ar-
resters for Alternating Current Systems
(ANSI).
[221 IEEE C62.41-1980, IEEE Guide for Surge
Voltages in Low-Voltage AC Power Circuits
(ANSI).
[231 IEEE C62.45-1987, IEEE Guide on Surge
Testing for Equipment Connected t o Low-
Voltage AC Power Circuits (ANSI).
[241 IEEE C62.92-1989, IEEE Guide for the Ap-
plication of Neutral Grounding in Electrical
Utility Systems, Part II-Groundi ng of Syn-
chronous Generator Systems (ANSI).
[251 IEEE Std 18-1980, IEEE Standard for Shunt
Power Capacitors (ANSI).
[261 IEEE Std 80-1986, IEEE Guide for Safety in
AC Substation Grounding (ANSI).
[271 IEEE Std 81-1983, IEEE Guide for Measur-
ing Earth Resistivity, Ground Impedance,
and Earth Surface Potentials of a Ground
System.
[281 IEEE Std 100-1988, IEEE Dictionary of
Electrical and Electronics Terms.
[291 IEEE Std 141-1986 (Red Book), IEEE Rec-
ommended Practice for Electric Power Distri-
bution for Industrial Plants (ANSI).
[301 IEEE Std 142-1982 (Green Book), IEEE Rec-
ommended Practice for Grounding of Indus-
trial and Commercial Power Systems (ANSI).
[311 IEEE Std 242-1986 (Buff Book), IEEE Rec-
ommended Practice for Protection and Coor-
dination of Industrial and Commercial Power
Systems (ANSI).
8
IEEE
Std 1094-1991 IEEE RECOMMENDED PRACTICE FOR 'I1IE ELECTRICAL DESIGN
[7] AWEA Standard 5.1-1985, Wind Energy
Conversion Systems Terminology.
[8] IEEE C37.1-1987, IEEE Standard Defini-
tion, Specification, and Analysis of Systems
U sed for Supervisory Control, Data Acquisi-
tion, and Automatic Control.
7
[9] IEEE C37.90-1989, IEEE Standard for Re-
lays and Relay Systems Associated With
Electric Power Apparatus (ANSI).
[10] IEEE C37.91-1985, IEEE Guide for Protec-
tive Relay Applications to Power Transform-
ers (ANSI).
tive Relaying of Utilities-Consumer Inter-
connections (ANSI).
[12] IEEE C37.97-1979 (Reaff. 1984), IEEE
Guide for Protective Relay Applications to
Power System Buses (ANSI).
tion of Shunt Capacitor Banks.
[14] IEEE C37.101-1985, IEEE Guide for Gen-
erator Ground Protection (ANSI).
[15] IEEE C37.102-1987, IEEE Guide for AC
Generator Protection.
[16] IEEE C37.010-1979 (Reaff. 1988), IEEE Ap-
plication Guide for AC High-Voltage Circuit
Basis (ANSI).
[17] IEEE C37.012-1979 (Reaff. 1988), IEEE Ap-
plication Guide for Capacitance Current
Switching for AC High-Voltage Circuit
Basis (ANSI).
[18] IEEE C57.12.00-1987, IEEE Standard Gen-
eral Requirements for Liquid-Immersed
Distribution, Power and Regulating Trans-
formers (ANSI).
7IEEE publications are available from the Institute of
Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Service Center, 445
Hoes Lane, P.O. Box 1331, Piscataway, NJ 08855-1331,
USA.
8
[19] IEEE C57.12.01-1989, IEEE Standard Gen-
eral Requirements for Dry-Type Distribution
and Power Transformers Including Those
with Solid Cast and/or Resin-Encapsulated
Windings.
[20] IEEE C57.13-1978 (Reaff. 1986), IEEE
Standard Requirements for Instrument
Transformers (ANSI).
[21] IEEE C62.2-1987, IEEE Guide for the Appli-
cation of Gapped Silicon-Carbide Surge Ar-
resters for Alternating Current Systems
(ANSI).
[22] IEEE C62.41-1980, IEEE Guide for Surge
Voltages in Low-Voltage AC Power Circuits
(ANSI).
[23] IEEE C62.45-1987, IEEE Guide on Surge
Testing for Equipment Connected to Low-
Voltage AC Power Circuits (ANSI).
[24] IEEE C62.92-1989, IEEE Guide for the Ap-
plication of Neutral Grounding in Electrical
Utility Systems, Part II-Grounding of Syn-
chronous Generator Systems (ANSI).
[25] IEEE Std 18-1980, IEEE Standard for Shunt
Power Capacitors (ANSI).
[26] IEEE Std 80-1986, IEEE Guide for Safety in
AC Substation Grounding (ANSI).
[27] IEEE Std 81-1983, IEEE Guide for Measur-
ing Earth Resistivity, Ground Impedance,
and Earth Surface Potentials of a Ground
System.
[28] IEEE Std 100-1988, IEEE Dictionary of
Electrical and Electronics Terms.
[29] IEEE Std 141-1986 (Red Book), IEEE Rec-
ommended Practice for Electric Power Distri-
bution for Industrial Plants (ANSI).
[30] IEEE Std 142-1982 (Green Book), IEEE Rec-
ommended Practice for Grounding of Indus-
trial and Commercial Power Systems (ANSI).
[31] IEEE Std 242-1986 (Buff Book), IEEE Rec-
ommended Practice for Protection and Coor-
dination of Industrial and Commercial Power
Systems (ANSI).
AND OPERATION OF WlNDFARM GENERATING STATIONS
IEm
SM 1094-1991
[321 IEEE Std 367-1987, IEEE Recommended
Practice for Determining the Electric Power
Station Ground Potential Rise and Induced
Voltage from a Power Fault (ANSI).
[331 IEEE Std 399-1980 (Brown Book), IEEE
Recommended Practice for Industrial and
Commercial Power System Analysis (ANSI).
1343 IEEE Std 493-1990 (Gold Book), IEEE Rec-
ommended Practice for the Design of Reliable
Industrial and Commercial Power Systems.
[351 IEEE Std 1001-1988, IEEE Guide for Inter-
facing Dispersed Storage and Generation Fa-
cilities with Electric Utility Systems (ANSI).
[361 IEEE Std 1021-1988, IEEE Recommended
Practice for Utility Interconnection of Small
Wind Energy Conversion Systems (ANSI).
[371 Bassett, E. D. and Potter, F. M.
Capacitive Excitation for Induction Genera-
tors. AIEE Transactions. vol. 54, May 1935,
pp. 540-545.
[381 Electrical Transmission and Distribution
Reference Book. East Pittsburgh, PA: West-
inghouse Electric Corp., 1950.
[391 Feero, W. E. and Gish, W. B.
Overvoltages Caused by DSG Operation:
Synchronous and Induction Generators.
IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery. vol. 1,
January 1986, pp. 258-264.
E401 Gish, W. B., Feero, W. E., and Gruel, S.
Ferroresonance and Loading Relationships
for DSG Installations. IEEE Transactions on
Power Delivery. vol. 2, July 1987, pp. 953-959.
[411 Intertie Protection of Consumer-Owned
Sources of Generation, 3 MVA or Less. IEEE
Power Engineering Society Special Publica-
tion 88 TH0224-6-PWR.
[421 Smith, D., Swanson, S., and Borst, J.
Overvoltages with Remotely-Switched Cable-
Fed Grounded Wye-Wye Transformers.
IEEE Transact i ons. vol. PAS-94, 1975,
pp. 1843-1853.
[431 Wagner, C. F. Self-Excitation of Induc-
tion Motors. AIEE Transactions. vol. 58,
February 1938, pp. 47-51.
[441 Working Group on Fast Transfer of Mo-
tors, IAS-PSPC. Source Transfer and Reclos-
ing Transients in Motors: A Preliminary
Working Group Report. IEEE 1982 Industrial
and Commercial Power Systems Technical
Conference. pp. 43-50.
1.5 Bibliography
ASME PTC42-1988, Wind Turbines.8
UL 347-1985, The Standard for High-Voltage
Industrial Control Eq~i pme nt . ~
UL 493-1988, The Standard for Thermoplastic
Insulated Underground Feeder and Branch
Circuit Cables.
UL 508-1989, The Standard for Industrial
Control Equipment.
UL 810-1981, The Standard for Capacitors.
UL 891-1984, The Standard for Dead-Front
Switchboards.
UL 1062-1983, The St andar d for Uni t
Substations.
UL 1072-1986, The Standard for Medium-
Voltage Power Cables.
UL 1558-1988, The St andard for Metal
Enclosed, Low-Voltage Power Circuit Breaker
S wi tchgear .
UL 1561-1986, The Standard for Dry-Type
General Purpose and Power Transformers.
1.6 Definitions. Terms other than those de-
fined below have standard definitions as
listed in IEEE Std 100-1988 [281 or AWEA
Standard 5.1-1985 [71.
islanding. Operation of non-utility electric
generation equipment, with or without a por-
tion of an electric utility system, isolated from
the remainder of the utility system.
BASME publications are available from the American
Society of Mechanical Engineers, 345 East 47th Street, New
York, NY 10017, USA.
UL publications are available from Underwriters
Laboratories, Inc., 333 Pfingsten Road, Northbrook, IL
60062-2096, USA.
9
AND OPERATION OF WINDFARM GENERATING STATIONS
IEEE
Std 1094-1991
[32] IEEE Std 367-1987, IEEE Recommended
Practice for Determining the Electric Power
Station Ground Potential Rise and Induced
Voltage from a Power Fault (ANSI).
[33] IEEE Std 399-1980 (Brown Book), IEEE
Recommended Practice for Industrial and
Commercial Power System Analysis (ANSI).
[34] IEEE Std 493-1990 (Gold Book), IEEE Rec-
ommended Practice for the Design of Reliable
Industrial and Commercial Power Systems.
[35] IEEE Std 1001-1988, IEEE Guide for Inter-
facing Dispersed Storage and Generation Fa-
cilities with Electric Utility Systems (ANSI).
[36] IEEE Std 1021-1988, IEEE Recommended
Practice for Utility Interconnection of Small
Wind Energy Conversion Systems (ANSI).
[37] Bassett, E. D. and Potter, F. M.
"Capacitive Excitation for Induction Genera-
tors." AlEE Transactions. vol. 54, May 1935,
pp.540-545.
[38] Electrical Transmission and Distribution
Reference Book. East Pittsburgh, PA: West-
inghouse Electric Corp., 1950.
[39] Feero, W. E. and Gish, W. B.
"Overvoltages Caused by DSG Operation:
Synchronous and Induction Generators."
IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery. vol. 1,
January 1986, pp. 258-264.
[40] Gish, W. B., Feero, W. E., and Gruel, S.
"Ferroresonance and Loading Relationships
for DSG Installations." IEEE Transactions on
Power Delivery. vol. 2, July 1987, pp. 953-959.
[41] "Intertie Protection of Consumer-Owned
Sources of Generation, 3 MY A or Less." IEEE
Power Engineering Society Special Publica-
tion 88 TH0224-6-PWR.
[42] Smith, D., Swanson, S., and Borst, J.
"Overvoltages with Remotely-Switched Cable-
Fed Grounded Wye-Wye Transformers."
IEEE Transactions. vol. PAS-94, 1975,
pp. 1843-1853.
[43] Wagner, C. F. "Self-Excitation of Induc-
tion Motors." AlEE Transactions. vol. 58,
February 1938, pp. 47-51.
9
[44] Working Group on Fast Transfer of Mo-
tors, IAS-PSPC. "Source Transfer and Reclos-
ing Transients in Motors: A Preliminary
Working Group Report." IEEE 1982 Industrial
and Commercial Power Systems Technical
Conference. pp. 43-50.
1.5 Bibliography
ASME PTC42-1988, Wind Turbines.
s
UL 347-1985, The Standard for High-Voltage
Industrial Control Equipment.
9
UL 493-1988, The Standard for Thermoplastic
Insulated Underground Feeder and Branch
Circuit Cables.
UL 508-1989, The Standard for Industrial
Control Equipment.
UL 810-1981, The Standard for Capacitors.
UL 891-1984, The Standard for Dead-Front
Swi tchboards.
UL 1062-1983, The Standard for Unit
Substations.
UL 1072-1986, The Standard for Medium-
Voltage Power Cables.
UL 1558-1988, The Standard for Metal
Enclosed, Low-Voltage Power Circuit Breaker
Switchgear.
UL 1561-1986, The Standard for Dry-Type
General Purpose and Power Transformers.
1.6 Definitions. Terms other than those de-
fined below have standard definitions as
listed in IEEE Std 100-1988 [28] or AWEA
Standard 5.1-1985 [7].
islanding. Operation of non-utility electric
generation equipment, with or without a por-
tion of an electric utility system, isolated from
the remainder of the utility system.
8ASME publications are available from the American
Society of Mechanical Engineers, 345 East 47th Street, New
York, NY 10017, USA.
9UL publications are available from Underwriters
Laboratories, Inc., 333 Pfingsten Road, Northbrook, IL
60062-2096, USA.
IEEE
std 1094-1991 IEEE RECOMMENDED PRACTICE FOR THE EUCTRICAL DESIGN
micrositing. Of, or related to, the characteris-
tics of a particular wind-turbine site, as con-
trasted to those characteristics t hat prevail
over the entire windfarm.
self-excitation. A condition in which an in-
duction generator, operating in an isolated
power system, derives i t s excitation from
shunt capacitors or the natural capacitance of
t he power lines. Applies only to induction
machines.
2. Intrapbt Electrical system
2.1 Collection System Design. An electrical
system must be provided to collect the genera-
tor outputs and transmit the aggregate net
electrical output to the electric utility intercon-
nection point, described in Section 3. This
system is referred to as the collection sys-
tem. The collection system is also the source
of start-up/auxiliary power t o each individual
generator or site electrical load. Fig 1 shows a
typical windfarm interconnection with collec-
tion system.
Disconnecting means should be provided for
each collection system element in accordance
with the requirements in ANSINFPA 70-1990
[51 (the National Electrical Code). In addition,
overload and short-circuit protection should be
provided to protect conductors and equipment
by mitigating the consequences of electrical
faults and to minimize t he disruption to the
remaining system.
2.1.1 Voltage Levels. The collection system
usually consists of distinct low-voltage and
medium-voltage systems. The low-voltage
system connects one or more individual wind
generators to low-voltage/medium-voltage
step-up transformers. The medium-voltage
system connects the step-up transformer out-
puts to the utility interconnection substation,
which may further step up the voltage to a
transmission voltage level.
The voltage levels of the collection system
should be chosen by an economic analysis t o
minimize t he total cost of equipment and
losses over the expected lifetime of the facility.
Voltage levels should normally be chosen
from those listed as preferred in ANSI
C84.1- 1989 [21. Equipment with the preferred
ratings will generally cost less and be more
readily available t han nonstandard equip-
ment. Use of a nonstandard voltage may be
justified, however, if that voltage is supplied by
the interfacing utility.
When carrying power, t he actual voltage
level of the collection system will deviate from
the nominal voltage (see 2.5.1). The changing
voltage may affect the efficiency of the wind-
turbine generators. The transformer ratios
and generator voltage ratings should be cho-
sen to maximize the total energy production of
the windfarm for the expected wind regime.
Conversely, equipment ratings should not be
exceeded under any expected wind conditions.
2.1.2 Conductors. Underground cable is typ-
ically used for the low-voltage collection sys-
tem. Medium-voltage systems typically are a
combination of underground and overhead
conductors. When overhead conductors are
used, special consideration should be given to
safe working distances for cranes and other
equipment.
Underground cable systems can be either
direct-buried, installed in conduit, or in-
stalled in concrete-encased duct banks. A
concentric-neutral cable or dedicated-neutral
return cable should be installed with each col-
lector system feeder cable. This neutral-re-
turn conductor(s) provides a fault return path
and can assist in alleviating certain ferrores-
onance conditions (see 2.6.2).
2.2 Power Flow and Equipment Loading
2.2.1 Power Flow. When the turbines are op-
erational, real power will flow from the gen-
erators to the utility when the electrical output
exceeds the turbine and site service loads.
When turbines are not operating, or ar e in
start-up mode, utility power will be used for
electronics, motors, transformer losses, and
site support. Some types of turbines motor to
start, i.e., they draw power from the collection
system to accelerate the turbine to operating
speed. This can cause an inrush of power from
the utility or from other operating turbines.
Other types of wind turbines are driven to op-
erating speed by the wind. Reactive power flow
will be determined by the type of generator
(synchronous or induction), any capacitors in
the system, and the excitation level of syn-
chronous generators. Generally, most wind
turbines use induction generators with a mod-
erate quantity of local capacitance. The var
demand of an induction generator changes
with its power output, whereas the var supply of
10
IEEE
Std 1094-1991 IEEE RECOMMENDED PRACTICE FOR THE ELECTRICAL DESIGN
micrositing. Of, or related to, the characteris-
tics of a particular wind-turbine site, as con-
trasted to those characteristics that prevail
over the entire windfarrn.
selfexcitation. A condition in which an in-
duction generator, operating in an isolated
power system, derives its excitation from
shunt capacitors or the natural capacitance of
the power lines. Applies only to induction
machines.
2. Intraplant Electrical System
2.1 Collection System Design. An electrical
system must be provided to collect the genera-
tor outputs and transmit the aggregate net
electrical output to the electric utility intercon-
nection point, described in Section 3. This
system is referred to as the "collection sys-
tem." The collection system is also the source
of start-up/auxiliary power to each individual
generator or site electrical load. Fig 1 shows a
typical windfarrn interconnection with collec-
tion system.
Disconnecting means should be provided for
each collection system element in accordance
with the requirements in ANSIINFPA 70-1990
[5] (the National Electrical Code). In addition,
overload and short-circuit protection should be
provided to protect conductors and equipment
by mitigating the consequences of electrical
faults and to minimize the disruption to the
remaining system.
2.1.1 Voltage Levels. The collection system
usually consists of distinct low-voltage and
medium-voltage systems. The low-voltage
system connects one or more individual wind
generators to low-voltage/medium-voltage
step-up transformers. The medium-voltage
system connects the step-up transformer out-
puts to the utility interconnection substation,
which may further step up the voltage to a
transmission voltage level.
The voltage levels of the collection system
should be chosen by an economic analysis to
minimize the total cost of equipment and
losses over the expected lifetime of the facility.
Voltage levels should normally be chosen
from those listed as "preferred" in ANSI
C84.1-1989 [2]. Equipment with the preferred
ratings will generally cost less and be more
readily available than nonstandard equip-
10
ment. Use of a nonstandard voltage may be
justified, however, if that voltage is supplied by
the interfacing utility.
When carrying power, the actual voltage
level of the collection system will deviate from
the nominal voltage (see 2.5.1). The changing
voltage may affect the efficiency of the wind-
turbine generators. The transformer ratios
and generator voltage ratings should be cho-
sen to maximize the total energy production of
the windfarm for the expected wind regime.
Conversely, equipment ratings should not be
exceeded under any expected wind conditions.
2.1.2 Conductors. Underground cable is typ-
ically used for the low-voltage collection sys-
tem. Medium-voltage systems typically are a
combination of underground and overhead
conductors. When overhead conductors are
used, special consideration should be given to
safe working distances for cranes and other
equipment.
Underground cable systems can be either
direct-buried, installed in conduit, or in-
stalled in concrete-encased duct banks. A
concentric-neutral cable or dedicated-neutral
return cable should be installed with each col-
lector system feedflr cable. This neutral-re-
turn conductor(s) provides a fault return path
and can assist in alleviating certain ferrores-
onance conditions (see 2.6.2).
2.2 Power Flow and Equipment Loading
2.2.1 Power Flow. When the turbines are op-
erational, real power will flow from the gen-
erators to the utility when the electrical output
exceeds the turbine and site service loads.
When turbines are not operating, or are in
start-up mode, utility power will be used for
electronics, motors, transformer losses, and
site support. Some types of turbines "motor" to
start, i.e., they draw power from the collection
system to accelerate the turbine to operating
speed. This can cause an inrush of power from
the utility or from other operating turbines.
Other types of wind turbines are driven to op-
erating speed by the wind. Reactive power flow
will be determined by the type of generator
(synchronous or induction), any capacitors in
the system, and the excitation level of syn-
chronous generators. Generally, most wind
turbines use induction generators with a mod-
erate quantity of local capacitance. The var
demand of an induction generator changes
with its power output, whereas the var supply of
IEEE
std 1094-1991
umTy SYSTEM
uwTy TRANSMISSION LINE
T
STEP-UP SUBSTATION
HIGH-VOLTAGE SECTION
SEE 3.3.8
FOR PROTECTION DETAILS
STEP-UP SUBSTATION
MEDIUM-VOLTAGE SECTION
SEE 3.3.8
M ED1 U M-VOLTAGE
OVERHEAD COLLECTION
LINE
MEDIUM-VOLTAGE
UNDERGROUND CABLE
PADMOUNTED
SWITCHGEAR/
STEP-UP
TRANSFORMER
LOW-VOLTAGE
COLLECTON
SYSTEM
L.V. UNDERGROUND CABLE
/
I
HIGH-VOLTAGE BREAKER
MAIN STEP-UP
TRANSFORM ER
MEDIUM-VOLTAGE
P.F.C.
POWER-
FACTOR
CORRECTION BREAKER
OTHER COLLECTION LINES
3-POLE GANG-OPERATED SWITCH
M.V. U.G. CABLE
OTHER PADMOUNT TRANSFORMERS
OPER.
FUSES
PADMOUNT TRANSFORMER
) MAIN L.V. BREAKER
I
FROM -+- , L.V. FEEDER BREAKER
OTHER
TURBINES -n
r
-
WIND TURBINE
CONTROL
LOW-VOLTAGE U.G. CABLE
--LL--
:>
WIND TURBINE
61&] Ft $: R 6 GENERATOR
CORRECTION
Fig 1
Typical Single-Line Diagram
11
IEEE
Std 1094-1991
UTILITY SYSTEM
STEP-UP SUBSTATION
HIGH-VOLTAGE SECTION
SEE 3.3.8
STEP-UP SUBSTATION
MEDIUM-VOLTAGE SECTION
SEE 3.3.8
MEDIUM-VOLTAGE
OVERHEAD COLLECTION
LINE
MEDIUM-VOLTAGE
UNDERGROUND CABLE
PADMOUNTED
SWITCHGEAR/
STEP-UP
TRANSFORMER
LOW-VOL T AGE
COLLECTION
SYSTEM
UTILITY TRANSMISSION LINE
HIGH-VOLTAGE BREAKER
POWER-
FACTOR
CORRECTION
MAIN STEP-UP
TRANSFORMER
MEDIUM-VOLTAGE BREAKER
FEEDER BREAKERS
OTHER COLLECTION LINES
3-POLE GANG-OPERATED SWITCH
GANG
M. V. U.G. CABLE
i
PER.
FUSES
T PADMOUNT TRANSFORMER
OTHER PADMOUNT TRANSFORMERS
) MAIN L. V. BREAKER
-,--...
FROM _,--...
OTHER
L. V. FEEDER BREAKER
TURBINES -,--...
-,--...
LOW-VOL TAGE U.G. CABLE
L. V. UNDERGROUND CABLE
)
WIND TURBINE ~ C
CONTROL ~
Figl
Typical Single-Line Diagram
11
POWER
FACTOR
CORRECTION
WIND TURBINE
GENERATOR
IEEE
a capacitor is constant, assuming constant
voltage. Their combination may result in re-
active power (var) flow from the utility t o the
windfarm a t high generator output levels and
flow from the windfarm to the utility during
periods of low power output. Capacitors are
often switched off and on with various
schemes (see 2.5.4).
2.2.2 Equipment Loading Considerations.
Several important factors should be consid-
ered in the specification of equipment loading
capability. First, the maximum simultaneous
output of all wind turbines should be estimated
from the wind-turbine ratings (or actual out-
put, if higher) to provide a basis for determin-
ing electrical equipment loading. Secondly,
ambient temperatures and prevailing winds
should be taken into consideration for the
loading, placement, and orientation of equip-
ment. This may allow increased loading due
to wind cooling of transformers, generators,
and overhead conductors. Likewise, de-rating
due t o high ambient temperature and solar ra-
diation may be required. Transformers
should be oriented to allow prevailing winds t o
pass freely through the cooling radiators.
Cooling fans should be directed so as not t o
compete with prevailing wind patterns. Pro-
ject capital costs and loss economics should
also be considered in the loading and selection
of equipment. For recommended practices for
system design and analysis, see IEEE Std 141-
1986 [291, IEEE St d 399-1980 [331, and
ANSUNFPA 70-1990 [51.
2.3 System Protection. The protection of the
intraplant power collection system and the
wind-turbine generator connection is similar
in protection concepts t o those of utility and in-
dustrial systems involving the same voltages.
The IEEE color book series L29-31, 33-341, the
National Electrical Safety Code (ANSI C2-1990
1111, ANSI/NFPA 70-1990 [51, and the IEEE
Protection Guides [9-153 can be applied in most
cases. However, the windfarm application of
these documents does require some special
consideration. Fig 1 shows typical protection
for t he windfarm collection lines and
transformers.
2.3.1 Fault Current Flow. Sources of fault
current include both the utility system and the
wind-turbine generators themselves. In most
cases, the utility network will supply the ma-
jority of the fault current. This is particularly
true in the case of induction generators. Even
when equipped with power-factor correction
capacitors, the fault contribution from induc-
tion generators will be moderate in magnitude
and short in duration. Fault current contribu-
tion will be similar to motor contribution val-
ues used i n s t andar d shor t - ci r cui t
calculations. Most induction generators op-
erate ungrounded and, as a result, have no
zero-sequence contribution to the fault current.
Synchronous generators will normally be
wye-connected and, if grounded, are capable
of supplying positive, negative, and zero-se-
quence currents. Like any other synchronous
generator, they will be able t o maintain these
fault currents based on the particular charac-
teristics of the generator and the excitation
system. Recommended techniques for fault
current analysis will be found in IEEE Std
2.3.2 Fault Interruption and Momentary
Ratings. A system fault study should be per-
formed early in the project. All electrical
equipment should be rated to withstand and, if
required, interrupt calculated system fault
currents. Applicable guides and standards are
IEEE C37.010-1979 (Re&. 1988) [l61, IEEE Std
2.3.3 Protective Device Coordination. A
protective device coordination study should be
performed on the entire intraplant electrical
system, including the utility interface. Relay
settings should be coordinated with the local
utility for proper operation. Settings mcst be
calculated and relays set and tested t o speci-
fied values. Relays should be retested and
their calibration and tripping verified on a
two- t o three-year schedule. The utility may
have other requirements for relays a t the in-
terconnection station.
2.3.4 Phase Sequence and Single Phasing.
Particular care should be taken to connect and
check the phase sequence at each wind turbine.
Some wind turbines may sustain damage if
the phase sequence is incorrect. For some ap-
plications a phase-sequence relay may be
advisable.
Single phasing can result in damage t o
three-phase generators. Each wind turbine
should employ a protective device capable of
detecting loss of one phase. It may be neces-
sary to use a detection scheme that monitors
current or both voltage and current. Single-
pole switching should be avoided t o minimize
399-1980 [331.
141-1986 [29], and IEEE Std 242-1986 [31].
IEEE
a capacitor is constant, assuming constant
voltage. Their combination may result in re-
active power (var) flow from the utility to the
windfarm at high generator output levels and
flow from the windfarm to the utility during
periods of low power output. Capacitors are
often switched off and on with various
schemes (see 2.5.4).
2.2.2 Equipment Loading Considerations.
Several important factors should be consid-
ered in the specification of equipment loading
capability. First, the maximum simultaneous
output of all wind turbines should be estimated
from the wind-turbine ratings (or actual out-
put, if higher) to provide a basis for determin-
ing electrical equipment loading. Secondly,
ambient temperatures and prevailing winds
should be taken into consideration for the
loading, placement, and orientation of equip-
ment. This may allow increased loading due
to wind cooling of transformers, generators,
and overhead conductors. Likewise, de-rating
due to high ambient temperature and solar ra-
diation may be required. Transformers
should be oriented to allow prevailing winds to
pass freely through the cooling radiators.
Cooling fans should be directed so as not to
compete with prevailing wind patterns. Pro-
ject capital costs and loss economics should
also be considered in the loading and selection
of equipment. For recommended practices for
system design and analysis, see IEEE Std 141-
1986 [29], IEEE Std 399-1980 [33], and
ANSIINFPA 70-1990 [5].
2.3 System Protection. The protection of the
intraplant power collection system and the
wind-turbine generator connection is similar
in protection concepts to those of utility and in-
dustrial systems involving the same voltages.
The IEEE color book series [29-31, 33-34], the
National Electrical Safety Code (ANSI C2-1990
[1]), ANSIINFPA 70-1990 [5], and the IEEE
Protection Guides [9-15] can be applied in most
cases. However, the windfarm application of
these documents does require some special
consideration. Fig 1 shows typical protection
for the windfarm collection lines and
transformers.
2.3.1 Fault Current Flow. Sources of fault
current include both the utility system and the
wind-turbine generators themselves. In most
cases, the utility network will supply the ma-
jority of the fault current. This is particularly
12
true in the case of induction generators. Even
when equipped with power-factor correction
capacitors, the fault contribution from induc-
tion generators will be moderate in magnitude
and short in duration. Fault current contribu-
tion will be similar to motor contribution val-
ues used in standard short-circuit
calculations. Most induction generators op-
erate ungrounded and, as a result, have no
zero-sequence contribution to the fault current.
Synchronous generators will normally be
wye-connected and, if grounded, are capable
of supplying positive, negative, and zero-se-
quence currents. Like any other synchronous
generator, they will be able to maintain these
fault currents based on the particular charac-
teristics of the generator and the excitation
system. Recommended techniques for fault
current analysis will be found in IEEE Std
399-1980 [33].
2.3.2 Fault Interruption and Momentary
Ratings. A system fault study should be per-
formed early in the project. All electrical
equipment should be rated to withstand and, if
required, interrupt calculated system fault
currents. Applicable guides and standards are
IEEE C37.010-1979 (Reaff. 1988) [16], IEEE Std
141-1986 [29], and IEEE Std 242-1986 [31].
2.3.3 Protective Device Coordination. A
protective device coordination study should be
performed on the entire intraplant electrical
system, including the utility interface. Relay
settings should be coordinated with the local
utility for proper operation. Settings must be
calculated and relays set and tested to speci-
fied values. Relays should be retested and
their calibration and tripping verified on a
two- to three-year schedule. The utility may
have other requirements for relays at the in-
terconnection station.
2.3.4 Phase Sequence and Single Phasing.
Particular care should be taken to connect and
check the phase sequence at each wind turbine.
Some wind turbines may sustain damage if
the phase sequence is incorrect. For some ap-
plications a phase-sequence relay may be
advisable.
Single phasing can result in damage to
three-phase generators. Each wind turbine
should employ a protective device capable of
detecting loss of one phase. It may be neces-
sary to use a detection scheme that monitors
current or both voltage and current. Single-
pole switching should be avoided to minimize
IEm
std 1094-1991
the possibility of single-phase operation of a
three-phase system.
223.5 Wind Turbine Shutdown. Shutdown is
typically required for maintenance, over-
speed, mechanical failure, and electrical fault
conditions. Wind turbines should be able t o
shut down safely without utility power. I t is
also recommended t hat the site communica-
tion system not be required for safe shutdown.
2.3.6 Reclosing and Torque Transients. As
a result of very short duration power outages or
islanding, very high mechanical torque tran-
sients can be experienced by t he rotating
equipment. When an outage occurs and the
electrical interconnection is opened, t he
rotating equipment accelerates and becomes
out-of-phase with the utility system. Upon re-
connection, t he electrical transients can be
very high, up t o twice the locked rotor current,
and the mechanical drive train torques can
reach up t o 20 times rated values. For more in-
formation, see [441. This transient can be
caused by site collection-line reclosing or by
high-speed reclosing on the utility system.
2.4 Insulation, Grounding, and Surge
Pmtection
2.4.1 Insulation Ratings. Standard insula-
tion guidelines may be applied in most cases
(see the Electrical Transmission and Distri-
bution Reference Book [381). Local utility
practice may also be used as a guide. Special
considerations may, however, need t o be given
to overhead lines, outdoor substations, and
metal-clad switchgear due t o blowing dust,
sand, salt spray, agricultural chemicals, and
ot her contamination in some windfarm
areas.
2.4.2 Grounding. Generally, effectively
grounded collection systems are preferred for
their simplicity and freedom from transient
overvoltage and simultaneous fault problems.
Effectively grounded systems are usually ob-
tained by a wye-connected, low-voltage wind-
ing on the interface station transformer. The
high-voltage windings of t hat transformer
may be wye or delta, depending upon the volt-
age level and utility requirements. Wye-wye
connected transformers may require a delta
tertiary winding t o provide a path for zero-se-
quence and triplen harmonic current flow.
If the collection system i s tied directly t o
utility lines without an intervening trans-
former, the collection system grounding must
be coordinated with the utility. The utility
should be consulted as to the types of trans-
formers permitted t o be connected t o such a
system. Recommended practice for grounding
is given in IEEE Std 142-1982 [301. For addi-
tional information on system neutral ground-
ing, refer to IEEE C62.92-1989 [241.
Regardless of the method of system ground-
ing, i t is recommended that the entire wind-
farm installation have a continuous metallic
ground system connecting all equipment. See
Fig 2 for a typical arrangement. This should
include, but not be limited to, the substation,
transformers, towers, wind turbine, genera-
tors, and electronic equipment. This system
will consist of ground conductors, rods, mats,
and connectors. This system will serve to
Minimize shock hazards to personnel
Establish a preferred path of return cur-
rent for fault currents t o prevent dam-
age to on-site electrical systems
Provide a multigrounded neutral to as-
sist in ferroresonance suppression in
the site collection system
Improve reliability and consistency in
sensing faults and operation of overcur-
rent relays
Improve protection from lightning
2.4.3 Surge Protection. Surge protection for
lightning and, particularly, switching surges
should be part of the system. Guidelines for
surge protection of medium-voltage collection
systems can be found in IEEE C62.2-1987 [211.
Information on typical surge environments
for low-voltage systems is provided in IEEE
C62.41-1980 [22] and IEEE C62.45-1987 [231.
25 Voltage Contam1 and Reactive Power Supply
2.5.1 Voltage Considerations. Careful man-
agement of the system voltage is very impor-
tant for several reasons.
Changes in voltage have an effect on the
slip, torque,and power output character-
istics of an induction generator.
Induction generator installations may
reduce the line voltage when loaded be-
cause of their reactive power (var)
demand.
On-site electronic equipment may be
sensitive t o variations in voltage.
IEEE
St.d 1094-1991
the possibility of single-phase operation of a
three-phase system.
2.8.5 Wind Turbine Shutdown. Shutdown is
typically required for maintenance, over-
speed, mechanical failure, and electrical fault
conditions. Wind turbines should be able to
shut down safely without utility power. It is
also recommended that the site communica-
tion system not be required for safe shutdown.
2.8.6 Reclosing and Torque Transients. As
a result of very short duration power outages or
islanding, very high mechanical torque tran-
sients can be experienced by the rotating
equipment. When an outage occurs and the
electrical interconnection is opened, the
rotating equipment accelerates and becomes
out-of-phase with the utility system. Upon re-
connection, the electrical transients can be
very high, up to twice the locked rotor current,
and the mechanical drive train torques can
reach up to 20 times rated values. For more in-
formation, see [44]. This transient can be
caused by site collection-line reclosing or by
high-speed reclosing on the utility system.
2.4 Insulation, Grounding, and Surge
Protection
2.4.1 Insulation Ratings. Standard insula-
tion guidelines may be applied in most cases
(see the Electrical Transmission and Distri-
bution Reference Book [38]). Local utility
practice may also be used as a guide. Special
considerations may, however, need to be given
to overhead lines, outdoor substations, and
metal-clad switchgear due to blowing dust,
sand, salt spray, agricultural chemicals, and
other contamination in some windfarm
areas.
2.4.2 Grounding. Generally, effectively
grounded collection systems are preferred for
their simplicity and freedom from transient
overvoltage and simultaneous fault problems.
Effectively grounded systems are usually ob-
tained by a wye-connected, low-voltage wind-
ing on the interface station transformer. The
high-voltage windings of that transformer
may be wye or delta, depending upon the volt-
age level and utility requirements. Wye-wye
connected transformers may require a delta
tertiary winding to provide a path for zero-se-
quence and triplen harmonic current flow.
If the collection system is tied directly to
utility lines without an intervening trans-
former, the collection system grounding must
13
be coordinated with the utility. The utility
should be consulted as to the types of trans-
formers permitted to be connected to such a
system. Recommended practice for grounding
is given in IEEE Std 142-1982 [30]. For addi-
tional information on system neutral ground-
ing, refer to IEEE C62.92-1989 [24].
Regardless of the method of system ground-
ing, it is recommended that the entire wind-
farm installation have a continuous metallic
ground system connecting all equipment. See
Fig 2 for a typical arrangement. This should
include, but not be limited to, the substation,
transformers, towers, wind turbine, genera-
tors, and electronic equipment. This system
will consist of ground conductors, rods, mats,
and connectors. This system will serve to
(1) Minimize shock hazards to personnel
(2) Establish a preferred path of return cur-
rent for fault currents to prevent dam-
age to on-site electrical systems
(3) Provide a multigrounded neutral to as-
sist in ferroresonance suppression in
the site collection system
(4) Improve reliability and consistency in
sensing faults and operation of overcur-
rent relays
(5) Improve protection from lightning
2.4.3 Surge Protection. Surge protection for
lightning and, particularly, switching surges
should be part of the system. Guidelines for
surge protection of medium-voltage collection
systems can be found in IEEE C62.2-1987 [21].
Information on typical surge environments
for low-voltage systems is provided in IEEE
C62.41-1980 [22] and IEEE C62.45-1987 [23].
2.5 Voltage Control and Reactive Power Supply
2.5.1 Voltage Considerations. Careful man-
agement of the system voltage is very impor-
tant for several reasons.
(1) Changes in voltage have an effect on the
slip, torque,and power output character-
istics of an induction generator.
(2) Induction generator installations may
reduce the line voltage when loaded be-
cause of their reactive power (var)
demand.
(3) On-site electronic equipment may be
sensitive to variations in voltage.
lEEE
--- LOWYOLTACE FEEDER
_---- GROUND HlRE
COMMUNICAllON CABLE
MlH SHIELD
Fig2
Grounding Arrangement
14
IEEE
Std 1094-1991
IEEE RECOMMENDED PRACTICE FOR THE ELECTRICAL DESIGN

( I
I I I
I: : I
I I
I I: : I
I I
I
II II

:
UNDERGROUND '. I l"'" "-
"-,,-" "-
Willi GROUND I .. '-.......... !{l
WIRE; I.. '. "-
1/ / ............ '- ......
I .
1/1/' ....................
"l .. (COMMUNICATION
/ SHIElD

ROD
3/"-' 10'(TYP)
<
>
..........
TIE COMMON NEU"TRAl
TO "TRANSFORMER Xo
GROUND ROD
3/"- x 10'(TYP)
LOW-VOL TAGE FEEDER
GROUND WIRE
COMMUNICATION CABLE
Willi SHIElD
AND GROUND GRID
HIGH-VOL TAGE
COMMUNICATION
ISOLATION
EQUIP!.IENT
Fig 2
Grounding Arrangement
14
COLLEC110N UNE
Willi COM!.ION NEU"TRAl
S1EP-UP
SUBSTA110N
IEEE
std 1094-1991
( 4) Power-factor correction capacitors tend
to raise the voltage.
(5) Low voltage may increase collection
system loading and losses because of
higher current levels.
2.5.2 Reactive Power Supply. Induction gen-
erators, like induction motors, demand reac-
tive power (var) when operating. If this
demand is not supplied by a reactive power
source at the windfarm, the reactive power will
be drawn from the utility. The utility and
windfarm operator must come t o an agree-
ment as t o who will supply the reactive power
needs of the windfarm. Technical and eco-
nomic factors, described in the succeeding
sections, need to be considered in reaching
this agreement.
Synchronous generators or power condition-
ers may be designed or adjusted t o require no
reactive power or even t o produce reactive
power. However, even with these types of
equipment, the transformers and lines of the
collection system will demand reactive power
while carrying the windfarm output.
The most common method of supplying re-
active power is the use of shunt capacitors,
either singly or in banks of multiple units.
Capacitors supply the reactive demand by
drawing a current that counteracts the out-of-
phase component of current required by induc-
tion motors or generators.
Reactive power compensation applied in a
windfarm generating station has several ef-
fects, one or more of which may be the reason
for the application:
(1) Increases voltage level
(2) Improves voltage regulation if the ca-
pacitors are properly switched
(3) Reduces electrical losses in the collec-
tion system due t o a reduction in current
(4) Decreases loading on utility generation
and circuits
(5) Reduces investment in windfarm fa-
cilities per kilowatt of load supplied
2.5.3 Power-Factor Correction Economics.
Since many electric utility companies include
low power-factor penalties or power-factor in-
centives in their rate schedules, i t may be eco-
nomical for windfarm generating stations t o
install equipment for power-factor improve-
ment. An economic study should be made to
determine the optimum amount of reactive
power compensation or var compensation.
The best point at which to connect capacitors t o
the collection system of the windfarm depends
upon economic and technical considerations.
Relatively small capacitor units can be
connected a t the individual wind turbines, or
t he total capacitive requirement can be
grouped at one or several points throughout the
windfarm. Each windfarm must be individu-
ally evaluated to determine the cost versus the
benefits of power-factor correction capacitors.
2.5.4 Capacitors Applied to Induction Gen-
erators. In windfarm applications t hat
include induction generators, the use of ca-
pacitors warrants special consideration. The
amount of capacitance connected must be lim-
ited to values that do not cause excessive volt-
age at the generator due to self-excitation when
the generator/capacitor combination is dis-
connected from the utility source. Capacitance
exceeding this value should be switched by a
suitable control algorithm. Failure t o observe
this precaution could lead to generator and
equipment damage.
Frequently, shunt capacitors are connected
directly in parallel with induction generators
by means of a generator switching device.
Overvoltage may result, due to self-excitation,
when the generator and capacitor combination
is islanded or disconnected from the utility
source, since wind and inertia of the turbine
will keep the turbine rotating and the genera-
tor operating.
When the generator can be rapidly de-ener-
gized and re-energized, the possibility of high
transient torques should be considered. Ca-
pacitors switched with the generator switching
device prolong the duration of residual voltage
in the generator as i t comes to rest after shut-
down. The generator manufacturer should be
consulted regarding the impact of utilizing
capacitors in parallel with the generator.
2.5.5 Capacitor Characteristics. Capacitor
characteristics should be carefully checked for
voltage and temperature ratings. Current-
limiting reactors may be required for groups
of switched capacitors t o minimize transients
during switching. Most capacitors are manu-
factured with a tolerance of -O%, +15% of rated
capacitance and usually provide 5-10% more
capacitance than specified. Refer to IEEE Std
18-1980 [251.
IEEE
Std 1094-1991
(4) Power-factor correction capacitors tend
to raise the voltage.
(5) Low voltage may increase collection
system loading and losses because of
higher current levels.
2.5.2 Reactive Power Supply. Induction gen-
erators, like induction motors, demand reac-
tive power (var) when operating. If this
demand is not supplied by a reactive power
source at the windfarm, the reactive power will
be drawn from the utility. The utility and
windfarm operator must come to an agree-
ment as to who will supply the reactive power
needs of the windfarm. Technical and eco-
nomic factors, described in the succeeding
sections, need to be considered in reaching
this agreement.
Synchronous generators or power condition-
ers may be designed or adjusted to require no
reactive power or even to produce reactive
power. However, even with these types of
equipment, the transformers and lines of the
collection system will demand reactive power
while carrying the windfarm output.
The most common method of supplying re-
active power is the use of shunt capacitors,
either singly or in banks of multiple units.
Capacitors supply the reactive demand by
drawing a current that counteracts the out-of-
phase component of current required by induc-
tion motors or generators.
Reactive power compensation applied in a
windfarm generating station has several ef-
fects, one or more of which may be the reason
for the application:
(1) Increases voltage level
(2) Improves voltage regulation if the ca-
pacitors are properly switched
(3) Reduces electrical losses in the collec-
tion system due to a reduction in current
(4) Decreases loading on utility generation
and circuits
(5) Reduces investment in windfarm fa-
cilities per kilowatt of load supplied
2.5.3 Power-Factor Correction Economics.
Since many electric utility companies include
low power-factor penalties or power-factor in-
centives in their rate schedules, it may be eco-
nomical for windfarm generating stations to
install equipment for power-factor improve-
15
men t. An economic study should be made to
determine the optimum amount of reactive
power compensation or "var compensation."
The best point at which to connect capacitors to
the collection system of the windfarm depends
upon economic and technical considerations.
Relatively small capacitor units can be
connected at the individual wind turbines, or
the total capacitive requirement can be
grouped at one or several points throughout the
windfarm. Each windfarm must be individu-
ally evaluated to determine the cost versus the
benefits of power-factor correction capacitors.
2.5.4 Capacitors Applied to Induction Gen-
erators. In windfarm applications that
include induction generators, the use of ca-
pacitors warrants special consideration. The
amount of capacitance connected must be lim-
ited to values that do not cause excessive volt-
age at the generator due to self-excitation when
the generator/capacitor combination is dis-
connected from the utility source. Capacitance
exceeding this value should be switched by a
suitable control algorithm. Failure to observe
this precaution could lead to generator and
equipment damage.
Frequently, shunt capacitors are connected
directly in parallel with induction generators
by means of a generator switching device.
Overvoltage may result, due to self-excitation,
when the generator and capacitor combination
is islanded or disconnected from the utility
source, since wind and inertia of the turbine
will keep the turbine rotating and the genera-
tor operating.
When the generator can be rapidly de-ener-
gized and re-energized, the possibility of high
transient torques should be considered. Ca-
pacitors switched with the generator switching
device prolong the duration of residual voltage
in the generator as it comes to rest after shut-
down. The generator manufacturer should be
consulted regarding the impact of utilizing
capacitors in parallel with the generator.
2.5.5 Capacitor Characteristics. Capacitor
characteristics should be carefully checked for
voltage and temperature ratings. Current-
limiting reactors may be required for groups
of switched capacitors to minimize transients
during switching. Most capacitors are manu-
factured with a tolerance of -0%, + 15% of rated
capacitance and usually provide 5-10% more
capacitance than specified. Refer to IEEE Std
18-1980 [25].
mm
s&d 1094-1991 IEEE RECOMMENDED PRACTICE FOR THE ELEXTRICAL DESIGN
2.5.6 Drainage of Stored Charge. When ca-
pacitors are disconnected from the windfarm
collection system, they are typically in a
charged state. Under this condition, consider-
able energy is stored in the capacitors, and
there is a voltage present between the termi-
nals. If the capacitors were lefi in this charged
state, a person servicing the equipment might
receive a dangerous shock or the equipment
might be damaged by an accidental short cir-
cuit. As a result, all capacitors should be pro-
vided with a means of draining the stored
charge. Typically, these means are provided
by the capacitor manufacturer. However,
proper shorting and grounding techniques
should still be followed.
2.5.7 Protection of Shunt Capacitor Banks.
Shunt capacitor bank design requirements
necessitate an increase in minimum bank
size with system voltage. As the system volt-
age increases, the capacitor bank investment
and thus the risk of costly damage increases.
Capacitors of larger kvar ratings reduce the
investment, but they may also reduce the
choice of different capacitor combinations.
Protection begins with the design of the capaci-
tor bank.
Bank protection equipment must guard
against the following conditions:
(1) Overcurrents due to capacitor bank bus
faults
(2) System voltage surges
(3) Overcurrent due t o individual capacitor
unit failure
(4) Continuous capacitor unit overvoltages
( 5) Discharge current from parallel capaci-
tor units
(6) Inrush current due to switching
In all applications, the windfarm designer
should consult Article 460 of ANSVNFPA 70-
1990 [51 for guidance in sizing the protection
and interconnecting equipment associated
with capacitors. Guidance on the protection of
capacitor banks is provided by IEEE C37.99-
1990 [131. In addition, the manufacturer and
the interconnecting utility may be consulted
regarding capacitor protection practices.
2.5.8 System Considerations. A shunt ca-
pacitor bank may form a resonant circuit with
system inductive elements. The resonant fre-
quency may be excited during the switching of
a remote capacitor bank, which may result in
excessive voltages and currents and the possi-
ble associated failure of equipment such as
other capacitors, surge arresters, instrument
transformers, and fuses. These undesirable
resonance effects are more likely t o occur if
the capacitor bank switching device has a long
arcing time and multiple restrike character-
istics. A switching device should be chosen
that is rated for switching capacitors (see IEEE
C37.012-1979 { Re d . 1988) [171).
The capacitor bank, in combination with
system inductances, may cause resonance
with harmonics produced elsewhere, such as at
remote loads. There is extensive and growing
use of thyristors in industry t o derive variable
potentials from an ac source. Such phase-con-
trolled thyristors generate harmonics, partic-
ularly 3rd, 5th, 7th and 11th.
Problems associated with resonance may
usually be resolved by the application of the
proper capacitor switching device, the addition
of appropriately rated reactors (or reactors
and resistors in parallel) in series with
the switched capacitor bank, or the relocation
or change in size of the switched capacitor
bank.
Capacitor banks can also cause or aggravate
ferroresonance conditions. This i s discussed
in 2.6.
2.6 Self-Excitation and Ferroresonance
2.6.1 Self-Excitation. Self-excitation can oc-
cur if the windfarm or a portion of it loses its
connection to the utility. Unstable voltages
and frequencies can be developed during self-
excitation. Due t o the potential for equipment
damage, steps should be taken to prevent this
occurrence.
One of the first indications of self-excitation
or islanding within the system will be a volt-
age and frequency deviation. This deviation
will usually appear as a rapid turbine accel-
eration and increase in frequency. When
adding power-factor correction capacitors, a
careful study of self-excitation potential is
recommended (1371, 1431). Switching of the ca-
pacitors may be required t o eliminate self-
excitation.
2.6.2 Ferroresonance. Ferroresonance is a
special type of electric resonance that can oc-
cur when a nonlinear inductive reactance is
connected in series with or parallel t o a
capacitive reactance. The inductive reactance
is usually the magnetizing reactance of a sin-
16
IEEE
2.5.6 Drainage of Stored Charge. When ca-
pacitors are disconnected from the windfarm
collection system, they are typically in a
charged state. Under this condition, consider-
able energy is stored in the capacitors, and
there is a voltage present between the termi-
nals. If the capacitors were left in this charged
state, a person servicing the equipment might
receive a dangerous shock or the equipment
might be damaged by an accidental short cir-
cuit. As a result, all capacitors should be pro-
vided with a means of draining the stored
charge. Typically, these means are provided
by the capacitor manufacturer. However,
proper shorting and grounding techniques
should still be followed.
2.5.7 Protection of Shunt Capacitor Banks.
Shunt capacitor bank design requirements
necessitate an increase in minimum bank
size with system voltage. As the system volt-
age increases, the capacitor bank investment
and thus the risk of costly damage increases.
Capacitors of larger kvar ratings reduce the
investment, but they may also reduce the
choice of different capacitor combinations.
Protection begins with the design of the capaci-
tor bank.
Bank protection equipment must guard
against the following conditions:
(1) Overcurrents due to capacitor bank bus
faults
(2) System voltage surges
(3) Overcurrent due to individual capacitor
unit failure
(4) Continuous capacitor unit overvoltages
(5) Discharge current from parallel capaci-
tor units
(6) Inrush current due to switching
In all applications, the windfarm designer
should consult Article 460 of ANSIINFPA 70-
1990 [5] for guidance in sizing the protection
and interconnecting equipment associated
with capacitors. Guidance on the protection of
capacitor banks is provided by IEEE C37.99-
1990 [13]. In addition, the manufacturer and
the interconnecting utility may be consulted
regarding capacitor protection practices.
2.5.8 System Considerations. A shunt ca-
pacitor bank may form a resonant circuit with
system inductive elements. The resonant fre-
quency may be excited during the switching of
a remote capacitor bank, which may result in
16
excessive voltages and currents and the possi-
ble associated failure of equipment such as
other capacitors, surge arresters, instrument
transformers, and fuses. These undesirable
resonance effects are more likely to occur if
the capacitor bank switching device has a long
arcing time and multiple restrike character-
istics. A switching device should be chosen
that is rated for switching capacitors (see IEEE
C37.012-1979 {Heafl'. 1988} [17]).
The capacitor bank, in combination with
system inductances, may cause resonance
with harmonics produced elsewhere, such as at
remote loads. There is extensive and growing
use of thyristors in industry to derive variable
potentials from an ac source. Such phase-con-
trolled thyristors generate harmonics, partic-
ularly 3rd, 5th, 7th and 11th.
Problems associated with resonance may
usually be resolved by the application of the
proper capacitor switching device, the addition
of appropriately rated reactors (or reactors
and resistors in parallel) in series with
the switched capacitor bank, or the relocation
or change in size of the switched capacitor
bank.
Capacitor banks can also cause or aggravate
ferroresonance conditions. This is discussed
in 2.6.
2.6 Self-Excitation and FelTOresonance
2.6.1 Self-Excitation. Self-excitation can oc-
cur if the windfarm or a portion of it loses its
connection to the utility. Unstable voltages
and frequencies can be developed during self-
excitation. Due to the potential for equipment
damage, steps should be taken to prevent this
occurrence.
One of the first indications of self-excitation
or islanding within the system will be a volt-
age and frequency deviation. This deviation
will usually appear as a rapid turbine accel-
eration and increase in frequency. When
adding power-factor correction capacitors, a
careful study of self-excitation potential is
recommended ([37], [43]). Switching of the ca-
pacitors may be required to eliminate self-
excitation.
2.6.2 Ferroresonance. Ferroresonance is a
special type of electric resonance that can oc-
cur when a nonlinear inductive reactance is
connected in series with or parallel to a
capacitive reactance. The inductive reactance
is usually the magnetizing reactance of a sin-
IEEE
std 1094-1991
SERIES L & C
ELEMENTS ,-,
DisTRiwTioN
TRANSFORMER
Fig3
Series Ferroresonance
gle-phase or three-phase transformer. The ca-
pacitive reactance is usually the conductor-to-
sheath capacitance of primary cable and/or
any shunt capacitors used on the system.
One form of ferroresonance is associated
with switching and can occur as the result of
opening one of the phases of a source supplying
a single-phase or three-phase transformer
(1421). For this condition, the capacitance of the
open phase is energized through the magnetiz-
ing reactance of the transformer. Since in this
case t he reactance and capacitance are in
series, this type of ferroresonance is some-
times referred to as series ferroresonance (see
Fig 3).
This unsymmetrical opening may be due to
switching with single-pole devices such as
cutouts, or by conductor breakage, or by fuse
operation. Since ferroresonance disappears or
does not occur when all phases are open or
closed, the probability of occurrence will be
minimized when gang-operated devices are
used for switching. Note t hat the overvoltage
takes some period of time to build up, which is
the reason that switching with a gang-operated
device will usually be satisfactory even
though t he pole openings may not be
simultaneous.
A second type of ferroresonance can occur
during an islanding condition (see 1.6). Un-
der normal operation, in parallel with t he
utility, the voltage applied to the interface and
distribution transformers is less than the sat-
uration voltage level of the transformers. Dur-
ing an islanding condition, however, there
may not be sufficient voltage control in t he is-
land t o hold the voltages below their saturation
point. If the transformer(s) saturates, there
will be an interchange of energy between the
system capacitance and the highly nonlinear
17
AND OPERATION OF WIND FARM GENERATING STATIONS
IEEE
Std 1094-1991
SOURCE SUBSTATION
POWER
~
- - -
TRANSFORMER l
I
I I
Lr ___ J
i
l ~
Fig 3
SERIES L & C r 1
ELEMENTS l--. \ ~ J
DISTRIBUTION
m TRANSFORMER
Series Ferroresonance
gle-phase or three-phase transformer. The ca-
pacitive reactance is usually the conductor-to-
sheath capacitance of primary cable and/or
any shunt capacitors used on the system.
One form of ferroresonance is associated
with switching and can occur as the result of
opening one of the phases of a source supplying
a single-phase or three-phase transformer
(42]). For this condition, the capacitance of the
open phase is energized through the magnetiz-
ing reactance of the transformer. Since in this
case the reactance and capacitance are in
series, this type of ferroresonance is some-
times referred to as series ferroresonance (see
Fig 3).
This unsymmetrical opening may be due to
switching with single-pole devices such as
cutouts, or by conductor breakage, or by fuse
operation. Since ferroresonance disappears or
does not occur when all phases are open or
17
closed, the probability of occurrence will be
minimized when gang-operated devices are
used for switching. Note that the overvoltage
takes some period of time to build up, which is
the reason that switching with a gang-operated
device will usually be satisfactory even
though the pole openings may not be
sim ul tan eo us.
A second type of ferro resonance can occur
during an islanding condition (see 1.6). Un-
der normal operation, in parallel with the
utility, the voltage applied to the interface and
distribution transformers is less than the sat-
uration voltage level of the transformers. Dur-
ing an islanding condition, however, there
may not be sufficient voltage control in the is-
land to hold the voltages below their saturation
point. If the transformer(s) saturates, there
will be an interchange of energy between the
system capacitance and the highly nonlinear
IEEE
magnetizing reactance of the transformerW.
The rapid changes in transformer flux during
this period can produce high system overvolt-
ages. Since in this case the reactance and ca-
pacitance are in parallel, this second type of
ferroresonance is sometimes referred t o as
parallel ferroresonance (1391, [401; see Fig 4).
This type of ferroresonance, as well as the
series type, may be accompanied by an ab-
normal voltage, low or high, across the trans-
former terminals and from terminal t o
ground. A high abnormal voltage due to fer-
roresonance will manifest itself by abnormal
transformer sound and, if sufficiently high,
by equipment damage.
The probability of either type of ferroreso-
nance is somewhat unpredictable, as both de-
pend on such factors as the cable lengths, the
amount of system capacitance, the connection
and saturation characteristics of the trans-
formers, the amount of load, etc. In addition to
the use of gang-operated switching devices
mentioned previously, the probability of occur-
rence of series ferroresonance can be mini-
mized by wye-connecting all transformer
windings to the primary neutral. Parallel fer-
roresonance should be controlled by system
design and by the use of high-speed relay pro-
tection t o shut down the windfarm for an is-
landing condition.
DISTRIBUTION
TRANSFORMER
CAPACITOR
BANK
W
SMALL
GENERATOR
Fig4
Parallel Ferroresonance
IEEE
magnetizing reactance of the transformer(s).
The rapid changes in transformer flux during
this period can produce high system overvolt-
ages. Since in this case the reactance and ca-
pacitance are in parallel, this second type of
ferroresonance is sometimes referred to as
parallel ferroresonance ([39], [40]; see Fig 4).
This type of ferroresonance, as well as the
series type, may be accompanied by an ab-
normal voltage, low or high, across the trans-
former terminals and from terminal to
ground. A high abnormal voltage due to fer-
roresonance will manifest itself by abnormal
transformer sound and, if sufficiently high,
by equipment damage.
The probability of either type of ferroreso-
nance is somewhat unpredictable, as both de-
pend on such factors as the cable lengths, the
amount of system capacitance, the connection
and saturation characteristics of the trans-
formers, the amount of load, etc. In addition to
the use of gang-operated switching devices
mentioned previously, the probability of occur-
rence of series ferroresonance can be mini-
mized by wye-connecting all transformer
windings to the primary neutral. Parallel fer-
roresonance should be controlled by system
design and by the use of high-speed relay pro-
tection to shut down the windfarm for an is-
landing condition.
PARALLEL L & C ELEMENTS
/ ( \
/l
DISTRIBUTION
TRANSFORMER
T T T\
OR
L J 1/
T T T
CAPACITOR
BANK
Fig 4
Parallel FelTOresonance
18
SMALL
GENERATOR
STEP-UP
TRANSFORMER
IEEE
std 1094-1991
3. Utility Inkmnndon
This section describes general substation,
transmissioddistribution, and related facil-
ity requirements appropriate t o interconnect a
commercial windfarm generating station
with an electric utility. I t provides a
checklist and selected guidance for areas of
coordination t hat must be considered by the
station owner and the utility.
3.1 System Interconnection Considerations. It
is essential t hat all parties involved under-
stand the basis for designing the interconnec-
tion. Care should be taken t o ensure that each
party of the interconnection uses a compatible
basis for ratings (e.g., temperature rise), the
same formulas for calculations (e.g., strength
of bus conductors), and the same philosophy of
loading (e.g., transformer loss-of-life or no
loss-of-life for overloading; plant generation
cycle/peak generation considerations) t o
avoid wasteful overbuilding on the one hand
or destructive overloading on the other. The
following significant design factors should be
considered for the high-voltage interface.
3.1.1 Voltage, Voltage Range, and Fre-
quency. The interconnection facility must
match the utility nominal voltage and fre-
quency. Further, the design of the intercon-
nection facility must consider the anticipated
minimum and maximum voltage ranges be-
low and above normal, respectively.
3.1.2 Phase Rotation and Phase Position.
The phase designation (A, B, C; 1, 2, 3; etc.)
should be coordinated, as well as the phase
r ot a t i on di r ect i on ( cl ockwi se o r
counterclockwise).
The phase position must be known if the sta-
tion has interconnections to different utility
voltage levels or different utility locations that
may have a relative phase shift by virtue of
geogr aphy o r s ys t em t r ans f or mer
configuration.
Accommodating different phase positions
(phasing) within the windfarm collection
system is usually accomplished by means of
appropriate transformer connections or by
mai nt ai ni ng isolation of out-of-phase
facilities.
3.1.3 Fault Interrupting and Momentary
Ratings. Power generating and distribution
equipment directly connected t o an electric
utility will be subjected to fault levels that are a
function of the utility system and station char-
acteristics. Therefore, the station and inter-
connection facilities should possess sufficient
fault interrupting and momentary withstand
ratings t o meet t he maximum calculated
levels, with appropriate margins for future
system growth. Induction generators are prin-
cipally a source of momentary fault current,
whereas utilities and synchronous machines
are sources of sustained fault current.
3.1.4 Continuous Ratings. The continuous
current ratings of the electrical power appara-
tus associated with the interconnection must be
sufficient t o accommodate the maximum gen-
eration (or load) of the station, as well as con-
tributions resulting from system exchanges,
such as power from the utility system being
passed through the facilities of the station.
3.1.5 Type of Service. The overall intercon-
nection of a station can be generally classified
as either radial or loop service. Most
windfarm services are radial. Radial service
usually consists of one line, in effect a branch
of the utility system, with no utility load cur-
rent passing through the interconnection
station (see Fig 5).
Loop service provides two (or more) utility
lines to the windfarm (see Fig 6). Other con-
figurations can also be used to provide multi-
ple-line service. For additional information,
see the Electrical Transmission and Distribu-
tion Reference Book [381.
3.1.6 LoadPower-Factor Considerations.
The magnitude, reliability, duration (load
factor), and time-of-day availability of the
generation (or load) of the station will be
of interest to both parties. In addition, total real
power (kW) and reactive power (kvar) t o
be accommodated can have significant
impact on ratings and configuration of
facilities.
The demand for (or generation of) reactive
power will warrant special attention. Any
large power producer can usually be expected
to maintain the overall facility power factor at
or above a given level that will be specified by
the agreement with the connecting utility (see
2.5 for additional information). Conversely,
customer-owned synchronous generating fa-
cilities may be expected t o produce reactive
power and make it available to the system, as
is discussed in 2.5.2. This is a capability that
cannot be achieved, however, with induction
generators.
IEEE
Std 1094-1991
3. Utility Interconnection
This section describes general substation,
transmission/distribution, and related facil-
ity requirements appropriate to interconnect a
commercial windfarm generating station
with an electric utility. It provides a
"checklist" and selected guidance for areas of
coordination that must be considered by the
station owner and the utility.
3.1 System Interconnection Considerations. It
is essential that all parties involved under-
stand the basis for designing the interconnec-
tion. Care should be taken to ensure that each
party of the interconnection uses a compatible
basis for ratings (e.g., temperature rise), the
same formulas for calculations (e.g., strength
of bus conductors), and the same philosophy of
loading (e.g., transformer loss-of-life or no
loss-of-life for overloading; plant generation
cycle/peak generation considerations) to
avoid wasteful overbuilding on the one hand
or destructive overloading on the other. The
following significant design factors should be
considered for the high-voltage interface.
3.1.1 Voltage, Voltage Range, and Fre-
quency. The interconnection facility must
match the utility nominal voltage and fre-
quency. Further, the design of the intercon-
nection facility must consider the anticipated
minimum and maximum voltage ranges be-
low and above normal, respectively.
3.1.2 Phase Rotation and Phase Position.
The phase designation (A, B, C; 1, 2, 3; etc.)
should be coordinated, as well as the phase
rotation direction (clockwise or
counterclockwise).
The phase position must be known if the sta-
tion has interconnections to different utility
voltage levels or different utility locations that
may have a relative phase shift by virtue of
geography or system transformer
configuration.
Accommodating different phase positions
(phasing) within the windfarm collection
system is usually accomplished by means of
appropriate transformer connections or by
maintaining isolation of out-of-phase
facilities.
3.1.3 Fault Interrupting and Momentary
Ratings. Power generating and distribution
equipment directly connected to an electric
utility will be subjected to fault levels that are a
19
function of the utility system and station char-
acteristics. Therefore, the station and inter-
connection facilities should possess sufficient
fault interrupting and momentary withstand
ratings to meet the maximum calculated
levels, with appropriate margins for future
system growth. Induction generators are prin-
cipally a source of momentary fault current,
whereas utilities and synchronous machines
are sources of sustained fault current.
3.1.4 Continuous Ratings. The continuous
current ratings of the electrical power appara-
tus associated with the interconnection must be
sufficient to accommodate the maximum gen-
eration (or load) of the station, as well as con-
tributions resulting from system exchanges,
such as power from the utility system being
passed through the facilities of the station.
3.1.5 Type of Service. The overall intercon-
nection of a station can be generally classified
as either "radial" or "loop" service. Most
windfarm services are radial. Radial service
usually consists of one line, in effect a branch
of the utility system, with no utility load cur-
rent passing "through" the interconnection
station (see Fig 5).
Loop service provides two (or more) utility
lines to the windfarm (see Fig 6). Other con-
figurations can also be used to provide multi-
ple-line service. For additional information,
see the Electrical Transmission and Distribu-
tion Reference Book [38].
3.1.6 LoadIPower-Factor Considerations.
The magnitude, reliability, duration (load
factor), and time-of-day availability of the
generation (or load) of the station will be
of interest to both parties. In addition, total real
power (kW) and reactive power (kvar) to
be accommodated can have significant
impact on ratings and configuration of
facilities.
The demand for (or generation of) reactive
power will warrant special attention. Any
large power producer can usually be expected
to maintain the overall facility power factor at
or above a given level that will be specified by
the agreement with the connecting utility (see
2.5 for additional information). Conversely,
customer-owned synchronous generating fa-
cilities may be expected to produce reactive
power and make it available to the system, as
is discussed in 2.5.2. This is a capability that
cannot be achieved, however, with induction
generators.
IEEE
std 1094-1991
TOUTIUTY 4
LINE 1
b TOUTIUTY
LINE 2
TO UTILITY LINE
t
TO WINDFARM
Fig5
Radialservice
TO WINDFARM
IEEE
Std 1094-1991
TO UTILITY
LINE 1
-
TO UTILITY LINE
TOWINDFARM
Fig 5
Radial Service
TOWINDFARM
Fig 6
Loop Service
TO UTILITY
LINE 2
IEEE
std 1094-1991
3.1.7 Additional Information. Other items neering analysis of reliability and cost, and it
t hat should be considered for t he util- must be acceptable t o the windfarm operator
itylwindfarm interconnection facility in- and to the utility.
clude the following: 3.2.2 Transformer Connections. The wind-
farm and utility should agree on the configu-
(l) Drawings and Data: A
ration for power and metering (instrument)
be Prepared for the submissions and re- transformers (wye-delta; delta-wye; wye-
view Of appropriate drawings and data wye; zig-zag; autotransformer, etc.). This se-
by all Parties during the
faci1- lection will have significant effects on
i t Y phase and during YS- reliability, relay selection, faul t current
tem modification activities.
levels, overvoltage conditions, equipment cost,
and other technical
(2) Color Codes: For cable, wiring, race-
way, signs, etc.
(3) Nameplates: For major equipment.
(4) Equipment Numbers: For operations
and maintenance coordination.
(5) Signs: To indicate ownership limits
and for safety.
(6) Accessibility: Access of utility em-
ployees to the owners substation.
3.2 Substation Configuration. Normally, a
substation facility is needed to provide for the
high-voltage termination of t he utility inter-
connection line(s). This substation contains
the necessary switching and protective device
required t o isolate and mitigate the effects of
faults and to permit routine maintenance
and switching. The substation is generally the
location for any required power transformers.
A visible-break disconnecting means is
usually required between the windfarm and
t he utility. To comply with some safety re-
quirements a lockable disconnect device may
be needed.
3.2.1 Circuit Breaker Arrangement. Power
circuit breakers, and their associated bypass
and/or isolating disconnecting switches,
where present, usually constitute the most con-
spicuous components of the substation.
Circuit breakers permit power circuit
switching for synchronizing, if necessary,
and interruption of fault current.
The simplest circuit breaker arrangement
is a single circuit breaker in a simple radial
arrangement (see Fig 7). However, any
scheme requiring more than one connection
each for the utility and customer, or requiring
loop service, will necessitate a more complex
circuit breaker arrangement. Several of the
most common alternatives are: modified ra-
dial; H-tie; ring bus; main and transfer
bus; breaker and one-half; and double-bus.
The final selection of a particular circuit
breaker arrangement depends on an engi-
When choosing transformer connections,
the phase shifts must be considered to ensure
proper phase relationships if there are multiple
interconnections from t he windfarm to t he
utility.
3.2.3 S t r u m u s Construction. Substation
facilities are usually air insulated. The con-
ventional outdoor air-insulated substation
frequently utilizes aluminum cable or tubing
for conductors because of economic advan-
tages. Copper is sometimes encountered i n
older stations or where environmental condi-
tions preclude the use of aluminum. Ener-
gized parts are supported by porcelain, glass,
or epoxy insulators and maintained at safe
vertical and horizontal clearances, which are
dictated by industry and/or utility standards
and/or code requirements.
Supporting structures for electrical equip-
ment are usually galvanized steel. Other ma-
terials t hat can be used ar e aluminum,
concrete, and wood.
3.2.4 Interconnecting Lines Location and
Orientation. The location and orientation of
t he substation facility must consider t he
direction and ultimate destination of t he
overhead transmission lines connecting to
either t he utility or t he station facilities.
Provision must be made for appropriate rights-
of-way and avoidance of structures and other
existing facilities, t ur ni ng towers, and
conductor phase transpositions. The use of
underground power cables is a feasible
alternative to overhead lines, but it is
relatively expensive, particularly for high-
voltage lines.
3.2.5 Future Expansion Consideration. Pro-
vision should be included in any substation
for future expansion as required to accom-
modate additional utility interconnections,
station interconnections, and/or windfarm
development.
21
AND OPERATION OF WIND FARM GENERATING STATIONS
IEEE
Std 10941991
3.1.7 Additional Information. Other items
that should be considered for the util-
ity/windfarm interconnection facility in-
clude the following:
(1) Drawings and Data: A schedule should
be prepared for the submissions and re-
view of appropriate drawings and data
by all parties during the customer facil-
ity design phase and during utility sys-
tem modification activities.
(2) Color Codes: For cable, wiring, race-
way, signs, etc.
(3) Nameplates: For major equipment.
(4) Equipment Numbers: For operations
and maintenance coordination.
(5) Signs: To indicate ownership limits
and for safety.
(6) Accessibility: Access of utility em-
ployees to the owner's substation.
3.2 Substation Configuration. Normally, a
substation facility is needed to provide for the
high-voltage termination of the utility inter-
connection line(s). This substation contains
the necessary switching and protective device
required to isolate and mitigate the effects of
faults and to permit routine maintenance
and switching. The substation is generally the
location for any required power transformers.
A visible-break disconnecting means is
usually required between the windfarm and
the utility. To comply with some safety re-
quirements a lockable disconnect device may
be needed.
3.2.1 Circuit Breaker Arrangement. Power
circuit breakers, and their associated bypass
and/or isolating disconnecting switches,
where present, usually constitute the most con-
spicuous components of the substation.
Circuit breakers permit power circuit
switching for synchronizing, if necessary,
and interruption of fault current.
The simplest circuit breaker arrangement
is a single circuit breaker in a simple radial
arrangement (see Fig 7). However, any
scheme requiring more than one connection
each for the utility and customer, or requiring
loop service, will necessitate a more complex
circuit breaker arrangement. Several of the
most common alternatives are: modified ra-
dial; "H"-tie; ring bus; main and transfer
bus; breaker and one-half; and double-bus.
The final selection of a particular circuit
breaker arrangement depends on an engi-
21
neering analysis of reliability and cost, and it
must be acceptable to the windfarm operator
and to the utility.
3.2.2 Transformer Connections. The wind-
farm and utility should agree on the configu-
ration for power and metering (instrument)
transformers (wye-delta; delta-wye; wye-
wye; zig-zag; autotransformer, etc.). This se-
lection will have significant effects on
reliability, relay selection, fault current
levels, overvoltage conditions, equipment cost,
and other technical factors.
When choosing transformer connections,
the phase shifts must be considered to ensure
proper phase relationships if there are multiple
interconnections from the windfarm to the
utility.
3.2.3 StructurelBus Construction. Substation
facilities are usually air insulated. The con-
ventional outdoor air-insulated substation
frequently utilizes aluminum cable or tubing
for conductors because of economic advan-
tages. Copper is sometimes encountered in
older stations or where environmental condi-
tions preclude the use of aluminum. Ener-
gized parts are supported by porcelain, glass,
or epoxy insulators and maintained at safe
vertical and horizontal clearances, which are
dictated by industry and/or utility standards
and/or code requirements.
Supporting structures for electrical equip-
ment are usually galvanized steel. Other ma-
terials that can be used are aluminum,
concrete, and wood.
3.2.4 Interconnecting Lines Location and
Orientation. The location and orientation of
the substation facility must consider the
direction and ultimate destination of the
overhead transmission lines connecting to
either the utility or the station facilities.
Provision must be made for appropriate rights-
of-way and avoidance of structures and other
existing facilities, turning towers, and
conductor phase transpositions. The use of
underground power cables is a feasible
alternative to overhead lines, but it is
relatively expensive, particularly for high-
voltage lines.
3.2.5 Future Expansion Consideration. Pro-
vision should be included in any substation
for future expansion as required to accom-
modate additional utility interconnections,
station interconnections, and/or windfarm
development.
IEEE
std 1094-1991
V.T.'S
7fT
\
PROTECTIVE
RELAYING '
IEEE RECOMMENDED PRACTICE FOR THE EWCTRICAL DESIGN
V.T.'S
7 c REVENUE
/ METERING
I:
-3 C.T. (TYP.)
i
HIGH-VOLTAGE CONNECTION TO UTILITY
LEGEND:
C.T. -CU RRENT XFM R.
V.T.-VOLTAGE XFMR.
L.A.-LIGHTNING ARRESTER
A
0 POWER CIRCUIT BREAKER
\
3
L.A.
1 - WIl
vvvvv POWER TRANSFORMER
\
1
M ED I U M -VO LTAG E B U S
TO TO VOLTAGE
W I N D FAR M
WIN D FAR M
INTRAPLANT AUXILIARY & RELAYING
COLLECTION LOADS
IN DICATIO N
SYSTEM
E
Fig 7
mid Collection Station Arrangement
3
22
IEEE
HIGH-VOLTAGE CONNECTION TO UTILIlY
i DISCONNECTING SWITCH
PROTECTIVE
RELAYING
LEGEND:
V.T.'S
C.T.-CURRENT XFMR.
V.T.-VOLTAGE XFMR.
L.A.-LIGHTNING ARRESTER
TO
WINDFARM
INTRAPLANT
COLLECTION
SYSTEM
V.T.'S
REVENUE
METERING
POWER CIRCUIT BREAKER
POWER TRANSFORMER
MEDIUM-VOLTAGE BUS
~ L O W T V.T.
1 VOLTAGE
TO
WINDFARM
AUXILIARY
LOADS
Fig 7
VOLTAGE
INDICATION
& RELAYING
Typical Collection Station Arrangement
22
IEEE
std 1094-1991
3.3 Substation Facilities Design. Proper de-
sign of an interconnection substation must in-
clude t he following significant areas for
consideration in the design criteria.
3.3.1 Grounding. A buried grounding grid
consisting of bare conductors and/or elec-
trodes (ground rods) is necessary for person-
nel safety and to provide an effective ground
for transformer and other equipment connec-
tions. Proper design requires consideration of
local soil conditions.
The grounding design must be coordinated
with adjacent utility, plant, or other facilities
t o ensure t hat transferred potentials will not
present personnel hazards or damage protec-
tion, control, or communication circuits. The
utility should be consulted on whether or not to
interconnect the station grounding system
with the ground grid or neutral conductor of
the utility. Guidance on the design of substa-
tion grounding systems is provided in IEEE
Std 367-1987 [321. See 2.4.2 for information on
grounding within the windfarm.
The effect of a generation facility or substa-
tion grounding system on existing or future
cathodic protection systems (e.g., pipelines)
requires careful study and field testing.
3.3.2 Insulation Levels. For any given
electric power interconnection, the basic im-
pulse insulation level (BIL) must be coordi-
nated for power distribution equipment and
transmission lines. Industry references or the
local utility are the appropriate sources for ex-
isting insulation levels, which are frequently
different for overhead line, cable, and trans-
former insulation systems at the same voltage
level (see ANSI C93.1-1981 [31, ANSI C93.2 [41,
IEEE C37.010-1979 (Reaff. 1984) [161, IEEE
Std 80-1986 [261, IEEE Std 81-1983 [27], and IEEE
C37.012-1979 ( haf f . 1988) [171, IEEE C57.12.00-
1987 [l8], IEEE C57.12.01-1989 [19], IEEE
C57.13-1978 [201, IEEE C62.2-1987 [211, IEEE Std
18-1980 [251, and IEEE Std 493-1990 [341). Con-
sideration should be given to the prevailing
wind direction and sources of insulation con-
tamination from manufacturing effluents or
a marine environment.
3.3.3 Clearance and Access. Appropriate
normal and minimum electrical clearances
from energized parts; above walkways, roads,
and/or railroads; and in other special cir-
cumstances are specified in ANSINFPA 70-
1990 [51, ANSI C2-1990 [ll, and local codes and
standards. Overhead high-voltage lines can
require significant right-of-way area, and the
presence of energized overhead conductors
significantly reduces the potential use of prop-
erty located under the conductors.
3.3.4 Surge (Lightning) Protection. Light-
ning protection for outdoor substation facili-
ties should be provided as indicated by the
isokeraunic level (thunderstorm daysjyear)
for the particular site location. The local util-
ity i s a good source of information on local
lightning frequency, outage records, and ap-
plication of particular lightning protection
methods (shield wires, masts, arrays, ar-
resters, BIL levels, reclosing, etc.) to the local
system. Procedures for the selection and ap-
plication of silicon-carbide high-voltage surge
arresters are provided in IEEE C62.2-1987 1213.
Information about t he application and selec-
tion of metal-oxide surge arresters is avail-
able from the manufacturers. A new guide for
the application of metal-oxide arresters is be-
ing developed by the IEEE Surge Protective
Devices Committee.
3.3.5 Transmission (or Distribution) Line
Termination. High-voltage transmission
lines or medium-voltage distribution lines,
whether overhead ox- underground, will usu-
ally constitute the most significant physical
interface between an interconnection substa-
tion and electric utility. Particular attention
is required t o the interfacing span between the
last utility tower and the substation termina-
tion structure for overhead lines.
For underground lines, the presence of ex-
isting underground utilities in the substation
vicinity must be identified, which may impact
the underground cable location and/or rating.
For both overhead and underground lines, ori-
entation of the substation with respect t o the
utility and windfarm lines should be ar-
ranged t o minimize line angles, turning tow-
ers, crossings, etc., all of which will affect the
complexity and cost of t he transmission
facilities.
3.3.6 Switching Equipment. The final selec-
tion and arrangement of particular types of
substation switching devices is closely related
to the substation circuit breaker configuration,
discussed in 3.2.1. Power circuit breakers are
required for full-range current switching and
fault interruption (see IEEE C37.010-1979
(Reaff. 1984) [161 and IEEE C37.012-1979
[Reaff. 1988) 1171). Circuit switchers ar e ca-
pable of load switching and low-level fault
23
IEEE
Std 1094-1991
3.3 Substation Facilities Design. Proper de-
sign of an interconnection substation must in-
clude the following significant areas for
consideration in the design criteria.
3.3.1 Grounding. A buried grounding grid
consisting of bare conductors and/or elec-
trodes (ground rods) is necessary for person-
nel safety and to provide an effective ground
for transformer and other equipment connec-
tions. Proper design requires consideration of
local soil conditions.
The grounding design must be coordinated
with adjacent utility, plant, or other facilities
to ensure that transferred potentials will not
present personnel hazards or damage protec-
tion, control, or communication circuits. The
utility should be consulted on whether or not to
interconnect the station grounding system
with the ground grid or neutral conductor of
the utility. Guidance on the design of substa-
tion grounding systems is provided in IEEE
Std 80-1986 [26], IEEE Std 81-1983 [27], and IEEE
Std 367-1987 [32]. See 2.4.2 for information on
grounding within the windfarm.
The effect of a generation facility or substa-
tion grounding system on existing or future
cathodic protection systems (e.g., pipelines)
requires careful study and field testing.
3.3.2 Insulation Levels. For any given
electric power interconnection, the basic im-
pulse insulation level (BIL) must be coordi-
nated for power distribution equipment and
transmission lines. Industry references or the
local utility are the appropriate sources for ex-
isting insulation levels, which are frequently
different for overhead line, cable, and trans-
former insulation systems at the same voltage
level (see ANSI C93.1-1981 [3], ANSI C93.2 [4],
IEEE C37.010-1979 {Reaff. 1984} [16], IEEE
C37.012-1979 {Reaff. 1988} [17], IEEE C57.12.00-
1987 [18], IEEE C57.12.01-1989 [19], IEEE
C57.13-1978 [20], IEEE C62.2-1987 [21], IEEE Std
18-1980 [25], and IEEE Std 493-1990 [34]). Con-
sideration should be given to the prevailing
wind direction and sources of insulation con-
tamination from manufacturing effluents or
a marine environment.
3.3.3 Clearance and Access. Appropriate
normal and minimum electrical clearances
from energized parts; above walkways, roads,
and/or railroads; and in other special cir-
cumstances are specified in ANSIINFPA 70-
1990 [5], ANSI C2-1990 [1], and local codes and
standards. Overhead high-voltage lines can
23
require significant right-of-way area, and the
presence of energized overhead conductors
significantly reduces the potential use of prop-
erty located under the conductors.
3.3.4 Surge (Lightning) Protection. Light-
ning protection for outdoor substation facili-
ties should be provided as indicated by the
isokeraunic level (thunderstorm days/year)
for the particular site location. The local util-
ity is a good source of information on local
lightning frequency, outage records, and ap-
plication of particular lightning protection
methods (shield wires, masts, arrays, ar-
resters, BIL levels, reclosing, etc.) to the local
system. Procedures for the selection and ap-
plication of silicon-carbide high-voltage surge
arresters are provided in IEEE C62.2-1987 [21].
Information about the application and selec-
tion of metal-oxide surge arresters is avail-
able from the manufacturers. A new guide for
the application of metal-oxide arresters is be-
ing developed by the IEEE Surge Protective
Devices Committee.
3.3.5 Transmission (or Distribution) Line
Termination. High-voltage transmission
lines or medium-voltage distribution lines,
whether overhead or underground, will usu-
ally constitute the most significant physical
interface between an interconnection substa-
tion and electric utility. Particular attention
is required to the interfacing span between the
last utility tower and the substation termina-
tion structure for overhead lines.
For underground lines, the presence of ex-
isting underground utilities in the substation
vicinity must be identified, which may impact
the underground cable location and/or rating.
For both overhead and underground lines, ori-
entation of the substation with respect to the
utility and windfarm lines should be ar-
ranged to minimize line angles, turning tow-
ers, crossings, etc., all of which will affect the
complexity and cost of the transmission
facilities.
3.3.6 Switching Equipment. The final selec-
tion and arrangement of particular types of
substation switching devices is closely related
to the substation circuit breaker configuration,
discussed in 3.2.1. Power circuit breakers are
required for full-range current switching and
fault interruption (see IEEE C37.010-1979
{Reaff. 1984} [16] and IEEE C37.012-1979
{Reaff.1988} [17]). Circuit switchers are ca-
pable of load switching and low-level fault
lEEE
std 1094-1993 IEEE RECOMMENDED PRACTICE FOR THE EWCTRICAL DESIGN
interruption and may be suitable for interrupt-
ing line-charging current and switching ca-
pacitors. Disconnecting switches ar e also
suitable for interrupting line-charging cur-
rent, although t o a lesser degree, and for
switching transformer magnetizing current
when quick break (high-speed) interrupting
devices are added to the switch. However, they
are normally used only to isolate power trans-
formers, switching apparatus, lines, and
buses and do not typically serve as a principal
switching device.
3.3.7 Instrument Transformers. Instru-
ment transformers are devices that produce a
reference low-voltage potential or current
source as required for protective relaying,
synchronizing, metering, control, and indi-
cation functions (see IEEE C57.13-1978 (Redf.
1986) [201).
Potential sources can be oil-filled or dry-
type (epoxy or rubber insulated) voltage
transformers, coupling capacitor voltage
transformers (CCVTs) (see ANSI C93.1-1981
[31 and ANSI C93.2-1976 [41), or bushing poten-
tial devices. Voltage transformers are t he
most accurate devices and ar e usually re-
quired for revenue metering. Bushing poten-
tial devices, transformer or breaker mounted,
are usually suitable only for indicating the
presence of voltage, but they are not adequate
for major relaying or metering functions.
Current sources can be separately mounted
oil-filled or dry-type (epoxy or rubber insu-
lated) current transformers or bushing cur-
rent transformers (BCTs). Again, separately
mounted current transformers are normally
t he most accurate type and are usually re-
quired for revenue metering. BCTs ar e
mounted in circuit breakers and power trans-
formers and are suitable for vast majority of
relaying, control, and indication functions.
Protection, instrumentation, and control
circuits should be designed to minimize the
possibility of open-circuiting the secondary of
a current transformer. An open secondary
may develop hazardous voltages, resulting in
equipment damage and danger of fire.
3.3.8 Protective Relaying. Protective relay-
ing is necessary to detect system disturbances
and initiate or supervise proper response from
power switching equipment. Protective relay-
ing application i s probably the most complex
aspect of power systems design. Successful op-
eration of a windfarm requires close coordi-
nation of utility and windfarm protective
relaying facilities and practices. Information
on protective relaying for consumer-utility
interconnections is given in IEEE C37.95-1989
[ l l l and the Power Engineering Society Spe-
cial Publication Intertie Protection of Con-
sumer-Owned Sources of Generation, 3 MVA
or Less [411. A brief description of the princi-
pal protective relaying categories will be
found in the following subsections.
3.3.8.1 Line Protection. Line-protective
relaying monitors t he conditions of a trans-
mission line and initiates isolation of the line
if a fault or other disturbance i s detected.
Transmission and distribution line distur-
bances are commonly caused by lightning,
fog, trees, animals, motor vehicle accidents,
etc.
3.3.8.2 Transformer Protection. Trans-
former-protective relaying monitors t he in-
ternal condition of a power transformer and
initiates i t s isolation in the event abnormal
conditions are detected. These can indicate
overloading or an internal fault. For further
information, refer to IEEE C37.91-1985 [lo].
3.3.8.3 Bus Protection. Bus-protective re-
laying monitors the integrity of a power bus.
Detection of a bus fault will initiate isolation
of the bus. Complete information on bus protec-
tion application i s given in IEEE C37.97-1979
( Re a . 1984) [121.
3.3.8.4 Synchronizing/Synchro Check.
Synchronizing or synchro-check relays are
necessary to verify the phase relationship of
interactive power systems or synchronous
generators before permitting the interconnec-
tion of two energized (interactive) systems.
3.3.8.5 Reclosing. Reclosing relays acti-
vate power circuit breakers t o re-energize
transmission lines that have been isolated due
t o the occurrence of a fault. Reclosing is
sometimes desirable t o support continuity of
service and to maintain stability of the inter-
connected system. The concept of rapid reclos-
ing is based on the transient nature of most
line faults. Particular care must be used in
applying reclosing t o generator interconnec-
tions (see 2.3.6.).
3.3.8.6 Islanding. Windfarm generating
stations normally operate interconnected with
an electric utility system. Abnormal condi-
tions within the utility system may cause por-
tions of the utility system t o become separated
from the main network, but remain connected
24
IEEE
interruption and may be suitable for interrupt-
ing line-charging current and switching ca-
pacitors. Disconnecting switches are also
suitable for interrupting line-charging cur-
rent, although to a lesser degree, and for
switching transformer magnetizing current
when quick break (high-speed) interrupting
devices are added to the switch. However, they
are normally used only to isolate power trans-
formers, switching apparatus, lines, and
buses and do not typically serve as a principal
switching device.
3.3.7 Instrument Transformers. Instru-
ment transformers are devices that produce a
reference low-voltage potential or current
source as required for protective relaying,
synchronizing, metering, control, and indi-
cation functions (see IEEE C57.13-1978 {Reaff.
1986} [20]).
Potential sources can be oil-filled or dry-
type (epoxy or rubber insulated) voltage
transformers, coupling capacitor voltage
transformers (CCVTs) (see ANSI C93.1-1981
[3] and ANSI C93.2-1976 [4]), or bushing poten-
tial devices. Voltage transformers are the
most accurate devices and are usually re-
quired for revenue metering. Bushing poten-
tial devices, transformer or breaker mounted,
are usually suitable only for indicating the
presence of voltage, but they are not adequate
for major relaying or metering functions.
Current sources can be separately mounted
oil-filled or dry-type (epoxy or rubber insu-
lated) current transformers or bushing cur-
rent transformers (BCTs). Again, separately
mounted current transformers are normally
the most accurate type and are usually re-
quired for revenue metering. BCTs are
mounted in circuit breakers and power trans-
formers and are suitable for vast majority of
relaying, control, and indication functions.
Protection, instrumentation, and control
circuits should be designed to minimize the
possibility of open-circuiting the secondary of
a current transformer. An open secondary
may develop hazardous voltages, resulting in
equipment damage and danger of fire.
3.3.8 Protective Relaying. Protective relay-
ing is necessary to detect system disturbances
and initiate or supervise proper response from
power switching equipment. Protective relay-
ing application is probably the most complex
aspect of power systems design. Successful op-
eration of a windfarm requires close coordi-
24
nation of utility and windfarm protective
relaying facilities and practices. Information
on protective relaying for consumer-utility
interconnections is given in IEEE C37.95-1989
[11] and the Power Engineering Society Spe-
cial Publication "Intertie Protection of Con-
sumer-Owned Sources of Generation, 3 MV A
or Less" [41]. A brief description of the princi-
pal protective relaying categories will be
found in the following subsections.
3.3.8.1 Line Protection. Line-protective
relaying monitors the conditions of a trans-
mission line and initiates isolation of the line
if a fault or other disturbance is detected.
Transmission and distribution line distur-
bances are commonly caused by lightning,
fog, trees, animals, motor vehicle accidents,
etc.
3.3.8.2 Transformer Protection. Trans-
former-protective relaying monitors the in-
ternal condition of a power transformer and
initiates its isolation in the event abnormal
conditions are detected. These can indicate
overloading or an internal fault. For further
information, refer to IEEE C37.91-1985 [1OJ.
3.3.8.3 Bus Protection. Bus-protective re-
laying monitors the integrity of a power bus.
Detection of a bus fault will initiate isolation
of the bus. Complete information on bus protec-
tion application is given in IEEE C37.97-1979
(Reaff. 1984) [12J.
3.3.8.4 Synchronizing/Synchro Check.
Synchronizing or synchro-check relays are
necessary to verify the phase relationship of
interactive power systems or synchronous
generators before permitting the interconnec-
tion of two energized (interactive) systems.
3.3.8.5 Reclosing. Reclosing relays acti-
vate power circuit breakers to re-energize
transmission lines that have been isolated due
to the occurrence of a fault. Reclosing is
sometimes desirable to support continuity of
service and to maintain stability of the inter-
connected system. The concept of rapid reclos-
ing is based on the transient nature of most
line faults. Particular care must be used in
applying reclosing to generator interconnec-
tions (see 2.3.6.).
3.3.8.6 Islanding. Windfarm generating
stations normally operate interconnected with
an electric utility system. Abnormal condi-
tions within the utility system may cause por-
tions of the utility system to become separated
from the main network, but remain connected
EEE
std 1094-1991
to the windfarm. The isolated system thus cre-
ated i s frequently termed an island (see
1.6).
Except in rare system configurations, is-
landing of a windfarm generating station is
generally considered undesirable and should
be avoided. The frequency or voltage in the is-
land may become abnormal, in some cases
reaching levels that could cause damage to the
windfarm facilities or the equipment of the
utility customer.
To avoid such possible damage, it is recom-
mended that protective relays measuring volt-
age and frequency be used at windfarms t o
establish a band of acceptable voltage and fre-
quency. Deviations outside t hi s band
(frequently termed a voltagelfrequency win-
dow) should result in disconnecting the wind-
farm from t he utility system or in t he
shutdown of the wind turbines.
The frequency and voltage relay settings t o
be used should be agreed upon between the
windfarm and the utility. If there is concern
that utility reclosing may suddenly reparallel
the utility with the island without synchroniz-
ing, tight tolerances such as k0.5 Hz may be
desirable t o try to avoid any sustained island-
ing. The disadvantage t o such tight tolerances
is t hat other utility system disturbances may
cause unnecessary tripping of t he windfarm
generation.
3.3.9 Metering. The following forms of me-
tering will generally be provided as part of
any windfarm generating facility.
3.3.9.1 Interconnection Revenue Meter-
ing. Utility revenue metering should be lo-
cat ed at t he interconnection facility.
Typically, this consists of a single metering
installation for each interconnection facility.
The revenue parameteds) t o be metered de-
pends on the specific interconnection agree-
ment and could include kilowatt-hours
(kWh), kilovar-hours (kvarh), kilowatts
(kW), kilovars (kvar), kilovolt-amperes
(kVA), or power factor, in almost any combi-
nation. Since bidirectional power flow is pos-
sible, separate detented meters to monitor flow
in each direction may be required. Also, if
time-of-day (also called time-of-use) pricing
is included in the rate structure, meters that
record power flow as a function of time may be
needed. Revenue metering requires accurate
metering equipment, including current and
voltage transformers rated for metering ser-
vice. Consideration should be given t o possible
metering errors introduced by harmonics in
the current or voltage.
Most utilities have well-defined require-
ments for the configuration, type, and location
of revenue metering equipment. Revenue
metering should normally be located in an
area accessible to both owner and utility repre-
sentatives. In most instances, the utility owns,
monitors, and mai nt ai ns t he revenue
metering.
3.3.9.2 Monitoring of Parameters, En-
ergy, and Status. Parameter monitoring i s
provided t o indicate the presence and magni-
tude of a given parameter on specific lines,
buses, and equipment. Parameters t hat could
be measured are voltage, current, kilowatts,
kilovars, kilovolt-amperes, and power factor.
Energy monitoring should include kilowatt-
hours and kilovar-hours or kilovolt-ampere
hours. Status monitoring includes the discrete
(open-closed) st at us of equipment such as
power circuit breakers, electrically-operated
load break, and disconnecting switches.
3.3.9.3 Telemetering. The transmission
of parameters, energy measurements, or sta-
t us indications t o a remote location is called
telemetering. The parameters t hat could be
transmitted to a remote location are those
identified in 3.3.9.1 and 3.3.9.2.
The remote location t hat is likely t o be the
destination for the data would be a utility dis-
patch center or the remote controVmonitoring
facility of the windfarm. Transmission of
data can be accomplished by dedicated com-
munications lines, power line carrier equip-
ment , radi o t r ansmi ssi on, microwave
facilities, or optical fiber circuits.
3.3.9.4 Production Metering. It may be
necessary to know the energy production of
individual wind turbines for administration
of the windfarm. This can be accomplished by
the installation of kilowatt-hour meters at
each turbine or by the use of watthour trans-
ducer outputs transmitted t o a central data col-
lection point.
3.3.10 Control and Communications. Con-
trol facilities are necessary to provide the hu-
man interface for the operation of windfarm
interconnecting facilities. Utility companies
may require remote metering, monitoring,
and control capabilities for windfarm gener-
ating facilities in order t o satisfy overall sys-
tem safety and operations needs.
25
IEEE
Std 1094-1991
to the windfann. The isolated system thus cre-
ated is frequently termed an "island" (see
1.6).
Except in rare system configurations, is-
landing of a windfarm generating station is
generally considered undesirable and should
be avoided. The frequency or voltage in the is-
land may become abnormal, in some cases
reaching levels that could cause damage to the
windfarm facilities or the equipment of the
utility customer.
To avoid such possible damage, it is recom-
mended that protective relays measuring volt-
age and frequency be used at windfarms to
establish a band of acceptable voltage and fre-
quency. Deviations outside this band
(frequently termed a voltage/frequency win-
dow) should result in disconnecting the wind-
farm from the utility system or in the
shutdown of the wind turbines.
The frequency and voltage relay settings to
be used should be agreed upon between the
windfarm and the utility. If there is concern
that utility reclosing may suddenly reparallel
the utility with the island without synchroniz-
ing, tight tolerances such as O.5 Hz may be
desirable to try to avoid any sustained island-
ing. The disadvantage to such tight tolerances
is that other utility system disturbances may
cause unnecessary tripping of the windfarm
generation.
3.3.9 Metering. The following forms of me-
tering will generally be provided as part of
any windfarm generating facility.
3.3.9.1 Interconnection Revenue Meter-
ing. Utility revenue metering should be lo-
cated at the interconnection facility.
Typically, this consists of a single metering
installation for each interconnection facility.
The revenue parameter(s) to be metered de-
pends on the specific interconnection agree-
ment and could include kilowatt-hours
(kWh), kilovar-hours (kvarh), kilowatts
(kW), kilovars (kvar), kilovolt-amperes
(kVA) , or power factor, in almost any combi-
nation. Since bidirectional power flow is pos-
sible, separate detented meters to monitor flow
in each direction may be required. Also, if
time-of-day (also called time-of-use) pricing
is included in the rate structure, meters that
record power flow as a function of time may be
needed. Revenue metering requires accurate
metering equipment, including current and
voltage transformers rated for metering ser-
vice. Consideration should be given to possible
metering errors introduced by harmonics in
the current or voltage.
Most utilities have well-defined require-
ments for the configuration, type, and location
of revenue metering equipment. Revenue
metering should normally be located in an
area accessible to both owner and utility repre-
sentatives. In most instances, the utility owns,
monitors, and maintains the revenue
metering.
3.3.9.2 Monitoring of Parameters, En-
ergy, and Status. Parameter monitoring is
provided to indicate the presence and magni-
tude of a given parameter on specific lines,
buses, and equipment. Parameters that could
be measured are voltage, current, kilowatts,
kilovars, kilovolt-amperes, and power factor.
Energy monitoring should include kilowatt-
hours and kilovar-hours or kilovolt-ampere
hours. Status monitoring includes the discrete
(open-closed) status of equipment such as
power circuit breakers, electrically-operated
load break, and disconnecting switches.
3.3.9.3 Telemetering. The transmission
of parameters, energy measurements, or sta-
tus indications to a remote location is called
telemetering. The parameters that could be
transmitted to a remote location are those
identified in 3.3.9.1 and 3.3.9.2.
The remote location that is likely to be the
destination for the data would be a utility dis-
patch center or the remote control/monitoring
facility of the windfarm. Transmission of
data can be accomplished by dedicated com-
munications lines, power line carrier equip-
ment, radio transmission, microwave
facilities, or optical fiber circuits.
3.3.9.4 Production Metering. It may be
necessary to know the energy production of
individual wind turbines for administration
of the windfarm. This can be accomplished by
the installation of kilowatt-hour meters at
each turbine or by the use of watthour trans-
ducer outputs transmitted to a central data col-
lection point.
3.3.10 Control and Communications. Con-
trol facilities are necessary to provide the hu-
man interface for the operation of windfarm
interconnecting facilities. Utility companies
may require remote metering, monitoring,
and control capabilities for windfarm gener-
ating facilities in order to satisfy overall sys-
tem safety and operations needs.
IEEE
3.3.10.1 Local Control. Local control is
usually accomplished by a direct electrical,
mechanical, pneumatic, or hydraulic device
and is initiated right at the controlled equip-
ment or at some control facility in the imme-
diate vicinity of the equipment. It is the least
sophisticated and most reliable control mode.
Remote control is an extension of local
control that implies a greater distance between
the controlled device and the controlling point.
3.3.10.2 Supervisory Control. Supervisory
control, also generically referred to as SCADA
(Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition),
is the long-distance control and data trans-
mission methodology for distances much
greater t han t hat possible with direct lo-
calhemote control. As opposed t o hard-wired
direct localhemote control, which utilizes a
dedicated wire pair or similar dedicated
communication medium for each control or
data signal, supervisory control utilizes mul-
tiplexing technology to superimpose multiple
signals on a single communication channel.
This requires an RTU (remote terminal unit)
a t each terminus t o collect, process, and
transmit the appropriate input and output sig-
nals. Supervisory control i s generally
required for a utility interconnection that in-
cludes remote utility control of selected cus-
tomer-owned equipment, such as high-voltage
power circuit breakers.
3.3.10.3 Remote Dispatch. Remote dis-
patch is the control of generating equipment in
accordance with t he instructions received
from a remote central control location, such as
a utility dispatching center. Remote dispatch
can reasonably be considered as part of the
operations functions of any large generator
connected t o an operating utility system.
3.3.11 Lighting. Appropriate minimum
lighting levels for various indoor, outdoor,
and roadway ar eas ar e given in IES
(Illuminating Engineering Society) stan-
dards, as well as other industry sources.
Emergency lighting must be provided in at-
tended areas, in accordance with local codes
and regulations.
4. Automatic Control and Monitoring
systems
Wind turbines installed in a windfarm
must be controlled so that the generators can
produce electrical power when wind condi-
tions are favorable and can be disconnected
from the electric utility system when the wind
conditions are not favorable. The operator of a
windfarm needs t o monitor the turbines t o de-
termine which turbines are operating properly
and which require attention. Many of these
functions can be accomplished manually, but
as the number of wind turbines in a windfarm
increases, the task of performing these func-
tions becomes very large. A central automatic
control and monitoring system in which some
functions are performed at the windfarm con-
trol building and other functions ar e dis-
tributed at the individual wind turbines may
give more efficient and flexible control. An
automatic monitoring system also allows per-
formance evaluations of individual and
groups of wind turbines.
4.1 Wind-Turbine Control System. The most
common purposes of a wind-turbine control
system are t o optimize the energy captured by
the wind turbine, t o insure a safe turbine shut-
down when required, and to regulate the power
output of the generator. The following is a gen-
eral list of functions that may be included in a
wind-turbine control system to maintain the
wind turbine within its allowable operating
parameters.
(1)
(2)
(3) Rotor overspeed detection
(4) Turbine startlstop control
( 5 ) Turbine vibration detection
(6) Generator overpower/current detection
(7) Single phasing and phase reversal
detection
(8) Yaw control (for horizontal axi s
turbines)
(9) Blade pitch control (for variable pitch
turbines)
(10) Generator synchronizing control (for
synchronous generators)
(11) Turbine brake control
(12) Generator voltagehar control
Measurement of wind speed at turbine
site
Detection of interconnection with col-
lector system or loss of load
The specific control requirements for a par-
ticular wind turbine are not within the scope of
this document. The manufacturer of the wind
26
IEEE
3.3.10.1 Local Control. Local control is
usually accomplished by a direct electrical,
mechanical, pneumatic, or hydraulic device
and is initiated right at the controlled equip-
ment or at some control facility in the imme-
diate vicinity of the equipment. It is the least
sophisticated and most reliable control mode.
"Remote control" is an extension of local
control that implies a greater distance between
the controlled device and the controlling point.
3.3.10.2 Supervisory Control. Supervisory
control, also generically referred to as SCADA
(Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition),
is the long-distance control and data trans-
mission methodology for distances much
greater than that possible with direct lo-
cal/remote control. As opposed to hard-wired
direct local/remote control, which utilizes a
dedicated wire pair or similar dedicated
communication medium for each control or
data signal, supervisory control utilizes mul-
tiplexing technology to superimpose multiple
signals on a single communication channel.
This requires an RTU (remote terminal unit)
at each terminus to collect, process, and
transmit the appropriate input and output sig-
nals. Supervisory control is generally
required for a utility interconnection that in-
cludes remote utility control of selected cus-
tomer-owned equipment, such as high-voltage
power circuit breakers.
3.3.10.3 Remote Dispatch. Remote dis-
patch is the control of generating equipment in
accordance with the instructions received
from a remote central control location, such as
a utility dispatching center. Remote dispatch
can reasonably be considered as part of the
operations functions of any large generator
connected to an operating utility system.
3.3.11 Lighting. Appropriate minimum
lighting levels for various indoor, outdoor,
and roadway areas are given in IES
(Illuminating Engineering Society) stan-
dards, as well as other industry sources.
Emergency lighting must be provided in at-
tended areas, in accordance with local codes
and regulations.
4. Automatic Control and Monitoring
Systems
Wind turbines installed in a windfarm
must be controlled so that the generators can
produce electrical power when wind condi-
tions are favorable and can be disconnected
from the electric utility system when the wind
conditions are not favorable. The operator of a
windfarm needs to monitor the turbines to de-
termine which turbines are operating properly
and which require attention. Many of these
functions can be accomplished manually, but
as the number of wind turbines in a windfarm
increases, the task of performing these func-
tions becomes very large. A central automatic
control and monitoring system in which some
functions are performed at the windfarm con-
trol building and other functions are dis-
tributed at the individual wind turbines may
give more efficient and flexible control. An
automatic monitoring system also allows per-
formance evaluations of individual and
groups of wind turbines.
4.1 Wind-Turbine Control System. The most
common purposes of a wind-turbine control
system are to optimize the energy captured by
the wind turbine, to insure a safe turbine shut-
down when required, and to regulate the power
output of the generator. The following is a gen-
eral list of functions that may be included in a
wind-turbine control system to maintain the
wind turbine within its allowable operating
parameters.
(1) Measurement of wind speed at turbine
site
(2) Detection of interconnection with col-
lector system or loss of load
(3) Rotor overspeed detection
(4) Turbine startistop control
(5) Turbine vibration detection
(6) Generator overpower/current detection
(7) Single phasing and phase reversal
detection
(8) Yaw control (for horizontal axis
turbines)
(9) Blade pitch control (for variable pitch
turbines)
(10) Generator synchronizing control (for
synchronous generators)
(11) Turbine brake control
(12) Generator voltage/var control
The specific control requirements for a par-
ticular wind turbine are not within the scope of
this document. The manufacturer of the wind
AND OPERATION OF WINDFARM GENERATING STATrONS
IEEE
std 1094-1991
turbine should be consulted about the specific
control requirements of the wind turbine.
There are several items t o consider in the
control of wind turbines. These are start/stop
algorithms t o optimize energy capture, real
and reactive power regulation, simultaneous
starting of multiple turbines, energizing a de-
energized feeder, and operation in an island-
ing condition.
St art ht op control algorithms must deter-
mine when to start or synchronize a wind tur-
bine so that the turbine can generate power.
Also, the algorithm controls when t o stop or
separate the wind turbine from the utility sys-
tem. The control system must attempt to de-
termine the mean wind speed even when the
wind is gusting. The control system must de-
termine whether the wind energy available is
sufficient to produce power or if too much wind
energy is present to operate the wind turbine.
This decision is a trade-off between start-up
cost, energy production revenues, and fatigue
life consumption. St ads t op algorithms may
have to take into account the wind direction
and the effects of shadowing of the wind tur-
bine or i t s control anemometer by another
turbine.
Since t he energy available in the wind is
proportional t o the cube of the wind speed,
variations in the wind can have large effects
on the output power and var requirements of a
windfarm. Var and voltage control may be
required or may be economical due to reduc-
tions in collection system losses or t o incen-
tives that the utility may impose (see 2.5).
Some t urbi nes st ar t aerodynamically,
others start by motoring the generator. When a
wind turbine starts by motoring the generator,
the generator can draw several times the nor-
mal full load current for several seconds.
This large current can cause the voltage on the
line feeding the turbine to drop because of the
resistance and reactance of the line. If several
of the wind turbines in a windfarm start at the
same time, the voltage could drop to unaccept-
able levels, with possible damage t o the
generators.
A utility or windfarm feeder may be out of
service due to the operation of a protective de-
vice (i.e., fuse, circuit breaker, recloser), a
line failure, or an interruption. The energiz-
ing of a feeder while a repairperson is work-
ing on the line could cause serious injury or
death. If a wind turbine is capable of starting
without auxiliary power from the feeder, the
controller must prevent the turbine from con-
necting to the line when the feeder is de-
energized.
If one or more operating wind turbines be-
come separated from the utility system and do
not shut down, the turbines will be operating
without the voltage and frequency regulation
that the utility system provides. This situation
is called islanding (see 1.6). In a windfarm,
islanding may be difficult t o detect with sim-
ple relaying because the operating generators
may mimic the presence of the utility generat-
ing system. The wind-turbine control or pro-
tection system must be designed t o detect
islanding and shut down the affected turbine
(see 3.3.8.6).
4 2 Central Control of Multiple Units. Some or
all wind-turbine control functions of two or
more machines can be combined to reduce the
cost of individual controllers and sensors and
to reduce the impact on the utility system due to
variations in wind and turbine starting re-
quirements (see Figs 8 and 9.)
For wind turbines utilizing anemometers in
their startistop control algorithms, one
anemometer may be utilized for control inputs
for two or more turbines, reducing the cost over
individual anemometer control inputs. Mi-
crositing considerations will influence the
number and locations of wind turbines t hat
may share anemometer control inputs. For
turbines exposed t o the same wind conditions,
one wind turbine can sometimes be utilized as
a scout t o determine if other turbines should
be started.
4.3 Central Monitoring System. A windfarm
may utilize a centralized monitoring system
to collect data on the status of the turbines in the
windfarm. This information may be used by a
central control system, performance tracking
system, or a maintenance coordinating
system.
4.4 Communication System. There are sev-
eral options available for communicating
between the different wind-turbine sites on a
windfarm. These include utilizing dedicated
metallic conductors extending between the
turbines and a central site, microwave trans-
mitters and receivers, fiber-optic cables, and
carrier wave signals on the electrical power
27
IEEE
Std 1094-1991
turbine should be consulted about the specific
control requirements of the wind turbine.
There are several items to consider in the
control of wind turbines. These are starUstop
algorithms to optimize energy capture, real
and reactive power regulation, simultaneous
starting of multiple turbines, energizing a de-
energized feeder, and operation in an island-
ing condition.
Start/stop control algorithms must deter-
mine when to start or synchronize a wind tur-
bine so that the turbine can generate power.
Also, the algorithm controls when to stop or
separate the wind turbine from the utility sys-
tem. The control system must attempt to de-
termine the mean wind speed even when the
wind is gusting. The control system must de-
termine whether the wind energy available is
sufficient to produce power or if too much wind
energy is present to operate the wind turbine.
This decision is a trade-off between start-up
cost, energy production revenues, and fatigue
life consumption. StarUstop algorithms may
have to take into account the wind direction
and the effects of shadowing of the wind tur-
bine or its control anemometer by another
turbine.
Since the energy available in the wind is
proportional to the cube of the wind speed,
variations in the wind can have large effects
on the output power and var requirements of a
windfarm. Var and voltage control may be
required or may be economical due to reduc-
tions in collection system losses or to incen-
tives that the utility may impose (see 2.5).
Some turbines start aerodynamically,
others start by motoring the generator. When a
wind turbine starts by motoring the generator,
the generator can draw several times the nor-
mal full load current for several seconds.
This large current can cause the voltage on the
line feeding the turbine to drop because of the
resistance and reactance of the line. If several
of the wind turbines in a windfarm start at the
same time, the voltage could drop to unaccept-
able levels, with possible damage to the
generators.
A utility or windfarm feeder may be out of
service due to the operation of a protective de-
vice (i.e., fuse, circuit breaker, recloser), a
line failure, or an interruption. The energiz-
ing of a feeder while a repairperson is work-
ing on the line could cause serious injury or
death. If a wind turbine is capable of starting
without auxiliary power from the feeder, the
controller must prevent the turbine from con-
necting to the line when the feeder is de-
energized.
If one or more operating wind turbines be-
come separated from the utility system and do
not shut down, the turbines will be operating
without the voltage and frequency regulation
that the utility system provides. This situation
is called islanding (see 1.6). In a windfarm,
islanding may be difficult to detect with sim-
ple relaying because the operating generators
may mimic the presence of the utility generat-
ing system. The wind-turbine control or pro-
tection system must be designed to detect
islanding and shut down the affected turbine
(see 3.3.8.6).
4.2 Central Control of Multiple Units. Some or
all wind-turbine control functions of two or
more machines can be combined to reduce the
cost of individual controllers and sensors and
to reduce the impact on the utility system due to
variations in wind and turbine starting re-
quirements (see Figs 8 and 9.)
For wind tur1?ines utilizing anemometers in
their start/stop control algorithms, one
anemometer may be utilized for control inputs
for two or more turbines, reducing the cost over
individual anemometer control inputs. Mi-
crositing considerations will influence the
number and locations of wind turbines that
may share anemometer control inputs. For
turbines exposed to the same wind conditions,
one wind turbine can sometimes be utilized as
a "scout" to determine if other turbines should
be started.
4.3 Central Monitoring System. A windfarm
may utilize a centralized monitoring system
to collect data on the status ofthe turbines in the
windfarm. This information may be used by a
central control system, performance tracking
system, or a maintenance coordinating
system.
4.4 Communication System. There are sev-
eral options available for communicating
between the different wind-turbine sites on a
windfarm. These include utilizing dedicated
metallic conductors extending between the
turbines and a central site, microwave trans-
mitters and receivers, fiber-optic cables, and
carrier wave signals on the electrical power
lEEE
std 1w-1991 JEEE RECOMMENDED PRACTICE FOR "HE ELECTRICAL DESIGN
ANEMOMETER
TURBINE
J
WINDFARM
COLLECTION
SYSTEM
ANEMOMETER
I A
~
L- TURBINE 1
CONTROLLER e
Fig 8
Local Conhl
lines. Each of these options has its own advan-
tages and disadvantages, depending on the
requi rement s for t he system and t he
environment.
5. Operations and &&+Work Procedures
6.1 Communication With Utility. Good com-
munication and a good working relationship
with the interconnecting utility will facilitate
the efficient operation of the windfarm. The
windfarm operator should develop and main-
tain contacts with the utility operating person-
nel and supervisors responsible for service t o
t he windfarm. Several different departments
within the utility (e.g., distribution, transmis-
sion, substations) may be involved, depending
upon the voltage level and complexity of the
interconnection.
The utility personnel may request informa-
tion from the windfarm operator about faults
within the windfarm that were noticed by util-
ity monitoring equipment. They may also
wish to know about scheduled equipment
outages t hat affect the windfarm production.
Likewise, the windfarm operator may desire
information about the cause and expected du-
ration of interruptions to the utility intercon-
nection. If agreeable to the utility, it may be
desirable for the windfarm operator to have a
telephone number for the central or regional
dispatching center of the utility in order to
have 24 h communication of operating
information.
5.2 Coordination of Maintenance and Opera-
tion. In addition to t he design coordination
necessary to realize the physical and electri-
cal interfaces between the customer facilities
and the utility, it is necessary to coordinate
normal maintenance and operation func-
tions. The details of such coordination are
usually outlined in an operational agreement
to which all parties are obligated.
IEEE
ANEMOMETER
/
,.......
r------ - - - - - - - - - ~
WINDFARM
COLLECTION ------\
SYSTEM
TURBINE
CONTROLLER
ANEMOMETER
FigS
Local Control
lines. Each of these options has its own advan-
tages and disadvantages, depending on the
requirements for the system and the
environ men t.
5. Operations and Safe.Work Procedures
5.1 Communication With Utility. Good com-
munication and a good working relationship
with the interconnecting utility will facilitate
the efficient operation of the windfarm. The
windfarm operator should develop and main-
tain contacts with the utility operating person-
nel and supervisors responsible for service to
the windfarm. Several different departments
within the utility (e.g., distribution, transmis-
sion, substations) may be involved, depending
upon the voltage level and complexity of the
interconnection.
The utility personnel may request informa-
tion from the windfarm operator about faults
within the windfarm that were noticed by util-
ity monitoring equipment. They may also
wish to know about scheduled equipment
outages that affect the windfarm production.
Likewise, the windfarm operator may desire
information about the cause and expected du-
ration of interruptions to the utility intercon-
nection. If agreeable to the utility, it may be
desirable for the windfarm operator to have a
telephone number for the central or regional
dispatching center of the utility in order to
have 24 h communication of operating
information.
5.2 Coordination of Maintenance and Opera-
tion. In addition to the design coordination
necessary to realize the physical and electri-
cal interfaces between the customer facilities
and the utility, it is necessary to coordinate
normal maintenance and operation func-
tions. The details of such coordination are
usually outlined in an operational agreement
to which all parties are obligated.
Em
std 1044-1991
WIN DFARM
SYSTEM
COLLECTION -
1
TURBINE
CONTROLLER
\
v\
ANEMOMETER
r
1
TURBINE
CONTROLLER
Fig9
Centtal Control
Particular items t hat need to be covered by
an operational agreement are:
(1) Coordination of Switching: In order to
avoid disruption of station and utility
service and/or equipment damage.
(2) Tagging/Lockout: Clearly defined pro-
cedures for isolation of equipment and
circuits as required for utility, owner,
and contractor maintenance work.
(3) Personnel Safety and Training: State-
ment of the minimum level of compe-
t ence r equi r ed for oper at i ons,
mai nt enance, a nd const r uct i on
personnel.
(4) Access: Provision for both owner and
utility access in all weather conditions.
5.3 Utility Clearance Procedures. When
preparing to do work on de-energized equip-
ment t hat is normally energized at 600 V or
higher, utilities follow a highly formal proce-
dure. Thi s procedure, often called a
clearance, is intended to guarantee that the
equipment is, and will remain, safe to work
on. The clearance is issued by the central or
regional dispatching center to the person who
will work on the equipment or who will di-
rectly supervise the work. The procedure itself
i s usually written and t he various steps
checked off by both the dispatching center and
the individual who will receive the clearance.
The principal steps are
(1) Identifying the equipment to be cleared
and the switches that must be opened to
de-energize it; switches are often num-
bered to facilitate identification.
(2) Checking every possible source of en-
ergy that might inadvertently energize
the cleared apparatus, to be sure it is dis-
connected; the utility will consider the
windfarm to be a possible source of
e n er gy .
29
IEEE
Std 1094-1991
WINDFARM
ANEMOMETER
COLLECTION -.----1
SYSTEM WIND FARM
CONTROLLER!
MONITOR
Fig 9
Central Control
Particular items that need to be covered by
an operational agreement are:
(1) Coordination of Switching: In order to
avoid disruption of station and utility
service and/or equipment damage.
(2) Tagging/Lockout: Clearly defined pro-
cedures for isolation of equipment and
circuits as required for utility, owner,
and contractor maintenance work.
(3) Personnel Safety and Training: State-
ment of the minimum level of compe-
tence required for operations,
maintenance, and construction
personnel.
(4) Access: Provision for both owner and
utility access in all weather conditions.
5.3 Utility Clearance Procedures. When
preparing to do work on de-energized equip-
ment that is normally energized at 600 V or
higher, utilities follow a highly formal proce-
29
dure. This procedure, often called a
"clearance," is intended to guarantee that the
equipment is, and will remain, safe to work
on. The clearance is issued by the central or
regional dispatching center to the person who
will work on the equipment or who will di-
rectly supervise the work. The procedure itself
is usually written and the various steps
checked off by both the dispatching center and
the individual who will receive the clearance.
The principal steps are
(1) Identifying the equipment to be cleared
and the switches that must be opened to
de-energize it; switches are often num-
bered to facilitate identification.
(2) Checking every possible source of en-
ergy that might inadvertently energize
the cleared apparatus, to be sure it is dis-
connected; the utility will consider the
windfarm to be a possible source of
energy.
IEEE
std 1094-1991
(3) De-energizing the equipment by open-
ing all the identified switches, locking
them open, and placing signs t o indicate
that the switches must not be closed.
(4) Verifying t hat the equipment is de-
energized by measuring t he voltage
with a suitable voltmeter or indicator.
( 5 ) Grounding all normally energized
conductors through the use of grounding
swi t ches or port abl e gr oundi ng
conductors; this is done to eliminate
capacitively or inductively coupled
voltages as well as to provide an ad-
ditional safeguard against inadvertent
re-energization.
Depending upon the arrangement of the
utility-windfarm interconnection, it may be
necessary to open switches belonging to the
windfarm in order to clear utility equipment
or vice versa. In such cases, it will be neces-
sary for the two parties t o agree upon who will
operate the necessary switches. Regardless of
who does t he actual switching, it is vitally
important t hat the utility and the windfarm
understand and respect each others clearance
procedures.
6.4 Intraplant Safe-Work Procedures. The
windfarm operator should be concerned with
the safety and health of each employee, con-
tractor, and visitor entering windfarm facili
ties or field work locations. The operator
should make every effort to do his or her best to
identify and eliminate potential and existing
hazards and t o reduce the number of employee
injuries resulting from on-the-job accidents to
an absolute minimum.
Employees should be responsible for their
personal safety and the well being of co-work-
ers through strict adherence to written, estab-
lished safe-work procedures. Management
should be responsible for establishing and
monitoring these procedures. Additionally,
employee groups should meet regularly t o
discuss and refine these procedures.
The turbine supplier or manufacturer may
have special procedures for operation and
maintenance of t he turbine and its acces-
sories. Additionally, the suppliers of other ma-
jor electrical and mechanical equipment may
have recommended safe-work procedures.
These procedures should be carefully inte-
grated with the windfarms own operating and
maintenance procedures.
Depending on state and local jurisdiction,
the installation may be required to conform to
and use ANSI C2-1990 [ll. This code addresses
design, maintenance, and work rules as ap-
plied t o high-voltagehigh-power electrical
systems. Other local and national codes may
also apply to the installation; local code en-
forcement authorities should be consulted as to
applicable codes and standards.
30
IEEE
Std 1094-1991
(3) De-energizing the equipment by open-
ing all the identified switches, locking
them open, and placing signs to indicate
that the switches must not be closed.
(4) Verifying that the equipment is de-
energized by measuring the voltage
with a suitable voltmeter or indicator.
(5) Grounding all normally energized
conductors through the use of grounding
switches or portable grounding
conductors; this is done to eliminate
capacitively or inductively coupled
voltages as well as to provide an ad-
ditional safeguard against inadvertent
re-energization.
Depending upon the arrangement of the
utility-windfarm interconnection, it may be
necessary to open switches belonging to the
windfarm in order to clear utility equipment
or vice versa. In such cases, it will be neces-
sary for the two parties to agree upon who will
operate the necessary switches. Regardless of
who does the actual switching, it is vitally
important that the utility and the windfarm
understand and respect each other's clearance
procedures.
5.4 Intraplant Safe-Work Procedures. The
windfarm operator should be concerned with
the safety and health of each employee, con-
tractor, and visitor entering windfarm facili
30
ties or field work locations. The operator
should make every effort to do his or her best to
identify and eliminate potential and existing
hazards and to reduce the number of employee
injuries resulting from on-the-job accidents to
an absolute minimum.
Employees should be responsible for their
personal safety and the well being of co-work-
ers through strict adherence to written, estab-
lished safe-work procedures. Management
should be responsible for establishing and
monitoring these procedures. Additionally,
employee groups should meet regularly to
discuss and refine these procedures.
The turbine supplier or manufacturer may
have special procedures for operation and
maintenance of the turbine and its acces-
sories. Additionally, the suppliers of other ma-
jor electrical and mechanical equipment may
have recommended safe-work procedures.
These procedures should be carefully inte-
grated with the windfarm's own operating and
maintenance procedures.
Depending on state and local jurisdiction,
the installation may be required to conform to
and use ANSI C2-1990 [1]. This code addresses
design, maintenance, and work rules as ap-
plied to high-voltage/high-power electrical
systems. Other local and national codes may
also apply to the installation; local code en-
forcement authorities should be consulted as to
applicable codes and standards.

55788

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IEEEstd1094-1991

- IEEE Recommended Practice

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