SCIENCE Energy, Force & Motion

Work can be defined as the application of a force over a distance. In other words, work is the use of a force to move an object a certain distance. The equation for work done is: W = Fs where W is work done, F is force in newtons (N) and s is the distance the object moved in metres (m). Work is measured in joules (J), which is equivalent to one newton per metre. Work takes on many forms. It can be most easily seen when an object is moved from one place to another. Work is also taking place, however, when an object is being heated or changes state. In these cases, the work takes place on a particle level. As particles move more quickly, the object heats up and changes state. Energy is the ability of an object to change the velocity, location, shape or state of another object. Some definitions of work state that it is a transfer of energy from one object to another. Like work, energy is measured in joules. There are two main types of energy: kinetic energy and potential energy. Kinetic energy is the energy found in objects that are in motion. Kinetic energy is often used to change the speed or shape of another object. A billiard ball being hit by another billiard ball, for example, shows kinetic energy being used to change the speed of another object. Another example of kinetic energy doing work is when two cars collide with one another and their shape is changed. Potential energy is energy that is stored within an object. There are many kinds of potential energy. The most common example is gravitational potential energy,which is the energy an object gains when it is raised higher in a gravitational field. There are other types of potential energy that will be discussed later.

Potential energy can be transformed into kinetic energy and vice versa.

DOT POINT NOTES:

Work and energy Work is the application of a force over a distance Work takes on many forms, such as moving or heating objects Energy is the ability of an object to change the velocity, location, shape or state of another object There are two main kinds of energy: kinetic energy and potential energy Kinetic energy is found in objects that are in motion Potential energy is energy that is stored in objects Potential energy can be transformed into kinetic energy Kinetic energy can be transformed into potential energy

Kinetic energy Kinetic energy is the energy of an object in motion Kinetic energy can be expressed as KE = mv2 If something is moving quickly, it has lots of kinetic energy If something is moving slowly, is has little kinetic energy Kinetic energy can change the shape or velocity of another object

Potential energy Potential energy is energy that is stored in an object Gravitational potential energy is energy stored by an object in a gravitational field Elastic potential energy is energy stored by a compressed or extended elastic object Electrical potential energy is energy stored by charged particles Chemical potential energy is energy stored in the bonds within molecules Nuclear potential energy is energy stored in the bonds within atoms

Law of Conservation of Energy The Law of Conservation of Energy states that energy cannot be created or destroyed Energy can be transformed into kinetic energy, potential energy, heat, light or sound A bouncing ball transforms energy between gravitational, kinetic and elastic energy The bouncing ball loses energy through friction, changing it into heat and sound A car loses energy through friction as it is transformed into heat and sound Efficiency describes how much energy is lost through friction

Power Work is a measurement that describes a force and its efficiency to move an object but not the time taken Power is the rate at which work is done Power is work divided by time A car has the same power as another car with half the mass that accelerates in half the time Power is also equal to force times velocity

MOTION Motion is a change of position or movement of an object relative to another object. All motions take place on a definite path, and the nature of these paths determines the character of the motions. A simple type of motion occurs when a ball is thrown at an angle into the air. Because of the earth's gravity, the ball undergoes a constant downward speed that first slows its original upward speed and then increases its downward speed as it falls back to earth. Meanwhile the horizontal component of the original speed remains constant (ignoring air friction), making the ball travel at a constant speed in the horizontal direction until it hits the earth. Circular motion is another simple type of motion. If an object has constant speed but an acceleration always at right angles to its path, it will travel in a circle. The required acceleration is directed toward the center of the circle and is called centripetal acceleration. Constant speed or velocity is a special type of motion where the average velocity is equal to the velocity at any particular time. In the simplest case, the velocity might be zero; an object's position would not change during the time interval. In another special type of motion, acceleration or increase in speed is constant. A heavy object falling freely (uninfluenced by air friction) near the surface of the earth undergoes constant acceleration. Isaac Newton determined the general principles of motion and formulated them into the Three Laws of Motion. According to the First Law of Motion, an object at rest tends to stay at rest. An object in motion tends to stay in motion, in the same direction and speed. Basically, if nothing is happening and nothing does happen, you will never go anywhere. If you are going in a specific direction, unless something happened to you, you will always go in that direction at the same speed forever. In the Second Law of Motion, Newton theorized that the acceleration or increase in speed of an object is directly proportional to the magnitude of the force, the same direction as the force, and inversely proportional to the mass of the object. Inversely proportional means if one value goes up, the other value will go down, assuming everything else stays the same. The Third Law states that for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. If you knock one metal ball into another, the other ball will start to move. Think about how pinball machines work.

Either the ball bounces perfectly off the side, or it runs into something which transfers energy to another object, for example the bumper. The total force involved in the situation remains the same.

FORCE A force is a push or pull causing an object to start moving or changing its state of rest. Forces can be balanced or unbalanced. Balanced forces do not cause a change in motion; they are equal in size and opposite in direction. Unlike balanced forces, unbalanced forces always cause a change in motion; they are not equal in size and opposite in direction. When two unbalanced forces are exerted in opposite directions, their combined force is equal to the difference between the two forces, and is exerted in the direction of the larger force. Unbalanced forces can also be exerted in the same direction. This section focuses on the description of balanced and unbalanced forces in our environment, with discussion of the types of force such as gravity, friction, and magnetism.

ELEMENTS, COMPOUNDS & MIXTURES Elements Note that an element: consists of only one kind of atom cannot be broken down into a simpler type of matter by either physical or chemical means. can exist as either atoms (e.g. argon) or molecules (e.g., nitrogen).

Molecule A molecule consists of two or more atoms of the same element, or different elements, that are chemically bound together. Note that the two nitrogen atoms which comprise a nitrogen molecule move as a unit.

Compounds Microscopic view of the molecules of the compound water (gas phase). Oxygen atoms are red and hydrogen atoms are white.

Note that a compound: consists of atoms of two or more different elements bound together, can be broken down into a simpler type of matter (elements) by chemical means (but not by physical means), has properties that are different from its component elements, and always contains the same ratio of its component atoms.

Mixtures Microscopic view of a gaseous mixture containing two elements (argon and nitrogen) and a compound (water).

Note that a mixture: consists of two or more different elements and/or compounds physically intermingled, can be separated into its components by physical means, and often retains many of the properties of its components.

UNIVERSE & EARTH BIG BANG THEORY.

ABIOTIC & BIOTIC HUMAN IMPACTS Biotic and abiotic factors are interrelated. If one factor is changed or removed, it impacts the availability of other resources within the system.

Biotic Factors Biotic, meaning of or related to life, are living factors. Plants, animals, fungi, protist and bacteria are all biotic or living factors.

Abiotic Factors Abiotic, meaning not alive, are nonliving factors that affect living organisms. Environmental factors such habitat (pond, lake, ocean, desert, mountain) or weather such as temperature, cloud cover, rain, snow, hurricanes, etc. are abiotic factors.

A System Biotic and abiotic factors combine to create a system or more precisely, an ecosystem. An ecosystem is a community of living and nonliving things considered as a unit.

The Impact of Changing Factors If a single factor is changed, perhaps by pollution or natural phenomenon, the whole system could be altered. For example, humans can alter environments through farming or irrigating. While we usually cannot see what we are doing to various ecosytems, the impact is being felt all over. For example, acid rain in certain regions has resulted in the decline of fish population.

BIOSPHERE The area near the surface of the earth can be divided up into four interconnected "geo-spheres:" the lithosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere, and atmosphere. Scientists can classify life and material on or near the surface of the earth to be in any of these four spheres. The names of the four spheres are derived from the Greek words for stone (litho), air (atmo), water (hydro), and life (bio).

Lithosphere The lithosphere is the solid, rocky crust covering entire planet. This crust is inorganic and is composed of minerals. It covers the entire surface of the earth from the top of Mount Everest to the bottom of the Mariana Trench.

Hydrosphere The hydrosphere is composed of all of the water on or near the earth. This includes the oceans, rivers, lakes, and even the moisture in the air. Ninetyseven percent of the earth's water is in the oceans. The remaining three percent is fresh water; three-quarters of the fresh water is solid and exists in ice sheets

Biosphere The biosphere is composed of all living organisms. Plants, animals, and onecelled organisms are all part of the biosphere. Most of the planet's life is found from three meters below the ground to thirty meters above it and in the top 200 meters of the oceans and seas.

Atmosphere The atmosphere is the body of air which surrounds our planet. Most of our atmosphere is located close to the earth's surface where it is most dense. The air of our planet is 79% nitrogen and just under 21% oxygen; the small amount remaining is composed of carbon dioxide and other gasses. * All four spheres can be and often are present in a single location. For example, a piece of soil will of course have mineral material from the lithosphere. Additionally, there will be elements of the hydrosphere present as moisture within the soil, the biosphere as insects and plants, and even the atmosphere as pockets of air between soil pieces.

SCIENCE TERMINOLOGY Independent Variable: The one you choose to change. Or it is the cause of the change in the dependent variable. (Ex: amount/type of Fertilizer) Dependent Variable: The one you choose to observe. The one that receives the effect of the independent variable. (Ex: Plant ; the one you'll use with the fertilizer) Controlled Variables: (Usually more than one): The ones that remain the same throughout the experiment. Hypothesis: A possible explanation for an observing or answer to a scientific question; must be testable.