1.Explain briefly the intrastelar changes that occur during the secondary growth in a dicot stem. A.

a)Formation of vascular cambial ring: Each Vascular bundle consists of cambium in between the xylem and phloem.This is called fascicular cambium.In between the vascular bundles there are medullary rays,from the cells of which interfascicular cambium is formed.The fascicular and interfascicular cambia fuse to form a continuous cambial ring called vascular cambium. b)Activity of the vascular cambial ring: The cells of vascular cambium divide repeatedly by periclinal method and produce new cells on both the sides.Those cells which are produces outside the cambial ring develop into secondary phloem or bast and those are produced to the inner side develop into secondary xylem or wood.In the vascular cambium two types of initiating cells are found.They are 1. Fusiform initals and 2.Ray initals.Th e fusiform initials give rise to the secondary xylem and the secondary phloem.The ray initials produce phloem rays(bast rays) to the outside and xylem rays(wood rays) to the inside. c)Growth rings or Annual rings: During spring season (favourable season), the plant requires large amount of water and mineral salts.Hence the wood formed in this period shows more number of xylem vessels having wider lumens.This is known as Spring wood or early wood. Durning autumn season(unfavourable season), the plant requires less amount of water and mineral salts. Hence the wood formed in this period shows less number of xylem vessels having narrow lumens.This is known as Autumn wood or late wood. In this way two types of secondary xylem(wood) are produced in one year and appears as circles in the transverse section of a tree trunk.These are called growth rings or annual rings. d)Heart wood and sap wood: The old secondary xylem is present in the centre of tree trunk and appears dark in colour. This is called Heart wood or Duramen.It is highly durable and cannot conduct water and salts because of the growth of tyloses.The heart wood gives mechanical strength to the tree. The newly formed secondary xylem is found in the peripheral part of the tree trunk and appears light in colour.This is called sap wood or alburnum.It is less durable and conducting water and mineral salts 2.Decribe the transverse section of a dicot leaf. A. Dicot mesophytic leaf has dorsiventral plan.

It has epidermis, mesophyll, vascular bundles, bundle sheath, hypodermal mechanical tissue strands. Epidermis is uniseriate on both surfaces of leaf. Cells are parenchymatic, colourless except
guard cells.

Cuticle & stomata are present. Stomatal frequency is more on the lower (adaxial) surface. Mesophyll is differentiated into upper (abaxial) palisade tissue & lower (abaxial) spongy tissue. Mesophyll is chlorenchymatic and photosynthetic Palisade cells are cylindrical, arranged compactly in 1 or 3 layers perpendicularly to upper epidermis. Cells have more chloroplasts and dark green. Palisade is primarily concerned with photosynthesis. Spongy tissue has loosely arranged irregular chlorenchyma with large intercellular spaces. Spongy parenchyma has fewer chloroplasts, light green. Aeration & photosynthesis are the functions.

 Veins are represented by vascular bundles. They are located between palisade and spongy tissues. Vascular bundles are conjoint, collateral and closed. Xylem facing upper epidermis and phloem lower epidermis. (Xylem is adaxial & phloem is abaxial). Protoxylem is towards upper side. Bigger bundles have xylem vessels but smaller bundles have tracheids with annular & spiral thickenings. Colourless parenchymatic bundle sheath is present. Bundle sheath cells are also called border
parenchyma.

Bundle sheath extensions are parenchymatic. They help in conduction of food materials from mesophyll to vascular bundles. 3.Explain the internal structure of a monocot leaf. A. Monocot leaf is an isobilateral leaf. Bulliform cells or motor cells are present in the upper epidermis of grass leaf. Bulliform cells help in rolling and unrolling of leaf. Stomatal frequency is same in both epidermal layers. Mesophyll is undifferentiated. It is made up of either columnar cells or spongy cells. Sclerenclymatic hypodermal patches are present which give mechanical strength. Vascular bundle is surrounded by parenchymatic bundle sheath. In some cases it may be sclerenchymatic. In grasses, bundle sheath is homologous to endodermis as its cells possess Casparian strips. IMPORTANT POINTS Stems have bigger stele, conjoint & collateral vascular bundles and endarch xylem. Roots have bigger cortex, radial vascular bundles and exarch xylem. Dicot stem has limited number of open, collateral vascular bundles in a ring and distinct medulla and medullary rays. Monocot stem has numerous scattered, closed collateral bundles and indistinct medulla. Monocot root has distinct medulla and exarch & polyarch xylem. Medulla is distinct in dicot stem and monocot root. Isobilateral dicot leaf is Eucalyptus, pseudoisobilateral dicot leaf is Nerium. Palisade tissue is found on both sides of the leaf in - Eucalyptus, Nerium. 4.Describe the structure,types and functions of chromosomes. A. 1.Primary Constriction : The non-stainable parts of chromosomes is called primary constriction (or) centromere. The centromere divide the chromosome into to arms. The centromere consists two disc like structures called kinetochores (or) kinomeres. The chromosome bend in the region of centromere during Implantation of spindle fibres. 2.Secondary Constriction : The non-stainable parts of chromosomes other than the centromere are called secondary constrictions. The chromosome dont besnd with them. The secondary constriction is also called as Nucleolar organizer.

3.Satellite (or) Trebent : Round and nob like arm present beyond the secondary constriction is called Satellite. 4.Telomere : The Repulsive ends of chromosomes are called Telomeres. They exhibits polarity in Eukaryotes and absent in prokaryotes.
Classification of Chromosomes : (Types) Based on the number of centromeres. 1. Acentric Centromere is absent. 2. Monocentric Single centromere is present. It is most common type. 3. Dicentric Presence of two centromeres. 4. Polycentric Presence of more than two centromeres. Based on the position of centromere, the monocentric chromosome further classified into meta centric. Metacentric : The centromere is present in the mid point of chromosome. Both arms are equal in length. It appears as V shape in Anaphase. Sub metacentric : The centromere is slightly away from the mid point. Both arms are unequal in length. It appears as L shape in Anaphase. Acro Centric : The centromere is present towards one side of the coromosome. One arm is very long and one is very short. It appears as J shape in Anaphase. Telocentric : The centromere is present at the end of single arm. It appears as I shape in Anaphase. Function : Chromosomes play a vital role in heredity, mutations and evolutionary development of a species.