Laws of Shabbath

Laws of Shabbat - Class #1
An introduction to the idea of

“creative labor activities.”
written by
Alan Goldman
edited by
Rabbi Shraga Simmons
© 2007 JewishPathways.com
1
“Remember the Sabbath day” – Exodus 20:8.
“Observe the Sabbath day” – Deut. 5:12.
‘Observe’ and ‘Remember’ were said in the same breath.
– Midrash1
Resting and Working
Many people know that Shabbat (Saturday) is the Jewish day of rest.
But what does being a ‘day of rest’ actually mean?
Most basically, it means that we take a break from our regular routine.
We have more time to spend on the important things: to see family
and friends, to eat well, to study Torah, to rejuvenate. Shabbat gives
balance and perspective to our lives and to our week. The word
‘Remember’ in the first recital of the Ten Commandments refers to
these enjoyments.
Beyond relaxing, being restful also means avoiding work. The Torah
defines “work” as any creative labor. If my action results in something
new, it is considered ‘creative.’ This is different than the common
definition we learn in physics class, which is that work results when a
force is applied to an object. The distinction is important: it explains
why we are permitted to move a heavy chair from one room to
another, but we are not allowed to flick on a light switch.
The Torah, in its second recital of the Ten Commandments, refers to

this aspect of Shabbat through the word ‘Observe.’ But it does not tell
us what kind of labor to avoid. The specifics – and there are plenty of
them – are spelled out in the Mishnah, the Talmud, and later texts.
Shabbat empowers us – not to discard our workaday world – but to

retain our ability to be independent from it.
Our first take-home point, then, is that
Refraining from creative labor is an essential element of

observing Shabbat.
1
Mechilta B’Chadash 7
2
Shabbat and the Tabernacle
God created the world in six days and rested on Shabbat, the seventh
day.2 By stopping work on Shabbat, God showed that the world is
complete and lacks nothing. Jews are similarly commanded to cease
acts of creation (Melachot) on Shabbat, just as God stopped His work.3
This ceasing of "work" acknowledges that God's creation is perfect and
that the world can exist without active human input.
How did our sages derive the many laws of Shabbat? The Oral Law,
explained by God to Moses, shows how the verses of Shabbat are
juxtaposed to the commandment to build the Mishkan (the
4
Tabernacle). From this it is understood that the building of the
Mishkan could not take place on Shabbat. In other words, the activities
that were required for the construction and operation of the Mishkan
are considered ‘work’ for Shabbat purposes.
The Tabernacle represents a microcosm of the universe – a distillation

of all the energies, patterns and resources found in the material world.
Therefore as the microcosm of creation, the activities performed in
constructing the Tabernacle precisely parallel those acts performed by
God (so to speak) in creating the world. Thus these are the same
activities that we refrain from on Shabbat.5
The 39 Melachot
The Mishnah6 lists 39 ‘labor categories’ that were performed in

connection with the Mishkan. These categories are thus the basis for
the laws of avoiding work on Shabbat.
2
Genesis 2:2
3
Exodus 20:8-11
4
See the first five verses of Exodus, chapter 35.
5
Malbim
6
Shabbat 7:2.
3
Let’s examine the first labor category, Zoreya7 (Planting), in order to
see how this works. The classic case of Zoreya is planting seeds in the
ground. This activity is included as one of the paradigms of ‘work’
because bread was used in the Mishkan, and of course it is necessary
to grow grain in order to have bread. So, if you plant a seed on
Shabbat you have engaged in Zoreya (which is not permitted).
How about if you don’t actually plant the seed, but you do something
else that will help the seed (or a plant) grow? Say you water the seed,
or prune the plant, or similar activities. This isn’t exactly Zoreya, but it
is similar. These activities are also forbidden, because they resemble
the classic case.
In halachic terminology, the classic case in each category is known as

the Av Melacha (literally, the ‘parent – i.e. primary – labor’). The
similar activities are known as toladot (literally, the ‘offspring’ – i.e.
secondary; singular is ‘toladah’). While there are only 39 Av Melachot,
there can be many more toladot.
Torah Law and Rabbinic Law
Within halacha there are two broad sources of law: the laws of the
Torah, and the laws enacted by the sages throughout the generations.
Anything based on the text of the Torah, or passed orally from the
time of Moses, is considered to be ‘Torah law’ (in Hebrew,
mi’de’oraita8). Anything else is considered ‘rabbinic law’ (in Hebrew,
mi’derabbanan9).
Regarding Shabbat, all of the Avot Melachot (plural for the ‘parent
labors’) as well as their Toladot are considered ‘Torah law.’ This is
because all of these prohibitions derive from the mitzvah to
‘observe/remember the Shabbat’.
7
Pronounced zoh-RAY-ah.
8
Pronounced mee-deh-oh-RIGHT-ah.
9
Pronounced mee-deh-rah-bah-NAHN.
4
Both sets of laws are binding on us as Jews. However, Torah law does
have an extra level of stringency, and we will often distinguish
between Torah law and rabbinic law when it comes to permitting
certain activities on Shabbat.
We will also see throughout this course that there are further Shabbat
restrictions that the Sages put in place. These are known as gezerot
and takanot (loosely, ‘decrees’ and ‘enactments’). In their great
wisdom, the Sages enacted these when they felt it necessary to
distance us from potential violations of Shabbat,10 or to strengthen the
spirit of Shabbat.
Shabbat is an encompassing experience, one in which we are

completely immersed for 24 hours. When approaching the laws of
Shabbat, many people are surprised by how they regulate every
aspect of our behavior – even our speech. In practice, this takes some
getting used to. But with a proper appreciation of where each of these
laws derive from – and why – the observance of Shabbat can become
the undisputed high point of one’s week.
The Big Picture
In this lesson, we have
• defined what ‘work’ means with regard to Shabbat

• understood that we derive the specific types of work from the
Mishkan
• explained the system of the 39 labor categories
• distinguished between a ‘parent labor’ and an ‘offspring’
• understood that the halachot of Shabbat involve both Torah
law and rabbinic law
Quite a lot of ideas! But these concepts are the building blocks for
everything else we will do in this course.
10
See Leviticus 18:30
5
With this background, we are ready to move ahead to the concept of
‘thoughtful labor’. In order to be considered ‘work’ for Shabbat
purposes, an action needs to be done with intention. We will learn the
several aspects of this idea in our next lesson.
For Further Reading
There are a number of excellent articles on Aish.com that discuss

some of the basic ideas and ‘philosophy’ behind Shabbat. Search the
website for these titles:
• Tabernacle of Time
• Rest and Relaxation
• Heaven on Earth
About the Sources
This lesson provides a general overview of the topic covered. It is

intended to provide halachic principles and some examples. There are
many nuances to halacha, and in actual practice one should consult
with a local rabbi.
This course follows these main source materials:
• The 39 Melochos by Rabbi Dovid Ribiat (Feldheim)
• Principles of Hilchos Shabbos by Rabbi Daniel Schloss,

based on the lectures of Rabbi Yitzchak Berkovits, given at the
Aish HaTorah yeshiva in Jerusalem.
There are a number of other helpful studies of the labor categories,

including:
6
• Shemirath Shabbath by Rabbi Yehoshua Neuwirth (English
edition: Feldheim) (referred to in this course by the name of the
Hebrew edition, Shemirat Shabbat K’Hilchato)
• Halachos of Shabbos by Rabbi Shimon Eider (Feldheim)
• The Shabbos Kitchen by Rabbi Simcha Bunim Cohen

(ArtScroll)
For those readers who wish to reference more primary sources, we

provide footnotes to this important work throughout our lessons. The
citations refer to a specific volume and a specific section within the
volume.
• Shulchan Aruch (literally: "Set Table") is the main authoritative

source of Jewish law and custom, and hence often simply referred to
as the Code of Jewish Law. Written by Rabbi Yosef Karo in the 16th
century, it is divided into four main sections; the laws of Shabbat are
covered in the section 'Orach Chaim' (abbreviated OC).
• Many subsequent commentaries have been written on the Shulchan

Aruch. Two of the most authoritative are the 17th century Taz ("Turei
Zahav) by Rabbi Dovid HaLevi, and Shach ("Sifsei Cohen") by Rabbi
Shabsai HaKohen.
• Mishnah Berurah is a 20th century Ashkenazi 'update' of the

Shulchan Aruch 'Orach Chaim' section, including the laws of Shabbat.
It was authored by Rabbi Yisrael Meir Kagan, better known as the
Chafetz Chaim, and includes his additional notes entitled Biur
Halacha and Sha’ar Hatziyun. Mishnah Berurah is also available in
English translation (Feldheim).
• Shu”t Igros Moshe is an 8-volume work written by Rabbi Moshe

Feinstein, America’s pre-eminent authority on Jewish law in the 20th
century.
7
Eight key conditions to constitute

true “work” on Shabbat.
written by
Alan Goldman
edited by
1
The Basic Idea
In order for an action to be considered true “work” on Shabbat, it must

satisfy several conditions. These conditions relate mainly to the
concept of intention. That is, my work is only ‘work’ on Shabbat
(Hebrew, melacha1) if I intend to do the action I am doing.
This idea stems from the connection between Shabbat and the
Mishkan (which we discussed in our previous segment). The work of
the Mishkan is called by the Torah melechet mach’shevet – literally,
‘thoughtful work’.2 (Here, we mean ‘thoughtful’ in the sense of ‘being
done with forethought’). And since the labors we avoid on Shabbat are
derived from the labors done in the Mishkan, this notion of
‘thoughtfulness’ applies to Shabbat as well.
For any action to be ‘thoughtful work’, the following must be true:
INTENTION
(1) You are aware that you are doing the action
(2) You intend for the action to take place
(3) You are doing the action because you want the logical result to
follow
ACCOMPLISHMENT
(4) The action is constructive, not destructive

(5) The action has a permanent, rather than a temporary, effect
MANNER
(6) You do the action in the normal way it is done

(7) Your efforts directly cause the action to take place
(8) You do the action using only those people who are necessary
1
Pronounced meh-la-CHAH.
2
Exodus 35:33.
2
Case Study: A Shabbat Meal Outdoors
Let’s examine the first three conditions using a scenario:
Joshua is setting up a Shabbat meal in his backyard. (His guests like

to dine al fresco.) His yard has a grassy area, a dirt area, and a deck
area.
First, Joshua begins cleaning up the yard. He sees a tall green item
and pulls it up, assuming that it is one of his children’s toys. When he
looks at it, he realizes that, in fact, it was a vine that was growing
along the edges of the yard. (As we will learn, uprooting a plant is a
melacha).
How do we evaluate what Joshua has done? Since he was not aware
that he was pulling out a vine from the ground (remember condition
#1 from the list), we do not say that he has violated Shabbat.
Although he was aware that he was doing something, he was mistaken
about what he was actually doing. This kind of action is not considered
‘thoughtful.’
In this scenario, when we say that Joshua hasn't done work, we mean
that his action does not meet the Torah criteria for being 'work.'
However, in many cases his actions are still disallowed, due to
rabbinic decree, designed to strengthen and protect the sanctity of
Shabbat.
Joshua then needs to drag a bench across the dirt area of the
backyard. It’s possible that he will create track marks in the dirt as he
moves the bench. Making such track marks is considered a form of
melacha.3 Of course, this is not his intention: he wants to use the
bench during the meal, and he’s not interested in using the bench to
landscape his yard. At the same time, he does intend to move the
bench (see condition #2 in our list).
3
Under the category of Choresh (Plowing). We will learn about this more in lesson #3.
3
So what should Joshua do? In this situation, it depends on the
foreseeable consequences of his action. If the bench is a light bench,
and therefore it is unlikely for it to make any track marks, he may
move it. Even though there is some possibility that track marks will be
made. As long as the making of such marks is not likely, then it is fine
to do. The fact that it is somewhat possible does not cause us to
prohibit the action.
On the other hand, if the bench is

heavy, and will inevitably make marks
in the soil, Joshua is not allowed to
move it. (What he can do is get some
friends to help him lift it, and then it
will not be dragged over the ground).
The rationale here is that, when your
action will inevitably result in a labor
that is not allowed on Shabbat, you
can’t take that action – even if you don’t intend for the prohibited
labor to take place.4
Let's consider a similar case. Joshua wants to walk on his grass. We

might think that, since tearing up grass is normally considered
melacha,5 a person should keep off the lawn on Shabbat, because it's
inevitable that in traversing a patch of lawn, at least some grass will
be uprooted. But here's where we make a distinction: We judge each
step individually, as a separate action. So even though you will for
sure end up with grass on your shoes, walking across the lawn is
permitted.6
Once the furniture is in place, Joshua realizes that his yard is full of
mosquitoes and other bugs. Naturally, he would like to get rid of them.
He sprays the plants near the Shabbat table with some pesticides.
These chemicals actually aid the plants by keeping away harmful
4
This inevitable act is referred to in halacha as Psik Raisha.
5
Under the category of Kotzer (Uprooting). This is coming up in lesson #5.
6
See Har Tzvi by Rabbi Tzvi Pesach Frank, Tal Harim (Shochet 2. s.v. "U'B'Nogeah")
4
insects. So this action should be considered melacha (since improving
the health of a growing plant is considered ‘Zoreah’ – Planting). After
all, Joshua intended to spray the plants and knew what he was doing.
Here, though, his purpose was not to improve the plants; it was solely
to chase away the bugs. So the spraying is not considered melacha
because it was not at all done for the usual logical reason that
spraying is done – as explained in condition #3.7
(Even though here, too, the action produced an “inevitable result,”

there is a key difference: When I drag the bench, I am directly causing
the furrow to be dug. But when I spray the plant, that does not
directly improve the plant; rather it just prevents the plant from
becoming ruined.)
As this scenario illustrates, a person’s frame of mind is central to the

concept of ‘thoughtful work’.
Conditions Relating to the Effect of the Action

(Accomplishment)
In order to be considered melacha, an action’s effect must be

constructive and must be permanent.
By ‘constructive’ (condition #4) we mean that it resulted in

something beneficial. In other words, it was not a destructive act.
By ‘permanent’ (condition #5) we don’t mean something that will last

forever, but something that is not temporary. This is a variable
condition. For example, if I heat water on Shabbat I have done a
melacha, even though the water will eventually return to room
temperature. But in heating the water I have completed the action I
have set out to do, and I have created something new.
7
However, if Joshua had intention both to chase away the bugs and to improve the plants, this
would be forbidden.
5
Conditions Relating to the Manner the Action is
Done
We’ve examined the conditions that directly relate to intent. Now let’s
look at another set of conditions.
We mentioned that an action needs to be done in its usual way

(condition #6). If an action is done in a non-conventional way, it is
not work for Shabbat purposes. For example, you are not permitted to
cut your nails with a clipper on Shabbat.8 If you remove the nail in an
uncommon manner – i.e. tearing it off – this is not work in the Torah
sense (although, again, it is not permitted due to Rabbinic decree).
An action also needs to be done directly (condition #7). There are

times when you can accomplish something indirectly. For example,
when it’s cold in the house during the winter, you might open a
window in order to bring in cold air. This will lower the temperature
and will then activate the furnace. Turning on the furnace directly
would be a melacha. Doing it in this indirect way depends:
• If the thermostat is very sensitive, and the cold air hits it right
away, then it’s quite possible that the furnace would activate
immediately. This would be prohibited.
• If the furnace would only go on after some time, the action is

indirect and is not melacha according to the Torah.
The idea of using only those people necessary (condition #8) means
the following: if an action requires only one person to complete it, but
several people do it, no one has done melacha. This is because no one
person actually did the action on his or her own.
8
Under the category of Gozez (Shearing).
6
Some Vocabulary
To round out our understanding of these ideas, here are some halachic
terms:
Davar She-Aino Mitkaven – This is an action that is allowed since there

is only a possibility that it will lead to something prohibited – provided,
of course, that your intent is not to do the prohibited thing. (see the
case of dragging the light bench)
P’sik Reisha – This is an action that on its own seems fine, but we do
not allow on Shabbat, because it will inevitably cause a prohibited
labor to take place. (see the case of dragging the heavy bench)
Ke-darkah – An action done in the usual way.
Shinui – An action done in an unusual way.
Gramma – An action done in an indirect way.
Summary
We learn from the work done in the Mishkan that only actions that
meet certain conditions are deemed melacha on Shabbat.
There are many additional nuances to these conditions, but in this

lesson we have gained an understanding of the key concepts. Now, we
are ready to learn each of the 39 labor categories.
7
Rules of walking and playing on the ground.
written by
Alan Goldman
edited by
1
Order of Bread
Now that we’ve learned the fundamentals of the laws of Shabbat, we

are ready to plunge ahead into the specifics.
The 39 labor categories that we’ve mentioned are divided into four
groups. The first of these is known as ‘the Order of Bread’ (siddura
d’pat), because it follows the process of baking, from seed to oven.
This group includes the first 11 labor categories.
As we’ve learned in our prior lessons, each category is based on an

activity done in the construction or operation of the Mishkan. The Jews
needed to grow a number of items in order for the Mishkan to function
properly. They grew wheat for the showbread that was placed each
week on the Shulchan, the ceremonial table.1 They also grew various
herbs that were used in making dyes, which were needed for coloring
threads.2
Since the ground must be plowed in order to plant, plowing is one of

the 39 categories.
So let’s start – literally – at the roots.
Choresh3 (Plowing)
Before planting, a person needs to prepare the soil. This was (and is)
normally done by loosening the soil using a plow or other instrument.
Plowing is therefore the classic case of Choresh.
1
Exodus 25:30.
2
Exodus 25:4.
3
Pronounced choh-RAISH.
2
(The original context of the melachot was an agricultural society.
However, as we will see, even if we don’t live in such a society today,
the principles underlying the melachot are still relevant to us, and
have many contemporary applications).
Other activities are also included

under the broad heading of
‘plowing’ – namely, activities that
improve the ground and help make
it ready for planting. Some
examples are:
• weeding
• fertilizing
• clearing rocks or other debris
• moistening the soil with water
These are all toladot (‘offspring activities’) of Choresh.
Choresh applies only to land that may be cultivated, known as arable

land. In contrast, you would not violate Choresh by plowing hard clay
or desert land.4 Also, it is not considered Choresh if the soil is so loose
that it would immediately fall into the space created by your plowing
or digging.5 We may explain this by saying that your action hasn’t
improved the soil for planting, since the soil has gone back to its
original state right away.6
For a quick review, then:
Choresh involves the loosening of soil on arable land, in such a

way that the soil remains where it is after you’ve loosened it.
4
Although if you did this, you might be violating other labor categories such as Boneh (Building).
5
See Halachos of Shabbos, IV:A:6 (p. 42).
6
See 39 Melochos, vol. 2, Hebrew section, p. 189, footnote 19.
3
Some Applications of Choresh
(1) Making a Pathway
Remember Joshua from lesson #2? He needed to move furniture

across the dirt in his yard. In doing this, he might create a pathway in
the dirt (usually called a furrow), which loosens the soil – and which is
therefore melacha form of digging.7
The halacha says that if the furniture is light – for example, a lawn
chair – it will not inevitably make a pathway, and so Joshua may drag
it.
On the other hand, if the object is heavy

– say, a bench or table – it will in fact
create a furrow because of its weight,
and Joshua would not be allowed to drag
it along the ground.8
If so, you might say, how are we

permitted to use strollers, carriages, or
wheelchairs on Shabbat? Won’t these
create furrows because of their wheels?9
Here, the halacha pays close attention to the physical reality. Wheeled
objects like strollers actually compress the soil through the rolling
motion of the wheels. This does not actually improve the ground for
planting – unlike loosening the soil – and so is not considered Choresh.
7
Orach Chaim 337:1, Mishnah Berurah 4, Sha'ar HaTziun 2.
8
As we discussed in lesson #2, even if Joshua isn’t interested in making this furrow, if it will
inevitably happen when he moves the heavy chair, he is not allowed to do so.
9
It is true that most of the time we travel (on Shabbat, and during the rest of the week) on paved
streets. However, there are times where we need to go over soil or grass, like in a park, so the
issue of Choresh is relevant.
4
The same goes for walking on soil. The action of your foot has a
crushing or compacting effect, just like a stroller. Again, this would not
be the act of Choresh.10
(2) Leveling the Ground
Another aspect of this labor category is ‘leveling the ground’, an

activity called by the Talmud mashveh gumot. The typical case is
creating a level playing field by filling in a hole in the ground or by
removing a pile.
Applying this idea, we see that if you want to remove mud or some
other item from the bottom of your shoe, you should not rub your
shoe on the bare ground. This will have the effect of leveling out the
ground under you.11
Similarly, if you have an earthen floor in your house, you should not
sweep it on Shabbat. Again, this would result in making the floor
surface nicely even. According to most rabbinic authorities, this is not
an issue when sweeping non-earthen floors.12
And finally, if someone wants to play a ball game

(for example, soccer), it should not be played on
natural ground. Here, the rationale is that you
may inadvertently take a time-out to level the
surface so the game can be played properly.13
10
Mishnah Berurah 314:11, quoting Magen Avraham.
11
Talmud (Shabbat 141a); Rambam (Shabbat 21:2); Orach Chaim 302:6 with Mishnah Berurah 28;
39 Melochos, p. 255. However, the Rama and Taz are lenient with removing mud from the shoes
on the ground (Mishnah Berurah 302:28).
12
Biur Halacha 337, s.v. "Hakalim"; 39 Melochos, p. 259.
13
Orach Chaim 308:45 with Mishnah Berurah 158; Orach Chaim 338:5 with Mishnah Berurah 19;
Shemirat Shabbat K’Hilchato 16:6.
5
So, regarding ‘leveling’, we have moved from the Talmud’s case to
some specific modern examples. These include:
• rubbing your shoe against the ground to remove something on

it
• sweeping an earthen floor
• playing a ball game on a natural surface
A Few General Points
In learning the basics of Choresh, the first of the 39 categories of

labor, we have also learned some fundamentals about the laws of
Shabbat in general. Two in particular to highlight:
(1) The principles behind the Shabbat laws are relevant to us today,
even though at first glance they might appear limited to agricultural
societies.
(2) The Shabbat laws are concerned even with actions that we might
not have considered to be relevant.
6
Helping trees, seeds and flowers grow better.
written by
Alan Goldman
edited by
1
In our previous lesson, we learned about plowing (Choresh), the first
of the labor categories relevant to Shabbat. As we mentioned, Choresh
is also the first labor category in the group of melachot known as the
‘Order of Bread’. This group includes, in logical order, each of the
activities in the agricultural process. So, in this lesson, we turn to
planting (or sowing) seeds, which would be the next thing to do once
you’ve plowed a field.
Fundamentals of Zoreya
The classic case of the melacha of sowing

(known in Hebrew as ‘Zoreya’1) is
planting a seed in a place where it is able
to grow. If you place the seed in an area
where it is unlikely to grow, you have not
done this melacha. An example would be
planting in sand or a desert area (or on
some other type of non-arable land).2 A
less obvious example is planting in a
place that has good soil but is frequently
used by people or animals. Even though the conditions would seem to
be good for growing, the constant traffic will prevent the seed from
developing.
Zoreya goes beyond just planting, though. It includes anything that

will enhance the growth of plant life. This includes agricultural
activities such as
• watering (e.g., a lawn)

• pruning a plant or tree
• grafting two plants3 together
• placing a covering over a tree to protect it from the cold
1
Pronounced zo-RAY-ah.
2
Recall a similar condition regarding the melacha of Choresh. See lesson #3.
3
When we use the term plants in this lesson, we mean any form of plant life. Sometimes, we will
use the word ‘tree’ when it seems more appropriate; there, too, all forms of plant life are meant.
2
This appears to be pretty straightforward: if we leave our gardening
work for days other than Shabbat, we should be able to avoid this
melacha. That’s true to some extent. But there are also other
applications of Zoreya which we need to learn about.
Outdoor Issues
Many homes have outdoor areas that contain grass and other growing
things. So, on Shabbat, we need to be careful about depositing water
(or other liquids) onto such areas. This is especially true during the
holiday of Sukkot, when our eating and other activities take place
outside.
Let’s return to our friend Joshua.

In the course of his Shabbat meal
in the backyard, he and his guests
will need to wash their hands (i.e.,
perform the ritual netilat yadayim)
before eating bread. Based on
what we’ve learned, they should
not wash their hands over the
grass, nor pour any excess water
onto the grass or soil.4 This would be Zoreya, since it helps the grass
grow better.
Somewhat less obviously, we will also tell Joshua and company to be

careful when eating their juicy watermelon for dessert. Those seeds
are slippery, and allowing them to fall into the ground would be a
rabbinic prohibition of Zoreya.5
4
Orach Chaim 336:3, with Mishnah Berurah 26; Halachos of Shabbos, V:C.1 (p. 57).
5
Orach Chaim 336:4, with Mishnah Berurah 31-2.
3
If it rained on Friday night, Joshua might find that his lawn chairs have
collected water. Before using the chairs, he’ll want to pour the water
off. Pouring it onto the grass would clearly be Zoreya, based on what
we’ve learned.6
A similar issue comes up on the holiday of Sukkot. Some people keep

their Sukkot dry by spreading a tarpaulin over the top when the
Sukkah is not in use. If it rains, the tarp will collect water, and when
you remove it, the water will obviously run off.
So, how do we act in these situations?
The halacha distinguishes between
(A) a case where water will flow directly onto the grass; and
(B) a case where water will first spill onto a solid surface (for
example, a deck) and then flow onto the grass.
In (A), you may not pour the water out, while in (B) you may. (The
result is different because there is a lesser degree of directness in case
B).7
Also, you may pour the water out if the ground is completely saturated
(which it would be immediately after a rain). This is because any
additional water won’t help the grass grow – since it’s already soaked
– and, as we said, Zoreya applies only when your action will enhance a
plant’s growth.8
6
Orach Chaim 357:1, with Mishnah Berurah 8; Shemirat Shabbat K’Hilchato 12:18 (51).
7
This is based on several of the conditions we discussed in lesson #2. See 39 Melochos, p. 270
and footnotes cited there.
8
Kaf HaChaim (Orach Chaim 336:3, 29).
4
Indoor Issues
(i) Care of Indoor Plants
Everything we’ve discussed so far has been about plant forms that are
rooted in the soil. But, maybe surprisingly, Zoreya and the other
melachot of Shabbat also apply to houseplants. (This is a complex
halachic issue; see the footnote for sources).9
Okay, then. We won’t water our indoor plants on Shabbat.
Remember, though, that any enhancement to growth is considered

Zoreya. So we also cannot bring light into the room (by opening the
shades, for example) for the sake of our houseplants.10 After all, this
would improve its growth. This does not mean (thankfully!) that we
have to sit in the dark on Shabbat. We can open the shades if we
want light in the room, or fresh air. We just can’t do it for the purpose
of having the light benefit the plants.11
But wait. If we open the shades to get light, and we have plants in the
room, it is almost certain that the plants will benefit from the light
coming in. So how does the halacha allow us to bring in the light at
all?
Again, we go back to lesson #2 and the conditions we discussed there.

On Shabbat, the purpose of our actions makes all the difference
(combined with the factor of the benefit being “indirect”). So here,
when we bring additional light into the room for our own purposes, we
need not be concerned that the light will also shine onto the plants.
9
Halachos of Shabbos V:F.1 (p. 62).
10
This reasoning would also apply to any changes in the room’s air or temperature for the benefit
of the plants.
11
We would have a problem opening the shades if the houseplants are actually touching the
curtains. This is because, in this situation, the plants will get a direct hit from the sunlight. See 39
Melochos, p. 274.
5
(ii) Flowers
Often, people have cut flowers at home on Shabbat. Assuming that the
flowers are already in bloom, they are obviously not growing anymore,
so most Zoreya questions don’t apply to them. If they aren’t yet in
bloom, then doing anything that will help them bloom would be
Zoreya.12
An issue that comes up is whether we are

allowed to place flowers in water on
Shabbat or replace them once they’ve been
removed.
The halacha decided that putting flowers in

water for the first time is considered a
tircha -- that is, effort not in the spirit of
Shabbat, and which should not be done on
Shabbat. (Some also say that it appears
too much like actual Zoreya).13 In practice,
then, we do not do this on Shabbat. And,
for the same reason, we do not refill the water in a vase containing
flowers on Shabbat.
What about putting fully opened flowers that were already in water
back in the water if they’ve been removed? This is permitted in case of
need, i.e. to save the flowers from withering. Here, there is no tircha
factor, and the flowers can’t grow any more, so there is no reason to
prohibit this action.14
(iii) Growing items in water (hydroponics)
Since the principle behind Zoreya is enhancing the growth of any plant
life, it also applies to plants that are not growing in soil. Thus, for
example, taking an avocado pit and germinating it in water is
12
Orach Chaim 336:11.
13
39 Melochos, p. 276.
14
Shemirat Shabbat K’Hilchato 26:26 (91); 39 Melochos, p. 276.
6
considered an act of Zoreya. The same goes for placing bean sprouts,
lima beans, or similar items in water or in moistened material. We do
these activities to make the plants grow, and so they are covered by
this labor category.15
Summary and Review
We’ve learned that any action that is intended to enhance the growth
of a plant (or the like) is considered ‘sowing a seed’ (Zoreya) on
Shabbat.
Zoreya is relevant to things growing outdoors or indoors.
Common Zoreya-related examples include
• watering a plant
• pouring water onto the grass
• dropping seeds on the ground
• opening curtains to let in sunlight for the benefit of a
houseplant
• putting unopened flowers into water
• sprouting something in water (even without soil)
Finally, we should mention that moving any part of an attached plant

is problematic on Shabbat, due to the prohibition of ‘uprooting’
(Kotzer) and/or Muktzeh. These categories will be explained in detail
later in the course.
15
Orach Chaim 336:11
7
Think twice before climbing a tree on Shabbat.
written by
Alan Goldman
edited by
1
The third melacha in the ‘Order of Bread’ is Kotzer1. This translates
literally as ‘reaping’ or ‘harvesting’ – that is, taking a growing thing
from its natural source. A simple example would be picking an apple
from a tree.
Main Aspects of Kotzer
Any time you remove something growing from its source of growth,
you are doing an act of Kotzer. This applies to any kind of growing
thing: fruits, vegetables, grains, wood, and so on.
The growing item does not have to be attached to soil – it can be

growing in another medium. So, for example, mushrooms and other
fungi, which don’t grow in the ground, are covered by the melacha of
Kotzer.2 Similarly, bean sprouts that have taken root cannot be
removed from their growing environment.
An interesting illustration of this idea

relates to potted plants. In halacha, a
plant growing in a perforated pot
(known as an atzitz nakuv) is
considered to be connected to the soil
in some instances.3 Since the pot has
holes, the plant can absorb nutrients
from the ground when it is placed on
or above the ground. For this reason,
the plant is said to be ‘connected’ to
the soil. So if you have such a plant,
and it is placed on the soil, you may not remove it from there on
Shabbat.4
1
Pronounced koh-TSAYR.
2
Chayei Adam 12:1; 39 Melochos, p. 283.
3
Halachos of Shabbos, V.F.1 (p. 62). The perforations in the pot need to be large enough so that a
small root can go through.
4
Biur Halacha 336, s.v. "Afilu." There may be other issues of muktzeh, a topic to be discussed later
in this course.
2
Kotzer also applies when further growing is no longer possible. Let’s
say our friend Joshua has a fruit tree in his yard, and he sees some
fully ripened fruit on the tree. (In other words, the fruit is no longer
getting nourishment from the tree). He would not be permitted to
remove this fruit.5
Let’s pause to review. Kotzer involves
• detaching a growing item from its growth source

• even if that growth source is not soil
• and even if the growing item has actually finished growing
Additional Scenarios: Eat your Vegetables
(1) Fresh vegetables sold with roots attached – It is a true

blessing that we are able to buy fresh produce regularly. Sometimes,
we can even get items that are really fresh, maybe from a local
farmers’ market. These vegetables might come with their roots
attached, and sometimes even with some soil as well.
Following the ideas we’ve developed here, you would need to remove
the roots or the soil before Shabbat if you wanted to eat the
vegetable. Here, although the roots aren’t connected to anything, the
plant is still attached to the roots and could derive some further
nourishment from them. Cutting the plant from the roots would then
be Kotzer.6
(2) Vegetables sprouting in a moist environment or stored in

soil – Some vegetables (such as carrots, onions, and potatoes) are
often stored in a cool and moist area once they’ve been harvested.
Let’s say you have some onions in your cellar, and when you go to use
them on Shabbat, you see they’ve sprouted. This kind of sprouting
5
Orach Chaim 336:12
6
See 39 Melochos, p. 293.
3
takes place because of the conditions the onions were stored in. Does
this mean that if you take them out of the cellar you will be violating
the melacha of Kotzer?
Actually, no. The prohibition of Kotzer

doesn’t apply when the growing took
place in a non-normal way. Here, the
growing wasn’t “normal,” since the plant
was not physically connected to any
growth source.7
A Brief Sidebar
Before continuing, let’s step back and

think about the meaning of this melacha. If we go back to the idea of
creative labor (which we discussed in lesson #1), we may better
understand the idea behind Kotzer.
When we separate a growing thing from its source, we have essentially

created a new entity: once the growing item is disconnected, it is no
longer a plant, but something ready for human use. In this sense, it is
a ‘new’ object, and therefore the act of reaping is a creative act.
On to some further applications.
Rabbinic Extensions of Kotzer
Often, the Sages extend halacha by instituting measures known as

gezerot (recall this idea from lesson #1). In the case of Kotzer, there
are a number of important gezerot to know.
7
39 Melochos, p. 285-86.
4
(i) Using a tree
The Sages decided that a person should not use a tree on Shabbat.
Since picking a fruit, breaking a branch, and similar activities are
considered Kotzer, the Sages determined that prohibiting the use of
trees would help us avoid this melacha.
8
What does “use” mean here? Really anything that involves moving
the tree, such as
• leaning on the tree

• climbing it
• shaking a branch
The gezera against using trees extends also to items that are
connected to a tree. For example, if our friend Joshua placed his suit
jacket on a tree branch while outside, he would not be able to retrieve
it until Shabbat ended.
However, it is permitted to
use something that is only
indirectly attached to a tree.
For example: It is permitted
to lie on a hammock, as
long as the hammock is not
attached directly to the tree,
but is rather “attached to a
hook, which is attached to
the tree.”9 (The hammock and hooks would need to be in place before
Shabbat begins, and the tree sturdy enough not to move by the
swinging action of the hammock.)
Interestingly, the Sages did not distinguish between living trees and
dead ones. However, they did make an exception for tree stumps that
are less than 11 inches (29 cm.) high. You may sit or stand on this
8
On all of these, see 39 Melochos, p. 294.
9
Orach Chaim 336:13; Shemirat Shabbat K’Hilchato 16:16.
5
during Shabbat,10 since no one would consider it to be in the same
category as an actual tree.
(ii) Smelling fruits attached to a tree
It may seem logical that you shouldn’t smell a fruit attached to a tree,
since you might forget that it’s Shabbat and yank the fruit off – the
classic case of Kotzer. The Sages thought so as well, and therefore this
action is not allowed.
You are permitted, however, to smell flowers, even those which are
attached to the ground.11
(iii) Using animals
Picture this: you’re on your horse on Shabbat, and you are riding
under a tree. Some branches are in your way, so you brush them
aside, breaking a few. Or, you need a branch to use as a prod for the
horse, so you grab one.
As we’ve learned, removing the branch would be an act of Kotzer. So

as to avoid this scenario, the Sages decided to forbid riding (or
otherwise using) all animals on Shabbat.12
At first, this may seem like an overly broad prohibition. After all, not
all animals can even be used for riding. But we need to look beyond
just the technical issue of breaking a branch. Animals played a major
role in daily life in earlier times, and in some places they do so today
as well. By setting them off limits on Shabbat, the Sages were making
another significant distinction between how we behave on Shabbat
compared to the other days of the week.
If you have a house pet, then, you should discuss with your rabbi how
to care for the pet on Shabbat.
10
Orach Chaim 336:2 with Mishnah Berurah 21; Shemirat Shabbat K’Hilchato 26:21.
11
12
Orach Chaim 305:18.
6
The prohibition of gathering together

things that grow.
written by
Alan Goldman
edited by
1
Till now, we’ve discussed three relatively familiar kinds of agricultural
labor: plowing, planting, and reaping. Our next labor category is less
well-known. The melacha of Me’amer,1 which means ‘gathering’ or
‘bundling,’ was performed after wheat was harvested. After the
sheaves of wheat were removed from the soil, they were bundled
together. In this way, they could be moved more easily.
The Basics
How does this melacha apply today?
The action underlying Me’amer is to gather together or combine items

that grow in the soil. (By “in the soil” we mean something that literally
grows in the ground, or on a tree, which itself grows in the ground).
To start with a straightforward

scenario: Our buddy Joshua has an
apple tree in his backyard and apples
have fallen off onto the ground.2 Many
of them are in good condition, so he
gathers them up in a basket and
brings them inside to eat. This is
considered Me’amer.
We see from this example that:
• Me’amer refers to gathering for a

useful purpose. In other words, if you
are collecting something only to throw
it out – raking leaves comes to mind –
1
Pronounced meh-ah-MAYR. In the spelling of Me’amer, the apostrophe is used to separate
between the two vowel sounds.
2
We will assume that the apples fell off before Shabbat. If they fell off on Shabbat, they would also
be considered muktzeh – that is, restricted from being used on Shabbat. (Orach Chaim 322:3 with
Mishnah Berurah 7)
2
then you have not done the melacha according to the Torah.
(However, the Sages did prohibit doing this.)3
• The items need to be assembled closely together (according to some

rabbinic authorities).4 This is why the basket is important, since it
accomplishes that closeness. If you gather the fruits up with your
hands, you may not have done an act of Me’amer, since the objects
you’re carrying are just loosely resting on each other.5
Limitations on this Melacha
An action is not considered Me’amer unless four conditions are met.

Me’amer only applies to items that:
1. grow from the ground

2. are gathered in the place that they grow
3. are in their original state; and
4. have not previously been gathered
Condition #1 is familiar to us from previous lessons. The common

situations of Me’amer involve items like fruits, vegetables, and grains.
Interestingly, some authorities hold that naturally occurring rocks and
minerals are also considered as “growing from the ground” for
purposes of Me’amer. This would include items like diamonds and
other precious gems.6
3
Talmud - Shabbat 103a.
4
One of the things that makes halacha fascinating – although sometimes confusing – is that there
are various scholarly opinions. In the course of this series, we will sometimes mention that a
position is taken by a majority of authorities, or by “some” authorities. This means, of course, that
other authorities do not agree with this approach. Generally, the halachic bottom line follows the
opinion of the majority.
5
Ketzot HaShulchan146:49. Nevertheless, there may be other halachic reasons not to gather items
by hand. See 39 Melochos, p. 306.
6
3
Our example of Joshua’s apples shows how condition #2 works. He
gathered up the fruits from under the tree, which is where they grow.
In contrast, if you had a bag of apples you’d bought at the
supermarket (before Shabbat), and the apples spilled out onto the
floor, you could gather them up again. This is because the fruits are no
longer in the place where they’d grown.7
By “original state” (condition #3) we mean that the item hasn’t been
physically changed from the form in which it grows. Let’s take the
example of wood. Wood comes from the ground, and is thus subject to
Me’amer. However, once it is changed into a specific item, it is no
longer in its original state, and Me’amer doesn’t apply. For instance, if
your child owns a set of wooden toys, you may help him or her clean
them up on Shabbat.8
Finally, we have condition #4,

reflecting the idea that, once an item
is gathered, the halacha does not
consider any further gathering to be
significant. Now, this is true only if
the two acts of gathering are
essentially the same. When would
you have two gatherings that are not
the same? A frequently cited example is stringed figs. When we buy
figs today, often they are strung together in a circular shape. This
stringing was done after the figs were initially gathered from the trees
they grew on. The stringing is considered a second ‘bundling’ that is
different from the original one. Therefore, we are not allowed to string
figs (or other fruits) on Shabbat.9
7
Orach Chaim 340:9.
8
Aruch HaShulchan 340:3. Although the toy is recognizably made of wood, the wood is not in the
same form that it was when growing on the tree.
9
Orach Chaim 340:10 with Mishnah Berurah 38; 39 Melochos, p. 310.
4
Me’amer Today
Despite these limitations, the issue of Me’amer may still come up

today. In addition to the cases we’ve mentioned, here are a few other
scenarios that involve this melacha:
Making a bouquet of flowers – since flowers grow in the ground,

‘bundling’ them together in a bouquet would be Me’amer (on a rabbinic
level).10
Re-collecting produce – Our initial case of Me’amer was gathering

apples that had fallen from a tree. We then said that, once something
had already been gathered, it could be re-gathered on Shabbat.
So, if Joshua had prepared a basket of apples in his yard prior to

Shabbat, and the apples then rolled out of the basket, he should be
able to gather them up. This is generally true, with some conditions:
(a) Joshua should gather up the fruits he needs for Shabbat only; (b)
he should gather them up by hand, and not use a basket or other
container. These limitations were put in place by the Sages because
they felt that doing otherwise would be too similar to work activities
that a person performs during the week.11
Further Reading
• Rabbi Dovid Ribiat, The 39 Melochos, vol. 2, p. 305-313
• Rabbi Shimon Eider, Halachos of Shabbos, ch. VII
10
Ketzot HaShulchan – Badei Shulchan 146.
11
Orach Chaim 335:5 with Mishnah Berurah 18, Biur Halacha s.v. Echad. For a fuller discussion of
the issue of re-collecting produce, see 39 Melochos, p. 311-12.
5
Separating a growing item

from its natural shell or peel.
written by
Alan Goldman
edited by
1
With our next labor category, Dosh,1 we enter a set of melachot that
have many practical applications. Dosh itself covers several diverse
activities, most of which have to do with food preparation.
As we’ve seen, the Sages derived each of the melachot from activities
that were done to build and maintain the Mishkan.2 The first 11
melachot reflect the actions needed to prepare bread. So when we last
left our wheat (back in the previous lesson), it had been bundled
together after harvesting. It is now ready to be processed. The first
step in the processing is to thresh the wheat, in order to separate the
edible part from the chaff (the inedible part).
The activity involved in threshing wheat is separating a growing

item from its natural shell or peel (i.e. husk). This activity defines
the melacha of Dosh (which means ‘threshing’).
Since threshing was normally done by having people stamp on the

wheat (with their feet), a person violates the Av Melacha of Dosh only
if he or she uses foot power. Today, we mainly use our hands in doing
the kind of work covered by Dosh. When we use our hands, we are
considered to be violating a toladah of Dosh, known as mefarek3 –
literally, unloading or taking apart.4
Like some other melachot, Dosh applies only to items that grow from
the ground. The Sages determined that this includes not only things
like vegetables and fruits, but also to people and animals, since they
depend on growing things to survive.5 This is why activities such as
milking a cow and nursing a baby are covered by the melacha of Dosh.
(We will explain each of these below.)
1
Rhymes with ‘nosh’.
2
Recall Lesson #1.
3
Pronounced meh-fah-RAKE. For explanations of the concepts of Av Melacha and toladah, see
Lesson #1.
4
The term mefarek is often used in discussing this melacha. For the relationship between Dosh
and mefarek, see 39 Melochos, p. 319-20.
5
Orach Chaim 328:34, Mishnah Berurah 111; Halachos of Shabbos, VIII:A2 (p. 86).
2
We can divide the category of Dosh into a few sections, according to
the type of activity being done.6 We will look at:
(1) peeling fruits and similar items

(2) extracting liquid; and
(3) removing absorbed liquid
Peeling Fruits and the Like
A common application of Dosh is removing a peel. Examples include

husking corn (that is, removing the stringy, inedible layer that covers
the kernels) and removing peas from an inedible pod.7
Some other examples:
• Nuts – Some nuts have an outer shell and an inner shell. (For
example, almonds straight off the tree have a green outer shell, and
then the brittle brown shell that encases the nut.) Removing the outer
shell on Shabbat would be the type of separation that violates Dosh.
• Garlic – It has a thick outer peel and a thin inner peel. As with nuts,
we are not allowed to remove the outer peel on Shabbat. If you want
to use garlic or nuts, you should remove the outer peel before
Shabbat.
• Honeycomb – The honeycomb contains the honey made by bees, but

itself is not edible. Therefore, removing the honey from the
honeycomb on Shabbat would not be allowed.
6
This categorization was developed by Rabbi Yitzchok Berkovits.
7
If the pods are still fresh and edible, as they sometimes are, it would be permitted to remove the
peas, providing that you want the peas and not the pod. This is because separating one food from
another is allowed on Shabbat. Chayei Adam 14:1; Halachos of Shabbos, VIII:C.4 (p. 93).
3
However, not all peels are a problem. We are allowed to remove the
peel from most fruits (such as oranges and bananas) right before we
eat the fruit. There are two opinions as to why this is so. Some say it
is because Dosh does not apply to thin peels that are closely attached
to the fruit, since these peels are essentially part of the fruit itself.
Others say that Dosh does not apply to peels that remain on the fruit
until you’re ready to eat it.8 In the case of most fruits, either of these
opinions would allow us to peel them on Shabbat.
Dosh applies to anything that grows from the

ground, including non-food plants like cotton
and flax. These plants are used to make fabrics
(the flax plant is the source of linen). Both
contain seeds which need to be removed before
the fibers can be made. Removing these seeds
is a violation of Dosh, since it involves
separating the seeds from their natural
9
covering.
Extracting Liquid
To use liquids, we often need to take them out from their natural
containers. In this section, we will examine a number of such
examples.
(i) Nursing
As we’ve said, a person is seen as ‘growing from the ground’ because

she depends on natural items for survival. So nursing a baby falls into
the category of Dosh. Of course, nursing itself is perfectly fine on
8
See Shemirat Shabbat K’Hilchato 3:29-38 (92) and 39 Melochos, p. 321-23 for more detailed
explanations of these opinions. The reason we remove the peel right before we are ready to eat is
to avoid the melacha of Borer, which we’ll learn later.
9
Mishnah Berurah 344:11; 39 Melochos, p. 330-32.
4
Shabbat; it is vital to a baby’s health and therefore is allowed. But
expressing milk for storage is not permitted. Since the baby is not
benefiting from it at that moment, separating the milk from its source
would be a form of Dosh. However, the buildup of milk causes
discomfort to mothers. The solution is for moms to express the milk in
such a way that it cannot be used afterwards – for example, into the
sink or into a soapy container.10
(ii) Milking
Just as the halacha is concerned about the

comfort of people, it is also concerned with
the comfort of animals. It is known that
animals are also distressed when they have
milk that they can’t discharge.
Although most people today are not dairy

farmers, it is worth understanding how the
Sages approached this issue.
First of all, milking can be done by a non-Jew, since s/he is not

commanded to observe Shabbat.
If that is not possible, a Jewish person may do the milking, so long as

the milk does not get collected (in other words, it just falls onto the
floor).
Maybe the best solution is the use of an electronic milking machine.

This device is connected to the cow before the timer activates the
pump, and goes on and off automatically. Using this method, it is
permitted to keep the milk that is obtained.11
10
Orach Chaim 330:8, Mishnah Berurah 32; see also 39 Melochos, p. 356, and Halachos of
Shabbos, VIII:F (p. 113-15).
11
Orach Chaim 305:20; Chazon Ish (Orach Chaim 56:4); Shemirat Shabbat K’Hilchato 27:46-8.
Rabbi Eider has a helpful discussion of these issues in Halachos of Shabbos, VIII:E (p. 108-112).
5
(iii) Squeezing Juice from a Fruit
Known as ‘Sechitah,’12 this is probably the most well-known application

of Dosh. In our next lesson, we’ll learn about these issues, by visiting
Melissa in her kitchen.
But first, a review. We’ve defined Dosh as:
• any action that separates a naturally growing item from its

covering (such as a shell or peel); and we explained that
• “naturally growing item” includes also animals and humans.
Some examples we’ve studied are:
• removing peas, corn, and other legumes from their inedible

covers
• removing the hard outer shell of some kinds of nuts
• removing seeds from cotton or flax plants
• expressing mother’s milk
• milking a cow or other animal
12
Pronounced se-khee-TAH (Israeli pronunciation) or se-KHEE-tuh (Ashkenazic pronunciation).
6
The prohibition of squeezing juice from a fruit.
written by
Alan Goldman
edited by
1
In our previous lesson, we discussed the melacha of Dosh. We learned
that the essence of this melacha is separating a naturally growing item
from its covering (such as a shell or peel). We’ll now address one of
the most common applications of this melacha.
(iii) Squeezing Juice from a Fruit
Let’s pay a visit to Melissa. She is in her kitchen, getting ready for a
Shabbat meal. Among the items planned for her menu are fresh
squeezed orange juice, green olives, and baked salmon.
Melissa will need to be aware of the laws of Dosh before preparing the
meal. Why? Because the process of removing juice from a fruit is
similar to removing an edible item from an inedible shell. When a
person wants only the juice, the fruit is, for his purposes, ‘inedible’ at
that moment.
So, a person is not permitted to squeeze juice out of a fruit on

Shabbat, whether the juice is being squeezed into a container or into
another liquid.1 This restriction applies to nearly all fruits, but there
are important distinctions. We’ll look at three different groups:
(1) olives and grapes

(2) berries and pomegranates (and most other fruits)
(3) melons2
Olives and Grapes – Why are the juices of these two fruits different
from all others? In halacha, there are seven liquids which are
considered to be significant;3 all other liquids are of secondary
importance. Olive oil and grape juice (wine) are on the “important”
list. When we ‘remove’ these liquids from the fruit, it is considered
Dosh according to Torah law.
1
It is permitted to squeeze a fruit if the juice goes to waste. (Orach Chaim 320:1, 18 with Mishnah
Berurah 55 and Biur Halacha)
2
Orach Chaim 320:1. The discussion of the fruit groups is found in 39 Melochos, p. 333 and
following, and in Halachos of Shabbos, VIII:D (p. 96-98).
3
They are: olive oil, grape juice, water, dew, honey, blood, and milk. Pri Megadim (Eshel Avraham
320); 39 Melochos, p. 334.
2
Berries, Pomegranates, and most
other fruits – Even though the
halacha treats all liquids alike
except for the seven special ones,
the Talmud mentions the juices of
berries and pomegranates as
being important drinks. These
fruits are sometimes eaten as
fruits, and sometimes squeezed
for the juice. Today, this category is broader, since many fruits are
used for their juice. Common examples include apples, oranges,
pineapples, grapefruit, and so on. This category is cross-cultural: any
fruit that is used somewhere for juice is included.
The Sages prohibit squeezing juices from these fruits as well.4 (This is
a step below Torah law, but of course still necessary to observe.)
Melons (and the like) – There is a small group of fruits which almost
no one uses for juice. The main example is melons, such as cantaloupe
and watermelon. (There might be other examples, but I haven’t found
any). Since these items are not juiced, the Sages did not extend the
prohibition to them. Therefore, if you want to squeeze out juice from a
watermelon, you may do so.5
What does this all mean for Melissa? So far, she knows that she can’t
squeeze the oranges to get the juice. (Packaged OJ will have to do.)
What about the other foods she’s serving?
The olives present two further issues:
(1) Even if Melissa isn’t squeezing the olives to get the ‘juice’ (that is,
the oil), when she cuts them, some oil may seep out. This action is
forbidden, and the juice may not be used. A way to avoid this is to cut
the olives in a way that any resulting liquid won’t be usable. For
4
They were concerned that a person might think that, if other fruits may be squeezed, olives are
grapes could also be squeezed. The Sages often enacted what they called ‘fences’ to a Torah-
based law, to help ensure that people would not violate it, even accidentally.
5
Orach Chaim 320:1; 39 Melochos, p. 341.
3
example, she could cut them on a paper towel, so the liquid will get
absorbed.6
(2) Also, some oil may seep out of the olives on its own. (This isn’t as
common with packaged olives, but if you buy fresh ones, it may
happen.) She wouldn’t be allowed to use this oil on Shabbat. This
concept is known as mashkim she-zavu (literally, ‘liquids that flow
out on their own’).
When it comes to fruits other than grapes or olives, any liquid that
seeps out on its own would be usable, so long as the fruit in question
was prepared for eating, not for juicing.7
Also, it is permitted to squeeze juice from the fruit directly into your
mouth – e.g. by putting a hole in an orange and sucking. However,
this method is not permitted for olives and grapes.8
Squeezing onto a solid – This

is where the salmon comes in.
Let’s say that one of Melissa’s
guests wants to squeeze some
lemon juice onto the fish for
flavor. This would seem to be
forbidden, based on what we’ve
said. However, there is an
exception for squeezing juice
onto a solid food.9 In this
situation, the juice never
attains an independent status as ‘juice’: you are merely transferring
one food (lemon) to another food (fish), and it is not prohibited to take
one food (the juice) out of another (the lemon).10
In order for this to be permitted, the juice needs to either improve the
taste of the food, or become mostly absorbed into the food.11
6
See 39 Melochos, p. 334.
7
Mishnah Berurah 320:6; 39 Melochos, p. 339.
8
Orach Chaim 320:1, Mishnah Berurah 12.
9
Biur Halacha 320, s.v. "L'Toch," quoting Rashi (Shabbat 144b); see Halachos of Shabbos,
VIII:D.10 (p. 100).
10
Orach Chaim 320:4; 39 Melochos, p. 345; Shemirat Shabbat K’Hilchato 5:3.
4
This exception applies only if the juice is squeezed directly onto the
food. It is not permitted to squeeze the juice into a container – even if
this is done so that Melissa’s guests may then pour it onto their fish.
This is because when the juice is gathered in the container, it is
considered a liquid, not a food. And, as we’ve said, removing juice
from the fruit is generally prohibited as sechitah.12
Further, it is forbidden to squeeze juice from a fruit, directly into

another liquid. For example, one could not squeeze lemon juice into a
cup of tea. However, since it is permitted to squeeze lemon juice onto
a solid, one could squeeze lemon juice onto a spoonful of sugar, and
then mix that into the tea.13
We’ve covered a lot of ground so far. Let’s briefly review.
The following activities cannot be done on Shabbat because they are

considered sechitah (squeezing):
• Squeezing juice from a fruit, to drink the juice

• Squeezing juice from a fruit, directly into another liquid
• Using liquid that seeped out (on its own) from grapes or olives
The following activities are permitted on Shabbat:
• Squeezing juice from a fruit directly onto a solid food

• Using liquid that seeped out (on its own) from fruits (other
than grapes and olives)
There are other issues related to sechitah of fruits that we have not
covered here. For further study (there’s always further study!), please
see the works cited in the footnotes.
Stay tuned. There are two additional topics in Dosh, which we’ll
explore in our final lesson on this melacha.
11
Orach Chaim 320:4; 505:1, Mishnah Berurah 5-6
12
Mishnah Berurah 320:18.
13
See Mishnah Berurah 320:22 regarding lemons.
5
How to clean up a spill on Shabbat.
written by
Alan Goldman
edited by
1
In our previous classes on the melacha of Dosh, we’ve talked about
peeling and extracting. In this third and final lesson on Dosh, we’ll
discuss removing absorbed liquids and various issues related to snow
and ice.
Absorbed Liquids
(a) Absorbed in Foods
In Dosh lesson #2, we talked about removing juices that are naturally
found inside a fruit. In most instances, we aren’t allowed to do this,
since this is similar to removing an edible item from an inedible shell
(which is the core definition of Dosh). But what if we have a food item
that absorbed its liquid through cooking or pickling?1 (i.e., the liquid in
question is not natural to the food, but comes from an outside
source).2 Are we allowed to remove this liquid?
The majority opinion in halacha permits this, provided that you are
squeezing out the liquid to get rid of it – in other words, to improve
the taste of the food you’re eating.3 If you want to keep the liquid for
some use, then this action is not allowed.
For example, your potato pancake has too much oil, so you squeeze
out the oil. Another example might be a pickle that contains too much
brine.
It is worth mentioning that some contemporary writers recommend

that we should act strictly and not squeeze out liquid from cooked
foods.4
1
‘Cooking’ means cooking in a liquid. Halachically, pickling is seen as equivalent to cooking,
although no heat is used. (Talmud - Pesachim 76a)
2
Talmud - Shabbat 145a; 39 Melochos, p. 343.
3
Orach Chaim 320:7; 39 Melochos, p. 341-2. There is a minority opinion, which holds that if the
food was cooked in one of the seven halachically important liquids, then squeezing it would be
prohibited (Biur Halacha 320, s.v. "U'LeRa"ch"). See Dosh lesson #2 for an explanation of the
seven liquids.
4
Mishnah Berurah 320:30 makes this recommendation. The rationale is so that we can satisfy the
minority opinion of Rabbeinu Chananel mentioned in Orach Chaim 320:7.
2
(b) Absorbed in Fabrics
So much for food. What about a piece of material that has absorbed
liquid? Are we allowed to squeeze this liquid out?
At first glance, this seems like a strange application of Dosh. After all,
the classic case of Dosh is threshing wheat to remove the inedible
chaff. We’ve seen how this idea is extended to a variety of situations,
most involving food (i.e., naturally growing items). What has all this
got to do with squeezing out water (or something else) from a piece of
fabric?
Well, if we are talking about a

natural fabric (like cotton or wool),
then these also grow from the
ground, and taking out the water is
no different than taking out juice
from a fruit.5 (Note, though, that the
halacha extends also to synthetic
fabrics.) Some examples: a linen
tablecloth on which a drink has been
spilled; a sponge; a baby wipe.
But didn’t we just say that where

the liquid is not natural to the item, it’s okay to squeeze it out?
Here, the halacha makes a distinction between liquids absorbed in

foods and those absorbed in fabrics. For foods, the liquid (e.g. cooking
oil) is seen as becoming part of the food, through the cooking or
pickling process. However, in fabrics, the liquid retains its ‘identity’ as
a liquid, separate from the fabric that has absorbed it. This means that
separating one item from the other would be considered an act of
mefarek.6 Also, the halacha points out that absorbing liquid is a
natural function of fabric, and so we consider the fabric to be like a
fruit, which naturally contains juice.7
5
Halachos of Shabbos, VIII:D.19 and footnotes (p. 104).
6
Tosfot (Ketubot 6a, s.v. "Hai"). Recall from lesson #2 that this is a sub-category of Dosh.
7
39 Melochos, p. 344-45.
3
So – we are not allowed to squeeze absorbed moisture out of fabric, so
as to avoid sechitah.
Practical Applications
Let’s look at a few practical

situations:
Using Sponges – A sponge becomes

saturated with water from the
moment it gets wet, and it is nearly
impossible to use a wet sponge
without squeezing out some liquid. So we do not use sponges to wash
dishes on Shabbat.
If we need to wipe up a spill (on the table or the floor), we may gently
use a sponge that has a handle or a plastic backing. With sponges of
this type, it is not inevitable that we’ll squeeze out the water, so it is
permitted.8
Wringing out a Cloth – this is not allowed. So, if something spills, you
may use a dry rag or washcloth to wipe it up, but you can’t wring out
the liquid.9
Further, if the cloth (or any towel) becomes completely saturated, you
could no longer touch it. Why? Because the pressure of your fingertips
will inevitably squeeze out some of the liquid.10
Baby Wipes – often, when diapering a baby, parents use moist

disposable cloths (‘baby wipes’). Because it is likely that liquid will be
squeezed out when the wipe is used, some authorities say that they
should not be used on Shabbat. Others permit them.11
8
39 Melochos, p. 348-9; see contrary opinion in Halachos of Shabbos, VIII:D.24 (p. 107).
9
Beyond the issue of sechitah, which is an aspect of Dosh, when a person wrings out a cloth, the
melacha of Melabein (whitening or laundering) may be involved. We’ll discuss this, G-d willing,
when we get to that labor category. See 39 Melochos, p. 346-47.
10
11
39 Melochos, p. 352-3.
4
Showering on Shabbat – Because of the concern for wringing out
materials, it is customary not to take showers on Shabbat. In a case of
great discomfort, one may take a cold shower, provided that the
drying towel is large, and care is taken not to squeeze one's hair.12
Brushing Teeth – It is also prohibited to

squeeze or wring out water that is
"suspended" between particles, as opposed
to absorbed. For this reason, many people
do not use a [synthetic] toothbrush on
Shabbat, as this involves squeezing water
out from between the densely packed nylon
bristles.13
Snow & Ice
Our last Dosh issue deals with the uses of snow and ice. In fact, this is
not really an issue of Dosh, but an area that has been included in this
category by rabbinic decree. The Sages felt that there was significant
similarity between Dosh activities and the crushing of snow and ice, so
they enacted this restriction to avoid confusion.
The basic idea of the enactment is not to crush snow or ice, since this
releases water. Such crushing is known as risuk in Hebrew.14
Because of risuk, on Shabbat we should not:
• crush ice inside a drink

• chop up ice cream or sorbet in order to be able to eat it sooner
• shake up a frozen liquid so as to melt the ice inside the
container
The idea here is that we will be actively extracting water from the
frozen material, which is very much like sechitah.15
12
Shu"t Igros Moshe (Orach Chaim 4:75).
13
A new Shabbat-friendly toothbrush is on the market. The rubber bristles of the Shabbos
Toothbrush™ are far enough apart that liquid does not get absorbed into the bristles and is not
squeezed out. See www.kosherinnovations.com.
14
Pronounced ree-SUKE.
15
Talmud - Shabbat 51b; Orach Chaim 320:9 with Mishnah Berurah 33; 39 Melochos, p. 360-62.
5
However, we may do activities where the melting is less obvious
and/or where it is clear that we aren’t interested in using the water
that is released. For example, we are allowed to:
• put ice in a cold drink to make it cooler

• put ice in a hot drink to cool it off
• bring a bucket or tray of ice cubes to the table16
We may also walk on snow or ice

(for those of us who live in such
climates), since it would be almost
impossible to avoid this while going
about normal life on Shabbat.17
Finally, a word about spreading salt

or sand on your walkway on
Shabbat. This is done, of course, to
melt the snow and/or to help people
avoid falling. Putting out salt is fine, even though the snow will wind
up melting as a result, since the melting occurs indirectly.18 There are
differing opinions about sand, since the sand does not eventually
dissolve. Those who do not allow it hold that putting the sand out is
like ‘building’ an extra layer onto the ground.19
Overview of Dosh
In the past three lessons, we have dealt with one of the more complex
melachot we’ve seen so far. Even with all the material we’ve covered,
we haven’t completely exhausted the topic. As always, when an issue
comes up, you should get advice from someone knowledgeable in this
area of Jewish law.
16
Orach Chaim 320:9; 39 Melochos, p. 364-67.
17
This raises an important issue. We can’t always say that because something is too difficult, we
can’t apply the proper halacha to it. In this particular case, there are reasons that enable us to be
lenient: (1) the whole idea of risuk is a rabbinic decree, and (2) when a person walks on snow, he
doesn’t intend to crush or melt it – he just wants to walk. (Orach Chaim 320:13 with Mishnah
Berurah 39)
18
Recall lesson #2 (entitled ‘Thoughtful Work’), when we discussed the principle of indirect
causation.
19
Shemirat Shabbat K’Hilchato 25:9 (49); 39 Melochos, p. 368-69 on both salt and sand.
6
Separating things by use of wind or air power.
written by
Alan Goldman
edited by
1
We’ve spent a lot of time dealing with the labor category of Dosh. Now
we’ll turn to a new melacha, called ‘Zoreh’.1
Zoreh Then and Now
‘Zoreh’ literally means “winnowing” – that is, a further separation of

the wheat kernel from inedible parts of the plant. (This process was
begun by threshing, which we read about in Dosh, part #1.) To
winnow, a person would toss the threshed wheat into the air, and the
lighter, unusable parts (the “chaff”) would get blown off by the wind.
Zoreh is the first of three melachot that deal with separating parts of a
mixture. (The other two – which we’ll examine soon, G-d willing – are
Borer and Meraked.) Even back in the Talmud, the Sages wondered
why we have three labor categories that deal with essentially the same
activity.
One answer is that, although all of these melachot lead to a similar

result, the separating is accomplished by different means. So, as we’ll
see
• Zoreh involves separating through wind or air power2

• Borer involves separating by hand
• Meraked involves separating via a strainer or similar tool.3
As it turns out, there aren’t that many practical applications of this

melacha. Let’s examine some of them.
1
Pronounced ‘zoh-REH.’
2
Some include “the scattering of anything into the air” under the heading of Zoreh (see Jerusalem
Talmud - Shabbat ch. 7; 39 Melochos, p. 375).
3
See 39 Melochos, p. 375, for a discussion of this issue, based on Talmud - Shabbat 73b.
2
In Practice
Beyond the actual winnowing of grain, what other activities would be

covered by Zoreh?
Examples would be blowing the seeds off a dandelion, or throwing

confetti into the air. Similarly, one would not be allowed to shake
crumbs off a tablecloth out the window, as this would probably cause
the crumbs to be blown by the wind.
One contemporary author suggests that the list should also include
blowing dust off a book; blowing excess sugar off a cookie or other
pastry; shaking dust from a blanket; and similar things.4
A seemingly logical extension of

Zoreh would be using an
aerosol spray (ozone issues
aside), since this appears to
work by using air power to
project material outwards. In
fact, however, aerosols work by
using pressure, not air.
Therefore, it is acceptable to
use them.5
4
Based on Magen Avraham 446:2, Rabbeinu Chananel – Shabbat 74; 39 Melochos, p. 376.
5
39 Melochos, p. 377-8; Halachos of Shabbos, IX:D.6 (p. 131) as heard from Rabbi Moshe
Feinstein.
3
A Further Issue
Okay, you may be thinking, what if there’s no wind? Would it then be

permissible to do the activities we’ve been discussing?
The halacha says that you should avoid Zoreh activities even if at that
moment there is no wind or a very light wind, since wind is
unpredictable (i.e. you don’t know if a strong wind is about to come
along).6
In Closing
Zoreh has a limited number of practical applications, but conceptually

it’s an important link in the chain of activities comprising ‘the Order of
Bread’.
We now move on to Borer (Sorting), one of the most fascinating and

detailed of all of the melachot.
6
See Iglei Tal, Borer 4.
4
Be careful not to separate

different types from a mixture.
written by
Alan Goldman
edited by
1
Open any book on the laws of Shabbat, and you’ll find that the section
on Borer1 is quite long. Borer is one of the most detailed labor
categories, with many common applications. At the same time, the
basic concepts are pretty straightforward. So once we learn the
principles, we should be able to understand how they apply in real-life
scenarios.
Let’s go back to the process of preparing wheat for baking. In our

previous lesson, Zoreh, we learned that the wheat was winnowed to
separate the inedible chaff. The next step involves further separating,
by hand-picking pebbles and other debris out of the remaining wheat.2
This action is known as Borer – literally, ‘selecting’.
From this classic case of Borer, we derive that selecting an item from a
mixture is a form of labor, and therefore cannot be done on Shabbat.
This melacha applies to all types of items, although most commonly
we discuss Borer with regard to food.
How do we translate the concept of Borer into practical terms?
First, we need to understand what defines a mixture.
Definition of “Mixture”
In halacha, a ‘mixture’ can come about in a few ways. Items can be

mixed by being
(1) mingled together, or

(2) attached to each other, or
(3) absorbed into each other.3
1
Pronounced BOH-rare (Ashkenazic) or bo-RARE (Israeli or Sephardic).
2
Even today, if you buy some food products, like beans or lentils, the package says there may be
small pieces of inedible matter mixed in with the food.
3
This follows Rabbi Ribiat’s classification scheme. 39 Melochos, p. 388-90, based on Tosefta
Shabbat ch. 17, Tosefta Beitza ch. 1, Talmud – Beitza 12b.
2
For example
• a mingled mixture would be: a bowl containing mixed nuts;

mixed silverware (that is, spoons, knives and forks) in a drawer
or rack.
• an attached mixture would be: bones in chicken or fish; peels

of fruits.
• an absorbed mixture would be: bread crumbs in soup; an

inedible item, like a hair or a pebble, in soup or other liquid.
As we can see, the halachic understanding of ‘mixed’ is different than

the common English definition. In English, we would not say (for
example) that a fruit and its peel constitute a ‘mixture’. However,
when it comes to Borer, the halacha views them as being mixed: they
are both parts of the same item, and a person may select one of them,
thereby setting aside the other part. This action of choosing or
selecting is at the heart of Borer, as we’ll explain.
At the same time, there are some groupings that we might colloquially
call a ‘mixture’ that the halacha does not recognize. Take the
absorbed category. Here, if the two items in question are very easy
to tell apart, there is no question of Borer. So, while we said that small
crumbs in soup would raise a question of Borer, a piece of potato in
the same soup would not raise any issues. The potato is large enough
that you clearly see it as a distinct item, not as something “mixed.”
A halachic "mixture" is one that gives the appearance of a unit, rather

than just several individual objects placed near each other. This is a
subjective standard, based on the way it is perceived by the individual.
A large crate of apples and oranges may be considered a mixture, but
a small fruit bowl containing a few pieces of fruit, is not.4
4
Rabbi Daniel Schloss (in the name of Rabbi Yitzchak Berkovits), Principles of Hilchos Shabbos,
‘Borer’.
3
Definition of “Types”
From our discussion so far, we understand that to have a mixture, you

need at least two separate types of items. How do we define when an
item is a different type than another?
(i) Foods
The two basic criteria for distinguishing between food items are taste
and description or function.5 When two items have different tastes,
even though they might be essentially the same thing, the halacha
considers them to be different ‘types’. So, an oatmeal cookie and a
chocolate chip cookie are both cookies, but are different ‘types’
because they taste different.6
Taste is a pretty easy way to differentiate

between foods. The notion of differences in
description is more subtle. It means that you
could have two foods that taste the same (or very
similar) but are described by different names, and
are therefore different ‘types’.
Varieties of fruits are a good example. Go to the

supermarket and you’ll see Red Delicious apples,
Granny Smith apples, Macintosh apples, and so
on. They’re all apples, and they all taste similar,
but people consider them to be different enough
that they are sold and marketed separately. As a
result, they are different halachic ‘types’.
If foods are sold according to size, this may also be enough to classify
them as distinct ‘types’. Eggs are a prime example. Whether small,
medium, jumbo, or any other size, they are all eggs. However, size is
5
Pri Megadim (Eshel Avraham - Orach Chaim 319:19); 39 Melochos, p. 393. In Hebrew, the word
used here for description/function is ‘Shem’, which literally means ‘name’.
6
For additional examples, see 39 Melochos, p. 394 and Halachos of Shabbos, X:E.8 (p. 157).
4
an integral aspect of each type of egg, because people choose to buy a
particular size according to their preference.7
(Note that incidental differences in size does not render something a

halachic “mixture.” For example, a bowl of sunflower seeds is not
considered a mixture).
(ii) Non-Foods
So much for foods. How about non-food items?
The key element here is function. Are the items used in the same way?
Let’s take the example of silverware.
On a basic level, all silverware is used for the same thing: to make it
easier to eat. But of course each kind of silverware is used in a slightly
different way – a spoon scoops, a fork grips, a knife cuts. And even
within each of those ‘types’, there are further divisions: a teaspoon is
not the same as a tablespoon, a butter knife is different than a steak
knife.
When it comes to Borer, we take

the question of function to the
most detailed level. Therefore, for
example, a butter knife is
considered a different ‘type’ than a
steak knife, despite the obvious
similarities between them.8
Using this logic, we can

understand that the following
would also be deemed different ‘types’:
7
The source books are not definitive on this point, but strongly suggest that this distinction would
be sufficient. Jerusalem Talmud 7:2. See 39 Melochos, p. 394-5, and Halachos of Shabbos, X:E.9
(p. 158).
8
Jerusalem Talmud 7:2; 39 Melochos, p. 395.
5
• A child’s shirt and an adult’s shirt – even if the shirts are
otherwise completely identical, the size difference is essential. A
child could not wear an adult’s shirt, and vice versa.
• Black chess pieces and white chess pieces – here, the color
defines how they are used. In a chess game, the black and
white pieces are not interchangeable – each side can only use
its own color.9
Looking Forward
As we’ll learn in the following lessons, there are relatively easy ways to
avoid Borer, in almost every circumstance. Selecting items is an
activity that we can do on Shabbat, provided we do so in the ways
defined by the Torah. Stay tuned as we’ll learn the big three
conditions…
9
39 Melochos, p. 395-99, discusses these and other examples.
6
taking the good, not the bad.
written by
Alan Goldman
edited by
1
Three Conditions
In our previous lesson, we set out a framework for understanding what

the melacha of Borer means. Now, we will see how it is possible to
select items on Shabbat without violating this melacha.
The Sages identified three conditions for permitting selecting on

Shabbat. They are:
(1) you select the item by hand

(2) you plan to use the selected item right away
(3) you select the item you want from the item(s) you don’t
want (rather than the other way around)1
In Hebrew, these criteria are known as: Biyad (by hand); Miyad
(right away); and Ochel mi-toch Pesolet (choosing what you want
from what you don’t want). In shorthand, this is called “Biyad, Miyad,
Ochel.” The rhyme between the first two words helps make these
conditions easy to remember.
In this lesson, we’ll explain what these criteria mean. We’ll also
understand why the Sages felt that selecting in this manner made it
acceptable on Shabbat.
Let’s imagine that on Shabbat afternoon, Dan and his son sit down
together to learn the weekly parsha. Dan has prepared a snack bowl of
pretzels, peanuts and chex. This presents a classic case of Borer,
which will help us to explore the three conditions:
1
Orach Chaim 319:1
2
Condition #1 - Selecting ‘by hand’
This means pretty much what it says. If you want to eat the pretzels,
then you remove them from the bowl by hand. The idea is not to (1)
use any utensil that is specifically made for selecting, such as a
strainer or funnel, or (2) as we’ll discuss in a minute, use any utensil
in a way that improves your ability to select the item you want.2
When can a regular utensil be used? When

it serves only as an extension of your hand
– that is, when it doesn’t make any
difference how the item is selected, except
that it’s more convenient.3 So let’s say that
Dan brings out a bowl of melon balls –
cantaloupe, honeydew and watermelon. If
he only likes the watermelon and wants
to pick those out to eat, he doesn’t have to
actually pick the watermelon balls by hand (thankfully!), but can get
them by means of a spoon or fork. Here, the utensil is just a cleaner
and more polite way to get the food.
What’s an example where using a spoon is not allowed? Let’s say you
want to remove the froth from chicken soup. Since the spoon will do a
better job of separating than you could do with your hand, in this case
you can’t use it.4
2
See Mishnah Berurah 319:2
3
Shu”t Igros Moshe (Orach Chaim 1:124); 39 Melochos, p. 403.
4
3
Condition #2 - Selecting ‘for use right away’
This condition is a little trickier. The idea is that rather than preparing
items ahead of time, we make our selection only when we’re ready to
use the item.5
Getting back to Dan and the snack

mix. If he only likes pretzels, he
couldn’t pick those out ahead of
time. Instead, when he wants to
eat some, he can take whatever
pretzels he wants from the bowl.
The idea is that we should take
only what we want at the time. (Of
course, we don’t usually know exactly what quantity this will be, but
we guess-timate).6 This satisfies the requirement of ‘for immediate
use.’
What if it’s not practical to do the separating immediately before use?

Say you are preparing a fruit salad to serve as dessert for Shabbat
lunch. This involves peeling fruits, which is an act of Borer because
you are selecting one part of the fruit from another part (more on this
later).7 Therefore, you should make the salad right before you are
ready to use it. Does that mean that you have to make it literally right
before you are serving it, or can you make it before the meal starts?
Well, the halacha views a meal as one unit of time, so anything you
need to do for the meal can be done just before the meal starts.8
However, the halacha would not permit you to prepare the salad
before going to synagogue in the morning, in order to save time later.
This is because there would be a time gap between when you did the
5
When it is not eaten right away, it resembles the act of Borer as done in the Mishkan -- where the
grain was put into storage. Thus, when it is eaten immediately, it is not a Torah-level act of Borer.
(Talmud - Shabbat 74a)
6
7
You may recall that we also discussed peeling fruits in our first lesson on the melacha of Dosh.
8
Shu”t Igros Moshe (Orach Chaim 4:74)
4
Borer act and when you actually use the fruit salad. (For this reason,
it’s not unusual to see people come home from synagogue and begin a
set of food preparations right before they begin their lunch meal. They
are being mindful of this limitation regarding Borer.)9
The general rule is: Ideally the selection should be done immediately
prior to use. However, it is permitted to select earlier if this is the last
practical moment to do so – for example, selecting before the meal
begins for the sake of dessert to be eaten at the end of the meal.
Condition #3 - Selecting ‘what you want’
In this third condition of Borer, the halacha uses the term ‘Ochel mi-
toch pesolet’10 – literally, choosing the food from the dregs.11 This
term is not to be taken literally, since (a) it applies to all items, not
just foods, and (b) since the determination of what is “food” is
subjective: whatever you want is, for you, “food”; whatever you don’t
want is for you, “dregs.”
This means that, when selecting on Shabbat, a person needs to choose

what he or she wants, rather than removing what he or she does not
want. If Dan wants to eat pretzels, but not chex, then the pretzels are
the “ochel” and the chex are the “pesolet.” If his son wants the chex,
then for him it’s the other way around.
The Sages required this way of selecting because it is the way we

usually eat (in Hebrew, derech achilah), and Borer is allowed when
done in the course of normal eating.12
An exception to this rule is where it is not possible to remove the ‘food’

from the ‘dregs’, since the food is covered by the unwanted material.
9
Yet another reason to make sure to eat something at the Kiddush before leaving synagogue!
10
Pronounced, OH-chel mee-TOCH peh-SOH-let. (Each O is a long O).
11
Rabbi Ribiat translates ‘pesolet’ as “spoiled or useless matter.” 39 Melochos, p. 404. Others
simply call it “garbage.” Colloquially, people will call it ‘good’ and ‘bad.’
12
Biur Halacha 319:3; Halachos of Shabbos, X.D:2 (p. 147).
5
Classic examples are a banana or a hard-boiled egg. The only way to
get to the ochel (food) is to go through the pesolet (in this case, the
peel or shell). The halacha permits this, because it views the act of
peeling as a way of extracting the fruit, which is desired, from the
peel, which is not desired. Thus, the principle of taking the ‘food’ from
the ‘dregs’ is satisfied.13 This is derech achila, the normal way to eat a
banana. (Of course, one would still need to satisfy the other conditions
of “by hand” and “right away.”)
The Cohen family sits down to

Shabbat dinner. A large tossed salad
is served. Rachel Cohen doesn’t like
cucumbers, and wants to remove
them. This would be a problem of
Borer, since for her, the cucumbers
are pesolet. But what if her brother
Josh loves cucumbers and is happy to
be the recipient of Rachel’s?
In this case, Rachel can directly remove the cucumbers and give them
to Josh. Why? Because Josh’s desire for the cucumbers gives them a
status of ochel, and Rachel is allowed to remove ochel (the
cucumbers) from ochel (the rest of the salad).14
What’s Next?
In our next lesson on Borer, we’ll look at how these principles apply in
several specific scenarios.
13
This idea also applies to food wrappers, such as those found on candies. It is permitted to
remove these on Shabbat in order to eat the food that is inside. Shu”t Igros Moshe (Orach Chaim
4:74); 39 Melochos, p. 408-09.
14
Pri Megadim (Mishbetzot Zahav 319:2)
6
Exploring a full range of practical applications.
written by
Alan Goldman
edited by
1
Let’s remember that the essence of Borer is: selecting items from a
mixture, resulting in the mixture’s being refined or improved
(from the perspective of the person involved).1 Thus, using our
previous example of the bowl of chips and pretzels: when I remove the
food that I want to eat, I am changing the balance of items in the
bowl. That further refines the mixture from the condition it was in
before I did anything to it.
Also, recall our previous lesson that to select on Shabbat without

violating the melacha of Borer, one must:
(a) Biyad - do this by hand

(b) Miyad - for immediate use, and
(c) Ochel - remove the good part (ochel) from the bad (pesolet)
Armed with our understanding of the principles of Borer, we now move

into the full range of practical applications. Of course, there is no way
to list all the possible scenarios, but we’ll address some common ones.
We’ll begin, as we often do, with food-related issues.
Appetizers: Fruits and Vegetables
Outer leaves of green vegetables – the outer leaves of lettuce and

similar items are usually unsuitable for eating. They are therefore
considered ‘pesolet’. How, then, can we remove them to get to the
fresh leaves inside (the ‘ochel’)? Just as with fruits surrounded by
inedible peels (remember the banana and the egg?), we may remove
the outer leaves which are preventing us from reaching the food we
want.2
Rotten spots on fruits – this is a common problem, especially as the

fruits ripen. The rotten part is pesolet, whereas the good part is ochel.
In order to remove the rotten part, we need to ”take some good with
1
Based on Biur Halacha 319:3; 39 Melochos, p. 406.
2
Rema – Orach Chaim 319:1 with Biur Halacha s.v. "Min"; 39 Melochos, p. 438. On fruits with
inedible peels, see the end of the previous lesson.
2
the bad” – i.e. by cutting away a bit of the fruit surrounding the
spoiled part.
Here we come to an important principle in Borer. If you have a mixture

of ‘good’ (i.e. ochel) and ‘bad’ (pesolet), removing only the bad is
forbidden. But if you remove a piece comprised of both good and bad,
then the piece you removed is still a mixture of ‘good and bad,’ albeit
in a different proportion. But the important point for us is that in doing
so, you have not ‘purified the mixture,’ hence no act of Borer has been
done.
Melon seeds – melons pose an

issue because they contain
numerous seeds inside. In a
cantaloupe, you could scoop out
the seeds, along with a bit of the
melon itself. Unfortunately, this
method won’t work for
watermelon. With watermelon,
the seeds are embedded all over, and you will wind up getting some in
your mouth with every bite. So the only good solution is to spit them
out (gracefully, of course) as you eat (which seems to be the common
way of eating watermelon, anyway).
Wait, you say: Isn’t this Borer, because you are removing the ‘dregs’
(watermelon seeds) from the ‘food’ (the melon)? It might seem so.
However, it is halachically acceptable because spitting the pits out is
considered ‘derech achilah’ – an action done in the course of eating.
Borer does not apply to any action that is done with one’s mouth, i.e.
actual eating.3
A quick review:
From these examples, we’ve learned two ways that you can avoid the
melacha of Borer: (1) removing some of the ‘good’ along with the
3
As Rabbi Ribiat puts it, “As a rule, the act of eating in itself can never be classified as a Melocho
on Shabbos.” 39 Melochos, p. 422.
3
‘bad’, and (2) removing the ‘bad’ while you’re actually eating. We’ll
keep these in mind as we move into the next part of our hypothetical
meal.
Soup and Main Courses
Fly in the soup4 – In case the proverbial fly gets into your soup (or in
some other liquid), how do you get rid of it? By now, we realize that
removing the fly itself would be taking ‘bad’ from ‘good’. Technically,
this is not considered a “mixture,” but the custom is to use the method
of removing ‘good’ along with ‘bad’ – that is, we take out the fly along
with some soup.5
Slotted spoons – A spoon that has

slots at the bottom for draining liquid
is a common kitchen utensil. It is
useful for things like cole slaw and
other foods that may have excess
liquid in them. But it poses a problem
on Shabbat, since the removal of the
unwanted liquid is a classic act of
Borer: taking pesolet from ochel.
Because of this issue, we avoid using
slotted spoons on Shabbat.6
Removing bones – Chicken is a common food on Shabbat, and often

contains bones when served. To avoid Borer, you should remove the
ochel (the meat) from the pesolet (the inedible bone), either with a
utensil or by eating it off the bone (as with ribs).7 If this is not
4
As unappealing as this sounds, if you’ve eaten outdoors, you know that this does happen.
5
Mishnah Berurah 319:61; See Halachos of Shabbos, X:F.1 (p. 159-60).
6
Shvitat Shabbat, Meraked 11; 39 Melochos, p. 439.
7
There is an opinion that says you may remove the bones from the meat if (a) there is some meat
on the bones and (b) you are going to eat the meat immediately. This appears to be a less
preferred option. See Biur Halacha 319:4 and Halachos of Shabbos, X:F.16 (p. 171).
4
practical or convenient, one can hold the bone steady, and pull the
meat away from it.8
With fish bones, it’s trickier, since the bones are much smaller, and it’s
very difficult to eat the fish off the bone. The best solution is to spit
the bones out, as with watermelon pits, since this is derech achilah
(the manner of eating). Where this isn’t possible, a person should
remove some fish with the bone, as we saw with the rotten spots on
fruit. There is an opinion which allows removal of the bones
immediately before eating the fish, because this may also be
considered ‘during the course of eating’.9
When it comes to young children or older people, someone else may

remove the bones for them before they eat, as it is quite difficult for
them to eat the food otherwise.10
8
Biur Halacha 319:4-5; Chazon Ish (Orach Chaim 5:5); Shemirat Shabbat K’Hilchato 3:11.c.3
9
This is so because fish is commonly eaten in this way. For the discussion on fish, see Chazon Ish
54:3, Biur Halacha 319:4 and Halachos of Shabbos, X:F.17 (p. 172).
10
Pri Megadim (Eshel Avraham 321); Shu"t Igros Moshe (OC 4:75:7); 39 Melochos, p. 431.
5
Chicken skin – Skin may be removed, because it is considered to be
an edible part of the chicken, and therefore there is no mixture of two
types (recall our first lesson on Borer).11 If, however, you never eat
the skin, then it is consider pesolet and must be treated the same as
with bones.12
Trimming Fat – One may not trim the fat (pesolet) from meat. To
separate the fat permissibly, one could cut the meat (the ochel) away
from the fat, and not vice-versa. Alternatively, one could remove the
fat as long as it has some meat still attached.13
Baby cereal – When making this cereal, frequently the powder and
milk form large clumps which are not easily edible for the baby. As we
might expect, these should not be removed by themselves, but along
with some of the edible cereal.
Dessert
Teabags – Drinking hot tea is very much a part of our Shabbat

enjoyment. Making tea is a pretty complex affair, halachically
speaking. The major issues involve the melacha of Bishul (cooking),
which we’ll learn later.
From a Borer perspective, the issue is removing the teabag from the
cup. What’s the problem? When we remove the teabag, liquid
continues to drip from the bag. Some Sages hold that this constitutes
selection – removing the liquid while retaining the tea that is in the
bag (kind of like the slotted spoon we discussed before). Thus one
should remove the teabag with a spoon, rather than by hand, since
then the bag will not drip.14 Although the dripping bag has enough tea-
11
ibid.
12
On a rabbinic level. See Halachos of Shabbos p. 145, 169 and Mishnah Berurah 319:7
13
There is a disagreement as to the amount of meat that must be cut away with the fat: according
to the Mishnah Berurah 319:61, even a sliver of meat is sufficient; according to the Chazon Ish
(Orach Chaim 54:3), a ‘significant’ amount of meat must be taken.
14
Shemirat Shabbat K’Hilchato 3:58; 39 Melochos, p. 440.
6
water still in it, so that it can be considered taking out “good and bad”
together, which is permitted, there is a problem of the sifting action of
the tea bag.15
Next up: We’ll conclude our series on Borer with one further lesson
examining some common non-food scenarios.
15
Shu”t Minchat Yitzchak 4:99
7
Clothes, books, silverware and more.
written by
Alan Goldman
edited by
1
Since Borer is one of the melachot included in ‘the order of bread,’1 we
have appropriately focused on its many food-related applications. But,
like some other melachot, Borer applies also to non-edible things. We’ll
learn about some of the more common situations.
Clothes
David wants to choose a suit from his closet to wear on Shabbat

morning. Assuming that he has a number of different suits, selecting
one from the group would be a form of Borer. This is so because even
though all the items are ‘suits’, the differences among them (material,
weight, color, and so on) make them a mixture of different halachic
“types.”2
Although this action falls within the parameters of Borer, David can
still choose a suit by following the three conditions we’ve discussed
before: making the selection
(1) Biyad - by hand

(2) Miyad - for immediate use, and
(3) Ochel - by choosing the desired item from the undesired
ones
This seems pretty easy to accomplish, since it’s the normal way of
picking out clothes.3 There are some nuances, though. Think about the
idea of “immediate use.” This means that if you need clothes for
Shabbat morning, you should not select them from your drawer or
closet on Friday night, since you are not going to use them until the
next day.
Keep in mind that it’s only necessary to meet the three conditions
when selecting from among a mixture of items (e.g. your typical
teenage boy, who may arrange his clothes in one large pile on the
1
Look back at lesson #3, where we introduced this concept.
2
See our initial lesson on Borer (#11).
3
Biur Halacha 319:3; see 39 Melochos, p. 446.
2
floor). On the other hand, if your clothes are neatly organized with
each item is in its own place, then there would be no issue of Borer to
begin with.
What if in picking out an article of

clothing, you need to push aside some
other items – e.g., when taking out
socks of your drawer? Would this be
considered an act of Borer? Here the
halacha makes an important distinction:
If the item you are searching for is
buried in the pile, and you know where
it is, then it is permitted to move other
things out of the way. This is not
considered to be “selecting.”4 However, if the item is buried in the pile,
and you don’t know where it is, then moving the other items aside to
search for it is considered an act of Borer.5
This issue comes up frequently during the winter, when people often
pile up all their coats in one place. In order to get your own coat, you’ll
almost always have to move aside a bunch of other ones.6
Books
Studying Jewish texts is an integral part of Jewish life, and is a popular

activity on Shabbat. A number of Borer scenarios can arise regarding
books. (Holy books, such as prayer books and Torah-related texts, are
known as sefarim – Hebrew for books.7 This is the term we’ll use
here.)
How might this issue come up? At the conclusion of synagogue

services, a few kind people usually go around to collect the prayer
4
In halacha, this act is called siluk, which means ‘removal’.
5
Mishnah Berurah and Biur Halacha 319:3
6
Mishnah Berurah 319:15; 39 Melochos, p. 446; Halachos of Shabbos, X:G.6 (p. 183).
7
Pronounced se-fah-REEM (Israeli style) or se-FUH-rim (Ashkenazic style).
3
books (siddurim) and Torah books (chumashim). Naturally, we are
inclined to put each book back in its proper place. But if you’ve
gathered up a bunch of different types of books, then you have a
halachic “mixture.” If so, selecting one book at a time from your pile,
so you can place it where it belongs, would be Borer. This is because
you aren’t doing this selection “for immediate use.”8 On the contrary,
your purpose is to put the sefarim away for later use.9
To avoid this problem, the synagogue

book-gatherer has a few options:
(1) gather only one type of book at a

time
(2) gather different types of books, but

wait until after Shabbat to replace them
on the shelves, or
(3) read a short passage from each book

before putting it away. This last,
ingenious solution works because it
creates an “immediate use” for each
book, thus satisfying that condition.10
These issues apply only when the various sefarim are similar in
appearance, so that you can’t easily tell the difference between them.
When this is not the case – that is, when you have books of different
shapes, sizes or colors, so you can easily tell them apart – there is no
“mixture,” and thus no Borer issue at all.11
8
9
A related application of this principle applies to game pieces. Once done with a board game, you
are not allowed to sort the pieces and place them in their respective compartments. (For example,
think of sorting black and white chess pieces). 39 Melochos, p. 442. Other examples include putting
away silverware, or separating different cakes after a Kiddush.
10
11
Halachos of Shabbos, X:G.7 (p. 184); 39 Melochos, p. 443.
4
Silverware
As we’ve mentioned, different eating utensils (e.g. spoons vs. forks)

are considered different “types” in halacha.12 Questions of Borer can
come up regarding setting the table, clearing the table, and storing the
utensils.
Setting – the table may always be set, with all necessary silverware,
for immediate use.
How about setting up ahead of time (that is, when the meal is not
happening “immediately”)? This depends. If your silverware is neatly
arranged in separate sections, there is no “mixture,” and therefore no
problem of Borer -- so you may set up. If
the items are all together in a “mixture,”
you cannot.
What you may do is take the silverware

and drop it lightly on a flat surface, thus
scattering the individual items. This will
have the effect of “unmixing the mixture,”
and you can then go ahead and select
what you need.13
Also, if the person setting the table derives

pleasure from the esthetics of the
arrangement, this enjoyment itself is an
“immediate use,” separate from the practical use to be made of the
silverware during the meal. Under this theory, someone who wants to
set the table ahead of time so as to enjoy the setting may do so.14
12
See the first page of our first Borer lesson (#11).
13
Shu”t Igros Moshe (Orach Chaim 4:74:11); 39 Melochos, p. 418.
14
Teshuva of Rav S. Z. Auerbach (end of Sefer Me’or HaShabbat); 39 Melochos, p. 444. The
halacha’s recognition of esthetic enjoyment is noteworthy.
5
Clearing – As with sefarim, mixed silverware cannot be placed back in
storage compartments after being cleared from the table, since there
is no “immediate use” to be derived from this selection.15 However, the
“unmixing the mixture” solution may be used.16
Storage – If you’d like to put away used utensils in the dishwasher,

you may do so if your motivation is just to get the dishes stored and
out of the way. By contrast, if your goal is to get the dishes ready for
washing after Shabbat, this would not be allowed because we should
not prepare on Shabbat, for after Shabbat.17 (More on this later in the
course.)
It is better not to stack the dishes after they’re removed from the
table, since then you’ll have to un-stack them to place them into the
sink or dishwasher, an action which could involve Borer. There are two
ways to avoid this issue: (1) don’t place different dishes or utensils in
the same stack, or (2) simply remove each item from the table and
place it directly into the sink or dishwasher.18
With this lesson, we have completed our discussion of the melacha of

Borer. Congratulations on your patience. We now move on to Meraked,
regarded as Borer’s close relative.
15
This assumes that the utensils are being washed and dried after the meal, which is only
permitted if they will be needed again before Shabbat is over. This will be discussed in detail later
in the course.
16
Talmud Shabbos 74a; Shu”t Igros Moshe (Orach Chaim 4:74:11); Halachos of Shabbos, X:G.5
(p. 182).
17
18
6
Salt shakers, water filters and more.
written by
Alan Goldman
edited by
1
In many lists of the 39 melachot, Borer is followed by the melacha of
Tochen (grinding). In our list, though, we will jump over Tochen for
the moment to discuss Meraked (sifting).1 This is out of convenience,
because conceptually Meraked is related to the two we’ve just covered
– Zoreh and Borer – in that it also involves separating items from each
other.
Defining the Melacha
With Meraked, the separation is done by means of a sifting device, like

a strainer or colander. (As you’ll remember from our prior lessons,
Zoreh involves separating through air power, and Borer involves
separating or selecting by hand.)2 Through such sifting, items that
were mixed together are isolated from each other.
The classic example, from the Mishkan (Tabernacle), is flour. Flour was
needed to bake the bread that was used in the Tabernacle service, and
it had to be sifted so that any unwanted debris (e.g. pebbles or soil)
would be removed.3
As with Borer, the act of Meraked serves to ‘improve’ the original

mixture. That is, the end product is more appealing than the original
(to the person doing the separating).
Applications
There are a relatively small number of common Meraked applications.

We’ll take a look at some of them.
1
Pronounced me-rah-KAYD. In skipping Tochen for now, we are following the lead of Rabbi
Berkovits and Rabbi Eider, who also use this sequence. See, for example, Halachos of Shabbos,
XI:A.1 (p. 185).
2
See lesson #10 (Zoreh) and 39 Melochos, p. 523.
3
Rav Hai Gaon, in Teshuvot HaRambam 134; Rashi (Shabbat 74b) and most Rishonim give the
reason because of the processing of herbs used for dyes. In some circumstances today, flour might
need to be sifted to check for bugs, which would be similar to the way Meraked was done in the
Mishkan; see 39 Melochos, p. 507.
2
Strainers/colanders – A person might use a strainer to drain water
from cooked pasta or vegetables. For example, let’s say you cooked
the pasta on Friday afternoon, and didn’t have a chance to drain it
before lighting candles. Can you drain the liquid out now that Shabbat
has begun? This would be a textbook case of Meraked, since you are
using a utensil to separate between the two items (that is, the water
and the food).4
Salt shakers – A salt (or pepper)

shaker might look like a straining
device, but it actually fulfills a
different function. The holes at the top
aren’t used to separate items; they
simply prevent too much salt from
coming out at once. As a result, salt
shakers may be used on Shabbat.
What about if a person puts rice grains in the shaker to absorb the
humidity? Although the shaker would then function as a strainer, by
allowing the salt to pour out while keeping the rice in, most authorities
still permit it, because the shaker is not devised for “straining rice.”5
Don’t forget, though, that the salt would still need to be shaken out for
“immediate use” only.6
Kettles with strainers on the spout – Some teakettles have a

filtering unit attached to the spout. If you’ve made tea before Shabbat7
using tea leaves (as compared to teabags), then the leaves will remain
in the kettle, usually at the bottom. When you pour the tea out,
presumably the leaves will remain at the bottom, so no filtering or
straining will happen. This makes it okay to use the kettle. But you
4
5
Chazon Ish (Orach Chaim 53); Rabbi Y.S. Eliyashiv (Ayil Meshulash 7:41). However, Rabbi
Moshe Feinstein (Melochos of Shabbos, Borer 103) and Rabbi Shlomo Zalman Auerbach
(Shemirat Shabbat K’Hilchato 3:179) forbid it.
6
Orchot Shabbat 3:82.
7
How to prepare hot tea on Shabbat is a discussion unto itself. Again, wait until we get to Bishul for
the full story.
3
shouldn’t pour out all of the tea, since by the time you get to the
bottom then the leaves will be blocked by the spout.
This all applies to a kettle where the filter is permanently attached. If

it can be unscrewed or lifted up, then you can pour as much as you
want. Once you remove the filter, then no straining is taking place
when you pour.8
Filtering liquids – for example, wine. Many wines contain grape

sediments at the bottom of the bottle. You cannot filter the wine
through a cloth or strainer to remove these sediments, since most
people don’t want to consume them as they’re drinking the wine.9
8
9
Talmud – Shabbat 138a; 39 Melochos, p. 516-17.
4
Why should the habits of “most people” make a difference? An act is
only Meraked if the filtering removes items which people don’t want to
consume. Or, as Rabbi Ribiat puts it, “the unwanted elements (i.e.
pesolet) are generally objectionable.”10 So, in our case, where the
sediments are such an item, filtering them out is considered Meraked.
What about the case of ice cubes in a pitcher of water: Can you pour
out the water, if the spout blocks the ice cubes from exiting? In this
case, it depends how meticulous you are about keeping ice out of your
cup.11
“Clear” liquids – that is, liquids that people would drink as is – may be
filtered, since the filtering doesn’t really accomplish anything.12 This is
why the mesh screens found on many sink faucets are acceptable on
Shabbat. In many developed cities, the water has already been treated
before it gets to our sinks, so having it go through the screen is not a
halachic ‘filtering’.
However, say your water is not

properly treated or cleansed before it
reaches your house – for example, in
a city after a major storm or in a
developing country. If you would
never drink this water unfiltered, then
the sink filter would actually
accomplish something, and therefore
it cannot be used on Shabbat.13
10
11
In most instances, the question would not even arise: Since some water (ochel) stays behind in
the pitcher, the act is permitted. (Orach Chaim 319:14)
12
See Mishnah Berurah 319:40 and 39 Melochos, p. 511-13 regarding the three categories of
liquids.
13
Mishnah Berurah 319:40; 39 Melochos, p. 522. Getting bottled water is a solution. If this is not
available, a person would need to speak with a halachic authority.
5
The same rule would apply to using a Brita water filter, or a reverse-
osmosis filter: It would be permitted on Shabbat – unless you would
never drink this water unfiltered.
Finally, if a mixture consists of only bad (undesirable) parts, then it is

permitted to select, because nothing is being purified. Thus it is
permitted to place a metal drain filter in a sink to filter garbage from
dirty water.14
Nonfoods – Meraked also applies to inedible items. Sand is an often-

cited example. (Children may play in sandboxes on Shabbat, so long
as the sand was designated for that use prior to Shabbat.15) The child
should not use a sifting toy, however, because this is likely to strain
out rocks or other items.16
Conclusion
We’ve now completed all three melachot involving separating or

selecting: Zoreh, Borer, and Meraked. To summarize:
• Zoreh involves separating through wind or air power

• Borer involves separating by hand
• Meraked involves separating via a strainer or similar tool
Examples of these melachot, particularly Borer, abound. Hopefully, the

concepts we’ve studied will give you the tools to identify Borer issues
in other scenarios, to apply these principles where relevant.
14
Shemirat Shabbat K’Hilchato (12:16:47)
15
This touches on the concept of ‘muktzeh’, which refers to items that do not have a designated
use on Shabbat and thus can’t be handled on Shabbat. We’ll discuss this issue, G-d willing, in a
future lesson.
16
Rashi on Talmud – Shabbat 74b; 39 Melochos, p. 516.
6
Rules for cutting up your vegetable salad.
written by
Alan Goldman
edited by
1
Now that we’ve gone through the three melachot involving separating,
let’s go back to Tochen,1 which we initially skipped over. Logically,
Tochen should come between Borer and Meraked, since it involved the
grinding of wheat into flour, which took place after all of the unwanted
materials were removed.2 (In the Tabernacle, spices were also ground
up to make dyes for the curtains.)
As we’ll learn, many of the contemporary applications of Tochen do not

resemble grinding wheat into flour. This is because Tochen covers any
activity in which a substance, whose origin is from the ground, is
physically broken down into smaller parts and, as a result, has
a new function.3 So a person doesn’t have to literally grind
something into a fine powder, or even into very small pieces in order
to do the melacha of Tochen.
Tochen Scenarios4
Slicing vegetables for a salad

often involves cutting the
vegetables into relatively small
pieces. Would this be Tochen?
The issue is whether the
chopping has improved the food
– that is, is it now suitable for
something that it was not
previously suitable for? With salad vegetables, normally we would not
use them in a salad if they are whole, so under certain conditions
(which we’ll discuss below), the cutting could be an act of Tochen.
Moving away from food, let’s think about chopping wood into wood
chips. The smaller pieces of wood are an ‘improvement’ over the
original piece, since they can be used for various purposes that a
1
Pronounced toe-CHAYN. Literally: grinding.
2
These unwanted materials included chaff, pebbles, and the like. See the first lesson on Borer.
3
Rambam (Shabbat 8:15); 39 Melochos, p. 458.
4
The examples discussed here are taken from 39 Melochos, p. 458-60.
2
larger piece cannot. This sounds just like the salad vegetables, so
chopping the wood is also an act of Tochen.
From all of this, what’s the bottom line? Fortunately, the halacha
provides us with guidelines.
When Does Tochen Not Apply?
We’ve just seen that Tochen appears to be a very broad melacha,

covering many scenarios. In fact, it is limited in the following ways:
• it applies only to items whose origin is from the ground

• it applies only to items that have not been ground previously
• you may do Tochen on a food item immediately before using
it, if cut into pieces slightly larger than normal
• you are sometimes allowed to do Tochen if you do it in an
unusual way
Limitation #1 - Only items whose origin is from the ground (in

Hebrew, Gidulei Karka)
We’ve seen this concept with other melachot (e.g., Me’amer). What’s
the logic here? Most basically, the act of Tochen in the Mishkan was
done with food items that grew from the ground (namely, wheat and
spices).5 So the melacha was patterned after this.6
In contrast, foods that do not grow from the ground, such as eggs,
cheese, fish, and meat, may be chopped or cut into small parts. This
applies so long as the food is edible on Shabbat; inedible items like
raw meat may not be chopped or otherwise made into smaller pieces.7
Note that many non-food items are subject to Tochen, since their
origin is also from the ground – e.g. rocks, mud, and salt.8
5
For a quick review of what was processed in the Mishkan, see the beginning of lesson #3
(Choresh).
6
7
In Hebrew, this is called Mashvei Ochel – "making it edible.”
8
Talmud - Shabbat 74b; Halachos of Shabbos, XII:A.6 (p. 203).
3
Limitation #2 - Only items that have not been ground previously
When we have a baked good, such as a piece of bread, the flour that it
is made of was ground from the original wheat kernels. So the end
product – the bread – is considered to have been already ground once.
Therefore, it may be ground up now (e.g., you may crumble it into
your soup9). The act of grinding, at this point, does not improve the
food in any way, so this action is allowed.10 Similarly, one could ‘grind’
chocolate. In halacha, this is called Ain Tochen Achar Tochen – “there
is no [problem of] grinding something that’s already been ground.”
Limitation #3 - Immediately before use, if you make larger-than-

normal pieces
Back to our salad. Based on what we’ve said, it would seem that you
are not allowed to prepare a salad on Shabbat. However, by applying
this third limitation, chopping or slicing vegetables into smaller
pieces11 is allowed so long as it is done right before eating. (As we
learned with Borer, this doesn’t mean literally the minute before. The
halacha views a meal as one unit of time, so you may prepare the
salad just before you sit down to begin the meal.)12
What is the rationale for this limitation? The laws of Shabbat do not
prohibit any activity that is part of the act of eating. Rather, they
prohibit activities which are preliminary to eating, such as winnowing,
separating, and the like. When we grind or chop a food (in order to
then eat it), this is seen as part of the process of actual eating.
Therefore, it is not viewed as a melacha.13
9
Regarding possible problem of Bishul (cooking), see Lesson #21.
10
Rema - Orach Chaim 321:12. See Halachos of Shabbos, XII:A.7 (p. 205).
11
Interestingly, the activities of chopping and slicing are viewed differently. Chopping is the classic
case of Tochen, since it involves breaking something into smaller pieces. Slicing, by contrast, thins
out the item. See Halachos of Shabbos, XII:C.3 (p. 213). But for purposes of our discussion here
(regarding salads), they are essentially the same.
12
Mishnah Berurah 321:44; see 39 Melochos, p. 473.
13
After all, this is exactly what we are doing when we chew the food. Mishnah Berurah 321:44; 39
Melochos, p. 470-72.
4
Nevertheless, even where we are
allowed to ‘grind’ a food for
immediate use, we should cut it into
slightly larger pieces than usual.14
One contemporary sage has set a
standard: The pieces should not be
cut so small that they could be
swallowed without chewing.15
Note, however, that this leniency applies only to the eating process,
and thus does not apply to non-food items.
Limitation #4 - Unusual way
The Talmud gives a suggestion for how Tochen can be done without
violating the melacha. It notes that you are allowed to grind pepper by
striking it with a knife handle, which is not the normal way of crushing
peppercorns.16 Doing the action with this change (known as a shinui)
takes it out of the category of prohibited activities.
This exception to the rules of Tochen is limited to this one instance –

that is, grinding or mashing a food by using the back of a utensil.
Other ‘unusual ways’ are not accepted in halacha.17
You should also use a shinui in the choice of cutting surface – e.g.
using a bowl instead of a cutting board.18
14
Mishnah Berurah 321:45; 39 Melochos, p. 473-74 (under ‘Making salads on Shabbos’) and
footnotes cited there. See also Halachos of Shabbos, XII:A.8 (p. 206). This is because not all of the
Sages agree that the limitation of ‘immediate use’ works. If we avoid doing a very fine chopping,
then we will satisfy this opinion as well.
15
This is the opinion of Rabbi Shlomo Zalman Auerbach (Shemirat Shabbat K’Hilchato ch. 6
footnote 6). However, see Biur Halacha 221, s.v. "HaMechatech" who suggests being stringent.
16
Usually this would be done with a mortar (a thick jar) and a pestle (a pounding tool).
17
Mishnah Berurah 321:25; 39 Melochos, p. 474a. We can imagine what the halacha would look
like if all forms of unusual approaches to Tochen were given halachic validity. The Sages evidently
wanted to avoid this.
18
Talmud - Shabbat 141a; Orach Chaim 221:7 with Mishnah Berurah 25
5
Wrap-Up
Our discussion so far has given us an understanding of the basics of

Tochen. Before we close the lesson, two points:
Specialized utensils – even when permitted to grind or chop by hand,

you are not allowed to use a tool specifically made for Tochen-like
activity, such as a grater. This is viewed as being too much like
“everyday activity” (in Hebrew, uvda d’chol).19
Mashing – How about mashing something, like a banana, avocado, or

cooked potato? Here, you’re not cutting the item into smaller pieces,
but you’re changing the shape and texture of the mass. Some Sages
hold that this is Tochen because the change in the food is so
significant; others disagree.20
The recommended approach

is to use a shinui, like
mashing with the handle of
a knife or other pieces of
silverware. This will satisfy
even those opinions that
view mashing as an act of
Tochen.21
The key factor here is that when you mash the item, be careful that it
stays connected together as one solid mass, rather than breaking up
into tiny pieces. For example, in mashing a baked potato it often
crumbles apart; this would be a full-fledged act of Tochen.
19
Orach Chaim 321:10 with Mishnah Berurah 36. Note, though, that you can use an egg slicer,
because this is viewed as merely cutting the egg, as a knife would. A tool that yields professional
results (e.g. a butcher’s knife) would be prohibited (Shemirat Shabbat K’Hilchato ch. 6, footnote 12;
39 Melochos, p. 464).
20
Chazon Ish ch. 57; Shu”t Igros Moshe (Orach Chaim 4:74). For a discussion of the opinions, see
21
Chazon Ish ch. 57; Halachos of Shabbos, XII:C.4 (p. 213); 39 Melochos, p. 461. There is,
however, a basis for permitting mashing in the usual way (with the back of a fork) if (a) the mashed
food is needed for someone who can’t chew the food in its normal state and (b) the ‘unusual way’
methods don’t work well.
6
The rules of taking medicines and

driving to the hospital.
written by
Alan Goldman
edited by
1
In the previous lesson, we covered several applications of the melacha
of Tochen. One more significant application remains for us to examine
– the issue of taking medications or doing any other form of healing on
Shabbat.
What’s the Issue?
In earlier times, medications were made by grinding herbs, spices and

other natural substances into usable forms. As a result, the Sages
decided to forbid any act of healing on Shabbat, out of concern that a
person might need to prepare a medication from scratch, which would
involve grinding (i.e., the melacha of Tochen).1
‘Healing’ in this context is broader than just the act of taking medicine
– it also includes applying ointments or other topical agents; physical
therapy and exercise; and any other action which has a “curative
effect.”2
Today, most medications are already prepared by the time they get to
us. So there’s little chance of us needing to grind them up. However,
the rabbinic prohibition on healing still stands.3 Why? There is a
principle in halacha that a rabbinic decree remains in force even when
the original reason for the decree is no longer relevant. Understanding
this principle is a topic in its own right; the basic idea is that the
authority of earlier rabbinic courts continues to bind us today.4
In this lesson, we will set out basic parameters for healing on Shabbat.
Of course, every situation is different, and needs to be judged on its
own facts. A person should always ask a qualified rabbi before
deciding any issue regarding someone’s health. The halacha is
1
Talmud – Shabbat 53b; Orach Chaim 327:1 with Mishnah Berurah 1; 39 Melochos, p. 475;
Halachos of Shabbos, XII:D.3 (p. 218).
2
3
There are various opinions as to the scope of this prohibition today. See the Hebrew footnotes in
39 Melochos, p. 357 of the Hebrew section, note 70.
4
This is similar, to some extent, to the concept of precedent in Anglo-American law.
2
just as concerned about preserving our health as it is about our
keeping Shabbat. As the Talmud explains: It is better to break one
Shabbat so that the person will live and be able to observe many
future Shabbatot.5
First of All: Saving a Life
A bedrock principle in all of Jewish law is that protecting a person’s life

(in Hebrew, pikuach nefesh) is of paramount importance. If someone
is ill, and there is any question about his life being in danger, then not
only are we allowed to violate Shabbat, but we are required to do so.6
All aspects of Shabbat observance may be disregarded so that the
patient can get immediate and proper care. (Of course, only what is
actually necessary should be done, and if possible, a shinui should be
used – but not at the expense of precious minutes or quality of care.)
Sometimes, it is obvious when a

person is facing a possibly life-
threatening condition – for example, a
heart attack. Often, it is unclear. The
halacha tells us that we should err on
the side of caution if there is any
reason to think that someone is in
danger.
There are some situations which are assumed, by definition, to be

possibly life-threatening, e.g. a diabetic who needs insulin. One which
is (fortunately) common is a woman in labor. When in labor, a woman
is given several leniencies on Shabbat regarding calling her doctor and
traveling to the hospital.7
5
Talmud - Yoma 85b.
6
7
Mishnah – Shabbat 18:3. See, in brief, 39 Melochos, p. 499-500. Prior to the ninth month, it is a
very good idea for the expectant couple to speak with their rabbi to review all of the issues brought
up by a Shabbat birth.
3
Within this category, there is a slight distinction:
• If the medical condition might be fatal if not treated, then one could
do melacha only to treat the specific condition. A woman in labor is in
this category.
• If a person is in a dangerous fatal condition, then anything may be

done to improve his overall state of health during Shabbat. For
example, one may turn on the radio to calm him, if the nervousness is
liable to cause a deterioration in his condition.8
An important point: In life-threatening situations, the breaking of

melacha should preferably be done by a prominent, observant Jew --
in order to impress upon onlookers the proper guidelines for saving a
life.9
Note also that one is required to break Shabbat even when there is
only a chance that a life can be saved or lengthened.10
Other Levels of Illness
What if a person is clearly not in danger? The types of actions that

may be performed depend on the severity of his medical problem.
• Danger to Limb (Sakanat Aver)
What if a person is in danger of losing a limb or the function of a limb

– e.g. broken bones, fractures, nerve damage, and the like – yet there
is definitely no possibility of danger to life? In such a case, one may
break any Rabbinic prohibition (without a shiui). This means that any
melacha can be done with a shinui, which lowers the action to a
8
Biur Halacha 278, s.v. "L'Chabot"
9
Rambam’s Commentary on Mishnah Shabbat 18:3. Of course, if someone else can do the job
better and faster, that takes precedence (Orach Chaim 328:12 with Mishnah Berurah 37).
10
Orach Chaim 328:5 with Mishnah Berurah 17.
4
rabbinic-level prohibition. For example, one may spread ointment on a
severe burn, using the back of one's hand.11
• Fully Sick (Choleh Kol Gufo)
If a person is generally "sick" in the conventional sense – that is, he

feels ill all over his body – then he may also take medications. The
halachic term for this patient is choleh kol gufo (literally, "his whole
body is ill").12 Also, a non-Jew can be asked to do things on the
patient's behalf.13
• Great Pain / Bed-Ridden

(Tzar Gadol)
If a person is ill enough to be

bedridden, feels extremely
weak, or is in great pain – such
as from a severe headache, a
severe toothache, or a burn –
then one may take medicine to
treat the condition.14 For
example, one could take aspirin
for a severe headache.
It is also permitted in order to prevent the ailment from arising in the

first place. For example, one may take an aspirin as soon as one feels
a severe migraine is coming up, even though presently one is still
feeling fine.15
11
12
13
Using a non-Jew is less of a transgression of Shabbat than having a Jew do the same action.
Non-Jews are not commanded to observe Shabbat, and therefore they can help. As we will learn in
future lessons, this is not a blanket solution for all situations (Orach Chaim 307:5).
14
Though there are differing opinions as to whether taking medicines is allowed (Shemirat Shabbat
K’Hilchato 34:4).
15
Rambam (Shabbat 22:7); Shemirat Shabbat K’Hilchato 16:34.
5
At this level, a non-Jew can be asked to do only rabbinically-prohibited
actions, but not Torah laws. So, for example, the non-Jew can apply
ointment, or give an injection to help relieve pain. If no non-Jew is
around, a Jew may do the action with a shinui. For example – using
your mouth to remove a pill from its protective strip when doing so will
tear through letters.16
The litmus test for this category is: Would the person wish to lie in bed
as a result of the discomfort?17
• Slightly Sick (Michtzat Choli)
What about being ‘a little sick’ (as our grandmothers might have said)?
Say you have a headache, sunburn, mild toothache, or heartburn.18
Here also you may ask a non-Jewish person to do some external act of
healing, but taking medication (even aspirin) would not be allowed.19
Acts that are Not Considered ‘Healing’
So far, we’ve been speaking about actions that are considered ‘healing’
by the halacha. Other actions which have the effect of helping a
person who is physically uncomfortable, but are not considered actual
healing. These actions are permitted on Shabbat.
Let’s look at two categories.
(1) Preventative measures – you are allowed to prevent the onset

of physical pain or discomfort. This would include, for example, taking
medications that you need regularly because of a chronic health
16
As we will learn, G-d willing, in the lesson on Mochaik (erasing), tearing through letters is not
allowed.
17
Orach Chaim 328:17; Shemirat Shabbat K’Hilchato 33:1:2, 3. Again, we must emphasize that
determining which halachic category applies is an inexact science. You need to use your best
judgment, and should consult with a proper halachic authority when one is available.
18
These examples are given in Shemirat Shabbat K’Hilchato 34:1 and 39 Melochos, p. 490.
19
Orach Chaim 307:5.
6
condition, such as high blood pressure.20 By taking the medicine you
are preventing the problem from affecting you. A person may also
• remove a splinter21
• remove an insect sting22
• apply [an unmedicated] bandage to a wound or irritation23
These activities do not ‘cure’ the problem. Instead, by doing these

things, you are just preventing a minor condition from getting worse.
(2) Normal behaviors which also have health benefits – It is

permitted to do something that healthy people do as well; you just
happen to be doing it because it may help whatever your problem is.24
For example:
• eating chicken soup if you’re not feeling well

• drinking hot tea for a sore throat
• eating oranges to fight a cold25
• drinking prune juice for constipation
• taking vitamins as a food substitute
With this overview, we’ve introduced the key points in evaluating

healing activities on Shabbat. As we’ve emphasized, this is a complex
area of halacha. The key is that if you know the basics, you’ll at least
know when and how to ask the right questions.
20
21
Talmud - Shabbat 122b; Mishnah Berurah 328:88
22
23
Orach Chaim 328:23; Shemirat Shabbat K’Hilchato 35:20; 39 Melochos, p. 478-80. See Lesson
#30 regarding the issue of glue on the band-aid.
24
Mishnah – Shabbat 14:3
25
Whereas taking a throat lozenge would be prohibited, since this is not something that healthy
people normally do.
7
Mixing two substances to create a

new, thick and consistent product.
written by
Alan Goldman
edited by
1
The process of making bread is almost over: We’ve grown our wheat,
threshed it, ground it, and sifted it. Now we are ready to knead it –
that is, mix it with water so that it becomes dough.
From this action comes the next labor category, known as Losh. It
covers not just kneading dough, but any act of mixing a liquid with
another substance, so that it results in a new, thick and
consistent product.1
There are two ways to create such a mixture:
(1) You mix a liquid with small solid particles – for example, combining
milk with baby cereal flakes, or tuna fish with mayonnaise.
(2) You mix a liquid with a substance that is already soft – e.g., oil
into mashed avocado. Although the avocado was already mashed into
a semi-solid state, adding the oil makes the mixture even more mushy
(to use a non-technical term). Therefore, making this type of mixture
is also included under Losh, and cannot be done on Shabbat.2
Mixing and Mingling
The Sages always seek to make

halacha operational, to define the
boundaries of our behavior. To help us
understand Losh, they distinguish
between types of mixtures.
(1) Thick Mixtures
The primary category of mixture is known as blilah aveh3 – literally, a

thick mixture. Included here are things whose consistency is so thick
1
Mishnah Berurah 321:50; Shemirat Shabbat K’Hilchato 8:1; 39 Melochos, p. 529.
2
Orach Chaim 321:16; 39 Melochos, p. 531; Halachos of Shabbos, XIII:D.3 (p. 237).
3
Pronounced blee-LAH ah-VEH.
2
that they cannot be poured – e.g. bread dough, thick hot cereal, thick
pudding, and the like.4
Creating a blilah aveh on Shabbat is the classic case of Losh, and is

forbidden by Torah law.
(2) Thin Mixtures
The next category is the blilah rakah5 – thin, ‘runny’ mixtures. These
are items that can be poured, although they are not liquids.6 Think of
pancake batter being poured onto a griddle.
Creating a blilah rakah on Shabbat is forbidden by rabbinic law.

However, you are allowed to make such a mixture if you make some
changes in the process.
The action of Losh consists of two separate acts – (1) combining the
two substances, and then (2) actually mixing them together. If you
change the way you combine the items and also change the way you
mix them, it is permitted to make a blilah rakah.
Thus: normally, we make baby cereal by taking the flakes, pouring

water or milk on them (the combining) and then stirring them with a
spoon (the mixing). On Shabbat, if we want to make the cereal, we
need two shinui’im (changes):
(1) the order of combining – first pour in the liquid, and then sprinkle
in the flakes
(2) the method of mixing – instead of moving the spoon in the typical
circular pattern, mix by moving the spoon in a criss-cross way; or by
using the handle7
4
Talmud - Shabbat 156; Mishnah Berurah 321:66; 39 Melochos, p. 540-41.
5
Pronounced blee-LAH ra-KAH (or, in the Ashkenazic form, BLEE-luh RAH-kuh).
6
Chazon Ish O.C. 58:9; Shemirat Shabbat K’Hilchato 8:8; 39 Melochos, p. 544.
7
Terumas HaDeshen 53; Orach Chaim 321:16, Mishnah Berurah 68; Chazon Ish 58:5-6; 39
Melochos, p. 545-46; Halachos of Shabbos, XIII:A.4 (p. 223).
3
However, be sure that that the solid is immediately absorbed by the
liquid, to avoid making a thick mixture in the process. Otherwise, it
becomes a blilah aveh, which can’t be done on Shabbat even with
changes.8
There is one exception, however: If food is needed for a child, one can
rely on the double-shinui method. (Though when possible, the child’s
food should be prepared before Shabbat.)9
Why should these changes make a difference? The whole reason that a
blilah rakah was prohibited on Shabbat is because of its similarity to a
8
Shu”t Igros Moshe (Orach Chaim 4:74, Losh 12); Halachos of Shabbos, XIII:D.2 (p. 236); 39
Melochos, p. 542.
9
Chazon Ish 58:8; Shu”t Igros Moshe (Orach Chaim 4:74, Losh 3).
4
blilah aveh. But, if we take steps to remind ourselves that it is Shabbat
– by creating the mixture in an unusual way – we are unlikely to step
over any halachic boundaries.
(3) Large Pieces
A third category is known as ‘large pieces’ (chatichot gedolot). This is

a mixture containing, as its name implies, larger pieces of food as well
as a liquid. Examples would be potato salad (potatoes mixed with
mayo), tossed salad (vegetables plus a dressing), and similar items.
Here, the food and the liquid remain separate and distinguishable,
even when mixed. In other words, the mayo is only coating the potato.
Therefore, we can create this kind of mixture on Shabbat.
The key to this category is that the food pieces are large. Conversely,
when the food is chopped finely, and liquid is added, it is more likely
that the two will become one ‘unit’. This can happen, for example, with
chopped tuna and mayonnaise. A relatively easy way to avoid this is to
leave the tuna in chunks, and merely coat it gently with mayonnaise.
More Losh Issues
• Putting liquid into a mashed food – We mentioned earlier mixing

oil into a mashed avocado. The same would apply to mixing milk into
mashed banana, and other such combinations. Interestingly, the
acting of mashing the food itself is not Losh, even though it causes the
natural juices of the food to combine with its solid parts. This is
because the natural juices are not distinct from the food item itself.10
• Re-mixing – If you have something that was mixed before Shabbat,

and then becomes unmixed, you can “put it back together.” The best
example here is natural peanut butter, in which the oil often separates
from the thicker part of the peanut butter. You can remix these parts
10
Chazon Ish 58:8; Shu”t Igros Moshe (Orach Chaim 4:74, Tochen 2); Shemirat Shabbat
K’Hilchato 8:3; 39 Melochos, p. 532.
5
on Shabbat, so long as (i) they had been mixed before Shabbat
started, and (ii) the thick part is still moist from the oil (that is, the
two parts have not separated completely).11
• Thinning out – If something

was mixed before Shabbat, it is
permitted to thin it out further on
Shabbat by adding more of the
same liquid or even water (even if
the mixture remains thick).12
• Completely absorbed – When

one substance becomes completely
absorbed into the other (i.e. there is no noticeable difference in the
liquid consistency of the end product), it is completely permitted.
Example: adding instant coffee to a glass of hot water.13
• Solids – It is permitted to combine two solids – e.g. sugar and

cinnamon.
• Cooked foods – There is a well-founded opinion holding that cooked

foods are not included in the melacha of Losh. So if you want to
combine a liquid with a cooked food (for example, mixing margarine
into a baked potato), you may do so.14
• Shaking vigorously - The rabbis made it prohibited to mix or shake

a mixture vigorously, because of uvda d’chol – i.e. this is the way it is
usually done during the week.15
11
Shmiras Shabbos 8:7; Principles of Hilchos Shabbos, ‘Losh’; 39 Melochos, p. 538.
12
Biur Halacha 321 s.v. “Yachol.”
13
Chazon Ish 58:9; Shu”t Igros Moshe (Orach Chaim 4:74, Losh 1).
14
Biur Halacha 321 s.v. “Shema”; 39 Melochos, p. 540.
15
Orach Chaim 321:15.
6
What about Non-Foods?
Until now, we’ve been discussing how Losh applies to foods. However,
it applies to non-food items as well. So, mixing sand with water to
make mud; mixing cement; and making a plaster cast would all be
violations of Losh if done on Shabbat.16
In Conclusion
We’ve seen how the act of kneading dough serves as the basis for a
broad set of activities falling under the heading of Losh. The only thing
now left to do with our dough is to bake it. This brings us to the final
melacha in the ‘Order of Bread’ – baking/cooking itself.
16
Talmud - Shabbat 18a; Principles of Hilchos Shabbos, ‘Losh’; 39 Melochos, p. 535. There is an
opinion which holds that Losh applies only to items that grow in the ground, but this is not the
prevailing halachic opinion. Shu”t Igros Moshe (Orach Chaim 4:74, Losh 8); 39 Melochos, p. 544.
7
Defining the cooking process –

whether direct, or generations removed.
written by
Alan Goldman
edited by
1
If you’ve been to a Shabbat meal in an observant home, you may
have noticed some distinctive things in the kitchen. The stove is
covered with a thin metal plate (or electric hotplate), on which food is
heating. There may be a slow cooker on the counter, and often a hot
water urn as well.
These practices point to a central paradox about Shabbat: You can’t

cook food, and you can’t heat it up as usual – but at the same time,
one of the key aspects of Shabbat is enjoying a hot meal. In this and
subsequent lessons, we will learn how to navigate this issue. To do so,
we will need to understand what many consider the ‘mother of all
melachot’, Bishul1 (cooking). It will require six lessons to cover all the
material, but we will take it one step at a time. And with God’s help,
we will succeed in getting a good grasp of the concepts and
applications.
What is “Cooking” in Halacha?
Cooking (or baking, as this melacha is also called2) is the final act in
the ‘Order of Bread’, the series of labors we’ve been learning up to this
point. Halachically, Bishul is defined as using heat to affect a
positive change in the physical structure of an object. The classic
case is baking bread, which is the paradigm we’ve been following in
this course. As we’ll see, though, the melacha of Bishul applies to
foods as well as non-foods.3
Let’s begin by understanding the components of this melacha.
(1) The type of heat used
When we talk about heat, we mean fire or red-hot metal.4 ‘Fire’

includes not only a classic open flame, but also fires derived from gas
and electricity.5
1
Pronounced bee-SHOOL.
2
In Hebrew, ‘ofeh’.
3
Talmud - Shabbat 106a; Rambam (Shabbat 9:6); 39 Melochos, p. 553.
4
Orach Chaim 318:3.
2
(2) When Bishul takes place
Cooking is a process, not an instant occurrence. Therefore, the halacha

states that you have only done an act of Bishul when the cooking is
completed. When is this? That depends on whether the item is a solid
or a liquid.
With solid foods, Bishul is accomplished as soon as the item is

somewhat edible.6 The Talmud describes this as ‘the food of Ben
Drusai’, named after a well-known highwayman who had to eat his
food partially cooked since he was always on the run.7 Once a solid
food has reached this point, it is deemed cooked.
With solid non-foods, “cooking”

means either causing a soft item to
harden (for example, heating
pottery in a kiln), or causing a hard
item to soften (for example, melting
metal). Once this change begins to
occur, the act of Bishul has been
done.8
When it comes to liquids, no

apparent change takes place when
the liquid is heated. Here, then, we
look only to the level of heat itself: Bishul takes place when it is
heated to the point of ‘yad soledet bo’ – that is, the point where you’d
instinctively draw back your hand if you touched it.9 The most
commonly-accepted definition of this is 113ºF or 45ºC.10
5
Rambam (Shabbat 9:6); Halachos of Shabbos, XIV:A.5 (p. 245). The topic of solar heat will be
discussed in Lesson #24.
6
Talmud - Shabbat 20a. This is considered a sufficient change to satisfy the core definition of
Bishul we mentioned earlier.
7
There is a difference of opinion whether this means half-cooked (Rambam – Shabbat 9:5), or
one-third cooked (Rashi - Shabbat 20a).
8
Rambam (Shabbat 9:6); 39 Melochos, p. 556; Halachos of Shabbos, XIV:B.1-3 (p. 270-72).
9
Talmud - Shabbat 40a with Rashi (s.v. “Soledet”); 39 Melochos, p. 557. Note that further heating
of the liquid may still be an act of Bishul. See ibid, p. 558.
10
Shemirat Shabbat K’Hilchato 1:1. Other opinions range from 104-120ºF. 39 Melochos, p. 557;
Halachos of Shabbos, XIV:A.4 (p. 243).
3
(3) What other actions constitute Bishul
So far, we’ve been imagining a scenario where you take raw food and
apply heat so that it will cook. There are other ways to do an act of
Bishul, which happen once the food is already in the process of being
cooked.
In general, once something is cooking, any action that will cause the
cooking to take place more rapidly is itself an act of Bishul.11
Some examples:12
• Stirring a pot of food that is cooking – this allows for the heat
to be better distributed
• Putting a lid on a pot that is on the fire – this concentrates the

heat within the pot13
• Closing an oven door – this better insulates the heat within

that space
All of these actions are therefore not permitted on Shabbat.
Indirect Heat
Here’s where the melacha of Bishul gets really interesting. To this

point, we’ve been discussing situations where the item being cooked is
connected to a heat source (e.g., on a stove-top). However, once the
item is removed from that heat source, the story is not over:
Halachically, “cooking” can still occur. This is because cooking utensils
retain heat even after they are removed from the fire, and this
residual heat itself has the power to cause Bishul.
11
Talmud – Beitza 34a; Orach Chaim 254:4; 39 Melochos, p. 559.
12
On all of these cases, see Halachos of Shabbos, XIV:B.6-8. These apply when the food involved
is not yet fully cooked.
13
Shu”t Igros Moshe (Orach Chaim 4:10:6).
4
We now need to understand some basic terms related to utensils. To
help us, let’s invite back our friend Melissa, whom we visited when
discussing Dosh.
It’s Friday night, and Melissa’s kitchen smells very good. On her
stove,14 she has a pot of soup and some Pyrex dishes containing meat
and other good things. Each of the utensils on the stove is considered
a first vessel (Hebrew, kli rishon). Many of the activities covered
under Bishul take place in a first vessel.
Actually, there are two levels:
• First vessel on the fire (kli rishon al ha’aish) – i.e. it is directly

connected to a source of heat
• First vessel not on the fire

(kli rishon shelo al ha’aish) –
even after being removed from
the source of heat, the vessel still
retains its status as a first vessel,
albeit with a few practical
differences that we will later
explore
When serving the soup, Melissa

ladles a portion into each
15
person’s bowl. Each bowl then
becomes a second vessel (kli
sheni), because it has received
the hot food from the pot on the
fire. Since the bowl was never physically in contact with a heat source,
we view this second vessel as less capable of causing Bishul, as
compared to a first vessel, for two reasons:
14
Which is covered by a thin metal place known as a blech – something we’ll get to later.
15
The ladle itself is a type of vessel, which we’ll discuss further on.
5
1) the food in the second vessel no longer has the hot [metal]
walls of the first vessel to sustain its level of heat, and
2) the cold walls of the second vessel actually cool the food that
has been poured into it16
Let’s say Melissa wants to use her beautiful new soup tureen. If she
poured the hot soup from the pot (a first vessel) into the tureen (a
second vessel) and then served it to everyone, the bowl each person
uses would be… that’s right, a third vessel (kli shelishi). Every time
we remove a cooked item further from the heat that cooked it, we
move down another ‘level’ – because the further away the vessel is
from the fire, the less capable it is of cooking something else it
touches.
(Theoretically, this chain can go on endlessly. In practice, we don’t

usually get past a third vessel, since there are few if any halachic
ramifications.)
To review: one is considered to have done an act of Bishul when the

cooking is completed:
• With solid foods - Bishul is accomplished as soon as the item is

somewhat edible (like the food of Ben Drusai - 1/3 or 1/2 cooked).
• With solid non-foods - Bishul means causing a soft item to harden

or causing a hard item to soften. The Melacha is done once this change
begins to occur.
• With liquids - Bishul takes place when it is heated to Yad Soledet

Bo, the point where you'd instinctively draw back your hand if you
touched it.
With this background, in our next lesson we will explore the halachot
that apply to each category of vessels.
16
Tosfot (Shabbat 40b, s.v. “U’Shema”)
6
The proximity of the utensil to a

heat source determines its status.
written by
Alan Goldman
edited by
1
At the end of our last lesson, we were in Melissa’s kitchen. As we
watched her serve a Shabbat meal, we learned about different levels
of cooking vessels in halacha. The proximity of the utensil to a heat
source determines its status: the closer it is to the fire, the more
stringently we consider its ability to cook. As we learn about these
types of vessels in detail, we’ll use the terms ‘first vessel’, ‘second
vessel’, and ‘third vessel’ to emphasize the relationship between the
utensil/vessel and the fire.
First Vessel
A first vessel (kli rishon) is something that was (or still is) directly
over the fire. This will cook an item most easily, because it is (or was)
connected to a heat source. As a result, we cannot place anything “un-
cooked” into this kind of vessel. For example, if Melissa tastes her
soup (while it’s still in the pot) and realizes that it needs salt, she is
not allowed to add salt.1
Pouring from a First Vessel
So far, pretty simple. Now let’s consider another variation. Recall that
Melissa had some Pyrex dishes on her stove. Let’s say that one of
them contained meat with gravy. She would like to pour some gravy
onto her guests’ plates (you might not do this normally, but for the
sake of this discussion, we’ll say she doesn’t have a gravy boat). This
is called ‘pouring from a first vessel’ (Hebrew, irui kli rishon).2
How should we think about pouring a hot liquid? Does the liquid have
the capacity to cook something else it comes in contact with? The
halacha says yes, albeit in a limited way.
1
Orach Chaim 318:9
2
Pronounced EE-roo-ee KLEE ree-SHONE.
2
If first-vessel liquid is poured onto a solid uncooked food, the
outermost layer of the food will become cooked. This would be an act
of Bishul, and so we don’t pour hot liquids onto uncooked food. An
example would be pouring hot water from a teakettle into a cup that
has tea leaves or a lemon slice.3
By contrast, liquids cannot

become ‘cooked’ in this way, as
there is no “outer surface” to
retain the heat from the hot
liquid. Imagine pouring some
drops of hot water into a bathtub
filled with cold water. The hot
water quickly dissipates in the
cold water, and never has a
chance to “cook” any of the cold
water.4
Say, though, that you pour hot water from a tea kettle into a glass of
cold water. Depending on the volume of each liquid, the cold water
may get heated to the temperature of yad soledet bo.5 If this happens,
the cold water is considered cooked. In practice, you need to estimate
how likely it is for the cold water to get heated to this level, and that
would dictate whether or not you can pour the hot water in.6
Second Vessel (Kli Sheini)
As its name suggests, a second vessel is a utensil which is one degree

removed from a heat source. In general, an act of Bishul (cooking)
cannot take place in such a utensil.7 This may seem strange: Why
should we view boiling hot soup in a bowl any differently than we view
3
Mishnah Berurah 318:38, 74; Halachos of Shabbos, XIV:A.8 (p. 247); 39 Melochos, p. 575-76.
4
Orach Chaim 318:12
5
This refers to the temperature at which liquids become halachically cooked. See lesson #19.
6
Mishnah Berurah 318:82; Of course, this is not a precise science, and it’s better to err on the side
of caution.
7
Talmud - Shabbat 40b, 145b; 39 Melochos, p. 578.
3
it in the pot? The idea is that, in the process of being transferred, the
hot food or liquid loses some of its heat -- because it is no longer
heated by the hot walls of the first vessel, and additionally it is cooled
by the cold walls of the second vessel.8
To illustrate:
Melissa’s soup is still on the stove, in the pot it was cooked in.
She cannot add anything to the pot, such as pepper, because
the soup will “cook” it. Once she transfers the soup to a bowl, is
it okay to add these items?
That depends. The halacha recognizes a category called ‘easily cooked

foods’ (Hebrew, kalei ha-bishul). These are things that cook even in
moderate heat, and therefore will get cooked even in a second vessel.
Common examples are raw egg and finely ground spices.9
What items are not in the category of “easily

cooked”? The Talmud says water, oil, and
certain solid (i.e. unground) spices like
ginger and cinnamon. Thus in practice,
water and oil can be freely added to a
second vessel. But beyond that, the custom
is to be stringent and to consider all other
foods as “easily cooked.”10
When it comes to transferring food from a kli

sheini, we are moving yet another level
cooler. The food will lose more heat as it is poured into another vessel
(which would be a third vessel, or kli shelishi). We’ll examine this
category now.
8
Tosfot (Shabbat 40b - s.v. “U’Shema”)
9
Orach Chaim 318:5. This last category would include most commercially ground spices.
10
Mishnah Berurah 318:42, 45; Halachos of Shabbos, XIV:A.9 (p. 250). 39 Melochos, p. 579.
4
Third Vessel
The innovative Jewish musician Moshe Yess put it best in one of his
songs: “There ain’t no bishul in a kli shelishi.”11 There are actually two
opinions about this: the more lenient approach is that, indeed, cooking
cannot take place in a third vessel, since the heat has been reduced so
much by this point.12
Following this opinion, we may take something that is not cooked and
put it in a third vessel that contains something hot.13
Some people use third vessels to make

tea on Shabbat. It works like this: You
pour hot water from your urn (first
vessel) into a teacup (second vessel)
and then pour it into another teacup
(third vessel). Once the water is in the
last cup, you put the teabag in.14
Although from a physical standpoint,
the water is still pretty hot, halachically
once it’s in the third vessel, it is viewed
as being incapable of cooking.15
Other authorities are not comfortable with this approach. They say
that since you empirically see the tea cooking in a third vessel, that is
regarded as halachic cooking as well.16
11
The song. “Ain’t No Bishul,” is found on his 1991 album, Art Imitates Life.
12
Aruch HaShulchan O.C. 318:28; Chazon Ish 52:19; Mishnah Berurah 318:45. Shu”t Igros Moshe
(Orach Chaim 4:74); 39 Melochos, p. 586. The other approach views third vessels as little different
than second vessels. For an explanation, see Halachos of Shabbos, XIV:A.12 (p. 255).
13
In addition, whatever may be placed in a third vessel – in other words, anything except things
which we know to be ‘easily-cooked’ – may also be poured upon from a second vessel. Magen
Avraham (Orach Chaim 44:7:9); Shu”t Igros Moshe (Orach Chaim 4:74, Hatmana 15); 39
Melochos, p. 585.
14
This is the recommended way to do it, rather than pouring the water onto the teabag, as we do
normally. Pri Megadim (Eshel Avraham 318:35); Shu”t Igros Moshe (Orach Chaim 4:74); 39
Melochos, p. 661.
15
There are other issues to be aware of, such as not to squeeze the tea bag (melacha of S’chita,
considered under Dosh), and to not allow the bag to drip when removing it from the cup (melacha
of Borer).
16
Mishnah Berurah 318:39; Chazon Ish 52:19; Aruch HaShulchan 318:28.
5
According to this opinion, how would one enjoy hot tea on Shabbat?
These authorities recommend making what is known as ‘tea essence’
(sometimes shortened in common parlance to ‘tea-sense’). Before
Shabbat, you make a small amount of “tea-concentrate.” You also
prepare plain boiled water in a hot water urn. To make a cup of tea,
put hot water from the urn into a cup (second vessel) and add some of
the tea essence. Since the tea essence is already cooked, we are
permitted to place it into a second vessel.17
A final note: Some authorities treat as an exception a liquid that is so

hot that it would scald a person who touches it.18 In this case, even
liquid in a second vessel would get the status of a first vessel, due to
its intense heat. If this liquid is then placed in another (third) vessel, it
would be regarded as a second vessel, with all its accompanying
laws.19
To Summarize
• For purposes of the melacha of Bishul, we analyze each utensil

containing food by how closely it’s connected to a flame.
• We aren’t allowed to place anything uncooked into a first vessel.
• We can place only uncooked water and oil into a second vessel.
• We can place almost any uncooked items into a third vessel

(following the more lenient halachic opinion).
In the next lesson, we’ll talk about two additional issues related to vessels:
1) ladles used for spooning out foods, and
2) the different status accorded to a hot solid food, such as a hot

potato
17
Mishnah Berurah 318:15. To make an even hotter cup of tea, the container of tea essence could
be left warming on the blech. The preparation of tea essence is described in 39 Melochos, p. 660-
61.
18
This is called yad nich’vat bo (as opposed to yad soledet bo, which is only so hot that your hand
would recoil from touching it).
19
see Mishnah Berurah 318:48.
6
Ladles, re-cooking, roasting, and much more.
written by
Alan Goldman
edited by
1
More About Vessels
In the previous lesson, we learned the halachic categories of vessels.

There are a couple of remaining issues that we need to discuss.
Ladles
A ladle is used to take food – usually

something liquid-y – out of a hot pot. The
pot has usually just been removed from
the fire, so it has the status of a ‘first
vessel.’
Recall how we explained that one reason

a vessel gets the status of ‘second vessel’ is due to the fact that its
walls are cold, and thus it cools down the food. Yet in the case of a
ladle, since it goes directly into the pot, and the ladle itself gets heated
up, some authorities treat it like a first vessel.1 Although this is not the
only opinion, we act stringently and treat the ladle as we do the pot
itself.2
What does this mean in practical terms? If the ladle is a first vessel,
then pouring hot food (let’s say, soup) from the ladle would be just
like pouring from any first vessel. As we learned, anything poured
from a first vessel has the capacity to cook uncooked items that it
touches. Therefore, we cannot ladle hot soup into a bowl containing
something uncooked, such as raw vegetables or dried spices. For that
matter, we need to make sure that the bowl itself is dry, since any
water droplets would become cooked once they touch the hot soup.3
In addition, we need to make sure that the ladle is clean and dry
before placing it into the first vessel.4
1
Taz (Yoreh De’ah 92:30); Mishnah Berurah 318:87; 39 Melochos, p. 581.
2
There would be room to be lenient in the event that the ladle was in the pot for a very short time
and did not get sufficiently hot.
3
Mishnah Berurah 318:35; Biur Halacha 318, s.v. “V’Hu”; Shemirat Shabbat K’Hilchato 1:46; 39
Melochos, p. 582. We learned previously that it is permitted to put uncooked water into a second
vessel, but not to pour from a first vessel onto water.
4
Shvisat HaShabbat, Introduction to Mevashel 19.
2
Solid food (Davar Gush5)
Here, we are not talking about an actual vessel, but food that behaves
like a vessel. For example, you’ve made a roast with potatoes, and you
take a potato piece from the pot and put it on your plate. As a solid
food that has just been removed from a first vessel, the potato is
treated like a first vessel itself.6
What’s the logic of this

halacha? It is because the
solid surface of the potato is
akin to “walls” that preserve
the potato’s “first-degree”
heat. (Anyone who has
opened a baked potato can
attest to how hot it is inside.)
This means that you can’t

sprinkle (uncooked) pepper onto the potato, or allow it to come into
direct contact with other uncooked items. 7 8
These two cases – ladle and Davar Gush – are exceptions, since
something that is technically a second vessel is treated as a first
vessel.9 We will return to this point at the end of our lesson.
With these issues completed, we can now get into the next big topic
under Bishul: reheating.
5
Pronounced dah-VAR GOOSH. This literally means, ‘a solid item’.
6
Shach (Yoreh De’ah 105:8); Orach Chaim 318:19, with Mishnah Berurah 45, 118; 39 Melochos,
p. 582-83.
7
Mishnah Berurah 318:45; 39 Melochos, p. 583; Halachos of Shabbos, XIV:A.11 (p. 284-85). Note,
though, that if the Davar Gush is inside a liquid, then it is treated like the liquid itself. For example,
when you pour soup from a pot into a bowl, then the soup – including all of the solid ingredients in it
– is cooled off and is treated as a second vessel.
8
This might imply that we aren’t allowed to put a hot solid food onto the same plate as an
uncooked food: say, a baked potato next to a green salad, as some of the salad juice may run into
the potato and become cooked. In fact, there is a difference of opinion whether to allow it. For
details, see 39 Melochos, p. 651 and the footnotes cited there.
9
At the end of lesson #20, we also mentioned an opinion that treats a scalding-hot item as a first
vessel.
3
Cook It Again, Sam
In common language, we don’t say that we are ‘re-cooking’

something, because once a food is cooked it remains cooked. That is
true in halacha as well, when it comes to solid food: It is permitted to
reheat the food, since it can never become halachically cooked a
second time. A well-known phrase in halacha describes this idea:
“there is no cooking after cooking” (ain bishul achar bishul).
However, this is not the case for liquids. Once they cool off to room
temperature10 after being heated, they have the halachic status of
“uncooked.”11 This is because it is generally no longer recognizable
that it was once cooked. (Water is a classic example: Once it has
cooled, it is indistinguishable from water that was never cooked.) Thus
we are not allowed to reheat a liquid (i.e. “re-cook” it) after it cools.
Let’s focus for a minute on a principle

described in Lesson #20: We refrain from
placing most raw foods into a second
vessel, because of the concern that this
food is in the category of “easily cooked”
(kalei ha-bishul). In the case of a fully-
cooked liquid that has cooled, however,
we are lenient and allow it to be placed
into a second vessel.
To Summarize:
• a cooked solid that has cooled can be put into a first vessel (that’s
removed from the fire)
• a cooked liquid that has cooled can only be put into a second vessel
10
Rema – Orach Chaim 318:15; Shulchan Aruch HaRav (Orach Chaim 318:9); Shu”t Igros Moshe
(Orach Chaim 4:74, Bishul 2). This is the halacha for Ashkenazim. For Sefardim, once the liquid
has cooled below yad soledet bo, it is considered halachically “cool.” See Halachos of Shabbos,
XIV:A.18 (p. 261).
11
Orach Chaim 318:15, with Mishnah Berurah 29; 39 Melochos, p. 598.
4
Solid vs. Liquid
How do we determine what halachically is a “solid” and what is a

“liquid”?
We can begin with the easy cases, like a cold piece of chicken (clearly
a solid) and a kettle of water (clearly liquid). A good litmus test of
distinguishing between a “liquid” and a “solid” is whether or not it is
“pourable.” Others use a slightly different test: Once the item is put on
a plate, does it retain its shape, or does it run down? Jello is a good
example of something that typically retains its shape.12
It’s the solid-liquid combination

cases that are difficult: For
example, how do we view roast
beef that has a thin glaze on it?
Once the meat has cooled, the
glaze congeals and does not run
like a liquid; on the other hand,
once it is hot, the glaze will melt
and become liquid-like.13
The basic approach is that we look at the food’s state when at room
temperature. Therefore, the glazed beef can be reheated, assuming
that when the glaze melts, most of it will be absorbed by the solid part
of the food. In other words, if you will wind up with a puddle of liquid
once you reheat the item, then you can’t reheat it.14 (Of course, the
only way to know what will happen is to make a good guess about the
volume of liquid-y matter from the beginning.)
Here’s a good rule to follow: If the food has a significant accumulation

of liquid, then it should not be reheated. If it is merely moist, it may
be reheated. Alternatively, a food with a lot of liquid could be wiped off
and then reheated.
12
Shu”t Igros Moshe (Orach Chaim 4:74 Bishul 5).
13
14
Mishnah Berurah 318:100; 39 Melochos, p. 594-95. Similar to a glaze are fat and margarine.
5
Now let’s take the case of ice cream, You eat it as a solid, yet at room
temperature it is a liquid. Therefore it has the halachic status of
“liquid.”15
Another case to consider: a piece of cooked chicken from the freezer.

This will have ice on it, which will melt into water once the chicken is
heated. Here too the basic rule is: the chicken may be reheated, but
the ice should be removed first.
Knowing what type of food we’re dealing with tells us if we can reheat
it.16 Now we need to know how the food was prepared, which
determines how to reheat it.
Ways of Preparing Food
Whenever I read cookbooks, I find a dizzying array of terms for

preparing food: braising, steaming, roasting, sautéing, and so on.
Fortunately, in halacha, these boil down (sorry for the pun) to only two
categories:
1) cooking – i.e. preparing food using hot liquid (in Hebrew,

bishul), and
2) baking/roasting – using the medium of hot air (opheh) or

direct fire (tzli)17
The halacha says that a food can be reheated only using the same
method that was used to cook it in the first place. So, something that
was previously cooked may be reheated only via hot liquid, and
15
Why anyone would want to heat up ice cream on Shabbat is besides the point!
16
There are a host of other issues that need to be considered before reheating food on Shabbat.
These will be dealt with in the next lesson. For now, we are just discussing the threshold issue –
whether the food is eligible to be reheated at all, and if so, by what method.
17
Some authorities distinguish between baking and roasting, thus creating three categories. See
Pri Megadim (Mishbetzos Zahav 318:6).
6
something previously baked/roasted can be reheated only via dry
heat.18
Why is this so? As we said earlier, regarding a solid food, once it has
been cooked, it remains cooked. So putting it through the same type
of cooking process again has no effect on it (except for making it
warm). However, if you put the food through a different cooking
process, you are improving it or changing it in some way. This is, in a
sense, a “new” cooking, and that cannot be done on Shabbat.
Some examples:
• I have a piece of meat that was roasted – that is, baked in the oven
– without any liquid. In other words, it was prepared using dry heat. I
want to heat it up on Shabbat afternoon. Separately, I have a crock
pot of cholent19 that has been cooking all night. I can’t put the meat
into the cholent, since this would be reheating it using moist heat.
• I’ve made a hard-boiled egg and I want to reheat it by placing it on

top of my cholent pot. It is permitted to merely warm the food by
placing it on top of the pot – provided that the food cannot change
there (i.e. become browned or dried out).20 If a change was made, this
would be reheating the egg using dry heat, when the egg had been
originally prepared via moist heat.
18
Orach Chaim 318:5, with Mishnah Berurah 41, 42; Halachos of Shabbos, XIV:A.21 (p. 264). The
basic example of reheating using dry heat is putting the food near the intense hear of a stovetop.
The basic example of reheating using moist heat is putting the food inside a hot pot containing
liquid (assuming that the liquid has been continually heated since Shabbat began, since reheating
liquid on Shabbat is not allowed). We will shed more light on these issues in the next lesson.
19
Cholent is a mixture of meat, grains, potatoes and/or beans that is a classic dish for Shabbat
afternoons. It is slow cooked from Friday afternoon and left on a fire (or, in the modern age, inside
an electric crock pot) until the next day. Preparing cholent allows us to enjoy a warm dish on
Shabbat without getting into any issues of reheating.
20
Rabbi Shlomo Zalman Auerbach, quoted in Shemirat Shabbat K’Hilchato 1:62.
7
(Note that this question only arises if the egg, by being placed in this
spot, could potentially reach a heat of yad soledet bo. If not, then
there is no “cooking” issue involved at all.)
• Instant coffee, tea and cocoa – To

manufacture these items, the raw
ingredients are heated at a very high
temperature. Some products may
have been cooked, in which case
there is no problem to “ere-cook”
them on Shabbat.21 Some products,
however, like ground roast coffee
are roasted, and thus we are not
allowed to cook them on Shabbat.
So in making a cup of instant ground
roast coffee, you can’t use a second vessel, but need to use a third
vessel.22
• How about a food that was both cooked and baked? Think of a bagel,
which is first boiled and then baked. Since this item went through both
processes, either method can be used to reheat it.23
• Fried foods present an unusual case. Deep-fried foods are considered

“cooked” since they are prepared by placing them in oil, a liquid. Pan-
fried or sautéed foods are the subject of debate.24
Now is a good time to mention an exception to the rules we’ve

discussed: Cooked solids that get completely dissolved – e.g. salt or
pepper – should only be put into a second vessel, but not a first
vessel.25
21
Shut”t Igros Moshe (Orach Chaim 4:74 Bishul 5).
22
39 Melochos, p. 662. This is based on the prevailing opinion is that cooking cannot take place in
a third vessel.
23
Pri Megadim (Mishbetzot Zahav 318:6); see Biur Halacha 318, s.v. “Yesh.”
24
A recommended reheating method for these kind of foods is to use a method we will soon
discuss: warming it on top of a pot which is on the blech. Pri Megadim (Mishbetzot Zahav 318:7);
39 Melochos, p. 604-05.
25
8
Combination Cases
Okay, now let’s put on our thinking caps and take this discussion to
the next level. Remember the two exceptions where something that is
technically a second vessel is treated as a first vessel? That’s right – a
ladle, and Davar Gush.
Well, there are a few exceptions to these “exceptions.” Let’s take this
one step at a time:
Exception #1: It is a bit of a

stringency to say that a ladle is a
first vessel. After all, the true
definition of a first vessel is
something that is or was on the
fire. Yet a ladle, having been
immersed in a first vessel, gets
treated as a first vessel.
We also learned in this lesson that it is a problem to cook something

after it has been baked. That in itself is a bit of a stringency. So the
halacha says that when these two stringencies emerge in the very
same case, we can be lenient.26 For example:
Jack ladles out some chicken soup into his bowl. He would like
to dip bread chunks into his soup. Since this case combines the
two issues of a ladle and “cooking something after it has been
baked,” he may do so on Shabbat.
26
Mishnah Berurah 318:45; Minchat Yitzchak 5:127:3
9
Exception #2: It was also a stringency to say that a Davar Gush is a
first vessel (as it has “walls” to retain the heat). And further, it was a
stringency to say that a liquid which was fully-cooked, but has now
cooled down, is considered as “un-cooked.” Again, since we have two
stringencies in the same situation, the Sages permitted us to act
leniently.
For example:
Miriam scoops out a plateful of hot cholent. She eyes the

steaming potato and wants to pour some ketchup onto it. What
are the issues involved?
The potato is a Davar Gush and is treated as a first vessel. Also, the
ketchup has the status of liquid (although thick, it is pourable) which is
cooked but has cooled down. Although each factor taken
independently would result in our being stringent, the halacha says
that taken together, we can be lenient.27
We’ve now reach the halfway mark of our discussion of Bishul. It may
be valuable at this point to review all of the Bishul lessons we’ve had
so far.
27
Shu”t Igros Moshe (Orach Chaim 4:74 Bishul 5). We should emphasize that the Sages, who
defined these rules in the first place, themselves determine the exceptions. We ourselves should
not derive any general rules from the cases discussed.
10
The ins and outs of the Shabbat blech.
written by
Alan Goldman
edited by
1
“Make a fence for the Torah,” the Sages say.1 That is, enact laws that
guard against the possibility of violating halacha. In this lesson, we will
study a number of laws which the Sages set out to prevent one from
inadvertently engaging in Bishul on Shabbat.
Recall from what we’ve learned that it’s acceptable to start something
cooking before Shabbat and leave it to cook overnight (as is done with
the common cholent). It is also acceptable to reheat foods on Shabbat,
given certain specific conditions. The requirements we’re about to
learn place limitations on these activities.
She’hiyah – Leaving Food on a Flame
Cooking, of course, is an everyday activity. The Sages were therefore

concerned about us momentarily forgetting that it is Shabbat, or
forgetting that cooking isn’t allowed on Shabbat, and just going about
our usual business.
Thus, the Sages prohibited

leaving an uncooked food on an
open flame during Shabbat. This
is known as she’hiyah.2 According
to the Torah, there’s nothing
wrong with this, since the
cooking is happening by itself.
But there is concern that we
might adjust the flame if it is
open and easily accessible.
To avoid this problem, and also

to generally differentiate between Shabbat and other days, the Sages
stated that you could leave uncooked food only on a covered flame.3
1
Talmud - Avot 1:1.
2
Pronounced sheh-hee-YAH (or, in Ashkenazic style, sheh-HEE-yeh).
3
If one mistakenly left uncooked food on an open flame, it must be removed immediately. Orach
Chaim 253:1; 39 Melochos, p. 608.
2
This is the source for that indispensable tool of the Shabbat kitchen,
the blech.4
We’ve referred to the blech before – it is a flat metal sheet (with one
side bent over) that we put on the range top, so that it covers the
actual flame but allows heat to penetrate through. (Additionally, knobs
on the stove-top should also be covered, so there is no opportunity to
alter the flame.)5
An electric hotplate accomplishes the same halachic purpose, since it

maintains a constant heat and does not have any knobs.6
We place cooked food on the blech before we light candles on Friday

evening, so that the food remains warm until our meal. It is highly
recommended to put the food on the blech after it is fully cooked.
Technically you are allowed to put uncooked food on the blech, but in
such a case you would be restricted from moving the pot in any way
whatsoever, since this will accelerate the cooking. In practice, then,
we make sure our food is fully cooked before Shabbat. (An exception
would be a case of great need, such as if unexpected guests showed
up.7)
(When it comes to putting the food onto the blech for Shabbat lunch,
we get into a different issue, known as chazarah (‘returning’), which
we’ll address a little later.)
Beyond the stove-top, how do we deal with she’hiyah regarding other

cooking surfaces?
4
The etymology of the word blech is “tin” in Yiddish. It is a harsh-sounding term for something so
central to our Shabbat observance, but that’s what we usually call it. In Israel, many use an electric
warmer, called a platta.
5
Shu”t Igros Moshe (Orach Chaim 1:93). See also 39 Melochos, p. 610-11; Halachos of Shabbos,
XIV:E.12 (p. 339). It does not matter if the range uses gas or electricity. A blech is needed in either
case.
6
If the hotplate does have different settings, those knobs should be covered before Shabbat.
7
Biur Halacha 253 s.v. V’Nohagu.” For further study on this issue, see 39 Melochos, p. 611. In an
emergency where food would need to be left on an open flame, it must either be totally raw, or
minimally one-third cooked.
3
• Ovens – Cooked food may be put in an oven on Friday and left there
on Shabbat. Uncooked food cannot, since the ‘flame’ – that is, the
walls of the oven – are exposed to the food, it is the regular mode of
cooking, and thus ‘uncovered’.8 However, even with cooked food, there
are restrictions on use of an oven, since opening the oven to remove
the food often activates the thermostat, which is of course prohibited
on Shabbat. In practice, you can take food out of an oven that has
been shut off before Shabbat. (Or, if the oven has a timer, that could
be set to shut off the oven shortly before the food is needed.)9
• Slow cookers10 – Some

slow cookers have only one
temperature setting: when
you plug them in, they turn
on. These can be used on
Shabbat, so long as the food
is put in there (and preferably
fully cooked) before Shabbat
starts.11 Because there is no
way to adjust the temperature, the central concern behind the concept
of she’hiyah does not apply.
More sophisticated models have several settings. In such a case, one

must cover the knobs, as a clear sign that they can’t be manipulated
on Shabbat.
The rules of she’hiyah do not require a blech-type cover for slow

cookers, since the ‘flame’ (i.e., the electric element) is already
covered. However, as we’ll see later, a cover may be needed to deal
with other issues.
8
There is something known as an oven insert, which serves the same purpose as a blech. With
such an insert, the oven’s ‘flame’ is ‘covered’, and as a result uncooked food can be put in it. Shu”t
Igros Moshe (Orach Chaim 4:74 Bishul 27); 39 Melochos, p. 612.
9
10
These are often referred to by the trademarked term ‘Crock Pots’.
11
According to some opinions, the food may even be uncooked.
4
Chazarah12 – Returning Food to a Heat Source
Here is a central challenge of Shabbat: We want to have warm food for

Shabbat lunch,13 yet we can’t cook. So what do we do?
There are two options:
(1) leave something cooking overnight so that it is still hot when

lunchtime arrives
(2) find a halachically acceptable way to reheat your food
Recall that in our previous lesson (#21), we discussed the basics of

reheating. We learned that solid foods can be reheated on Shabbat,
while liquids cannot. We also learned that foods can be reheated only
using the same cooking method by which they were initially prepared.
The Sages added another layer to these halachot. In order to avoid

even the appearance of cooking, we cannot place foods directly onto a
blech on Shabbat, even if the food is solid, and was fully cooked
already, and was originally prepared using dry heat.14
It is permitted, however, to return food to the blech, under the

following conditions:
(1) When you remove the food from the blech, you intend to
put it back15
(2) You continue to hold the pot by its handle while it is off the
blech, and may rest on the counter16
(3) The food does not cool off completely before you return it17
12
Pronounced cha-zah-RAH or cha-ZAH-ruh.
13
Chollent was invented to fulfill the special mitzvah of having warm food on Shabbat day (Baal
HaMe’or – Shabbat 45).
14
Orach Chaim 253:2, with Mishnah Berurah 37, 56; 39 Melochos, p. 618.
15
In Hebrew, da’ato l’hachzira
16
In Hebrew, odo b’yado. Orach Chaim 253:2; Shu”t Igros Moshe (Orach Chaim 4:74 Bishul 33).
5
By acting in this way, we maintain a continuous connection between
the food and the original source of heat, the blech.18
In case of necessity, the food could be returned to the blech even if

conditions (1) and (2) were not fulfilled, provided that the pot was not
put on the ground. Condition (3) must always be fulfilled.19
Let’s consider the following case:
Before heading off to bed on Friday night, Rachel notices that

her electric stovetop has turned off, leaving no source of heat
for the cholent that sits on her blech. Rachel feels the pot and it
is still warm. But of course, by the next morning it will be
spoiled. Is there any way for Rachel to save her cholent?
There is a very good solution. Rachel can take her pot of cholent to a
neighbor and have it continue to sit overnight on her neighbor’s blech.
The reason this is permitted is because although technically speaking
Rachel’s pot has been “removed” from the blech (without fulfilling the
conditions of her holding it and intending to put it back), this
constitutes a case of great need, and Rachel can still “return” the pot
to any blech.20
A Map of the Blech
Normally, when we put a blech on the stove, we keep only one of the
stove’s flames on. This generates a sufficient amount of heat to spread
throughout the blech’s surface. At the same time, not all parts of the
blech will heat evenly: the closer you are to the actual flame, the
hotter it will be.
For this discussion, it is helpful to classify the blech into three sections:
17
In Hebrew, odo ro’tachat. Rema – Orach Chaim 253:2, with Mishnah Berurah 54; Halachos of
Shabbos, XIV:F.1 (p. 350); 39 Melochos, p. 619.
18
Orach Chaim 253:2, with Mishnah Berurah 55.
19
Orach Chaim 253:2, with Mishnah Berurah 56, Sha’ar Hatziyun 50.
20
Shu”t Igros Moshe (Orach Chaim 4:74 Bishul 38).
6
Point A – the area of the blech directly above the flame (or electric
heat element)
Point B – the area of the blech not directly above the flame, yet hot
enough to cause the food to reach the temperature of yad soledet bo –
which, as we learned, is the threshold for determining halachic
cooking.21
Point C – the area of the blech not directly above the flame, and just
warm, but cannot cause the food to reach the temperature of yad
soledet bo. If you place food on this area, it cannot become cooked.22
Here’s one application:
The halacha prohibits removing food from a pot while it is on point A.

But if you slide the pot to point B (or point C), it is permitted to
remove food from the pot without having to go to the trouble of taking
the pot off the blech and supporting it the entire time, etc. (as per the
three conditions above). But we need to put the cover back onto the
pot before sliding it back to point A.23
21
See lesson #19.
22
23
Shu”t Igros Moshe (Orach Chaim 4:61).
7
Food from the Fridge
Okay, you say. This works if you are scooping some food out of a pot,
and you need to momentarily remove it. But this still assumes that the
food has been on the blech through the whole Shabbat. What if you
have food that you are not going to leave on the stove overnight? For
example, is there any way to heat up kugel or challah for Shabbat
lunch?
The short answer is yes. The

common solution is to reheat the
food by placing it on top of
another pot which is on a heat
source. For example, you take a
clean, empty pot24 and put it on
your stove, which is already
covered with a blech. Then you
place the food you want to reheat
on that pot (perhaps by inverting
the lid and putting the food in the
hollow space). Unusual? Yes. But
here the problem of giving an “appearance of cooking” is solved, since
no one would ever think you are cooking by such a convoluted
method.25
Another solution is to place the food on an area near the stove, so that
the heat radiating from the blech will warm it. This will work if you
have a surface in your kitchen that gets heated nicely from the stove’s
heat. And of course, this is permitted because there is no appearance
of cooking so long as the food is not on the blech (i.e., the stove).26
24
Of course, if you have a pot containing food that is already on the stove, you may use that as
well. Most authorities allow you to place any item – for example, an upside-down tinfoil pan – that
has height and is thus recognizable as an addition to the blech.
25
Mishnah Berurah 318:55. This approach is explained in Orach Chaim 253:5; 39 Melochos, p.
621. See Principles of Hilchos Shabbos, ‘Bishul’, section D. The food may not be fully wrapped in
tin foil, as we will discuss in the next lesson.
26
Orach Chaim 318:15, with Mishnah Berurah 92, 94; 39 Melochos, p. 621.
8
What about warming up uncooked food?
Since cooking does not occur at less than yad soledet bo, you can put
uncooked food in any place where the food will not reach that
temperature. As a result, you can usually safely heat up uncooked
food on top of a radiator.27 Similarly, it is permitted to place cold food
onto point C of the blech (but you would not be allowed to move it to
any hotter area of the blech).28
This raises the question: If I want to warm a piece of uncooked food,

can I put it in a place that is hotter than yad soledet bo, as long as I
remove the food before the food itself reaches yad soledet bo? The
answer is ‘no,’ because you may forget and leave it there.29
The litmus test is: Will this food reach yad soledet bo before the end of
Shabbat?
In our next lesson, we will explore other rabbinic laws regarding

Bishul.
27
Since this is such an unusual place to “cook,” any knobs need not be covered.
28
Shu”t Igros Moshe (Orach Chaim 4:61); Shemirat Shabbat K’Hilchato 1:13; 39 Melochos, p. 644-
45.
29
Orach Chaim 318:14, with Mishnah Berurah 90.
9
The difference between materials that

increase the heat, or retain heat.
written by
Alan Goldman
edited by
1
We just learned about the restrictions of she’hiyah (leaving food on a
flame over Shabbat) and chazara (returning food to a heat source
during Shabbat). To these we now add a third activity:
Hatmana1 – Insulating Food to Keep it Warm
In earlier times, a common way to maintain a food’s heat was to

insulate it. Similar to the way we insulate our attics, people used to
wrap their pots with cotton, sand, or other natural materials. This is
not commonly done in modern kitchens. However, as with many other
areas of halacha, the principle has contemporary applications.
Theory and Practice
First of all, why did the Sages prohibit hatmana?
As with other restrictions we’ve seen, it is a protective measure.

People are creatures of habit, and Shabbat comes only once a week.
So, unless we are paying close attention, there is a tendency to act on
Shabbat just like we do during the other six days.
The Sages reasoned that if someone sees that her food is not warm
enough on Shabbat, she might then do something to rectify it.2 Most
such actions would be a violation of the melacha of Bishul.3 To avoid
the problem, they ruled that food cannot be insulated over Shabbat.
In practice, hatmana applies only when:
(1) The food is in the vessel in which it was cooked4

(2) The insulation directly touches the food (or the pot it’s in)5
(3) The insulation fully covers the food or pot6
1
Pronounced haht-mah-NAH or haht-MAH-nuh.
2
Talmud - Shabbat 34b; 39 Melochos, p. 627.
3
Or perhaps another melacha, Ma’avir, which we’ll learn about later in the course.
4
Orach Chaim 257:5.
5
Orach Chaim 257:8.
6
2
To illustrate – say you have a metal pot, and you’ve cooked chicken
soup in it. You serve some of the soup early Friday evening to your
young children, and leave the pot off the blech. If you wrap the pot
with a large towel to maintain the heat, and the towel is big enough to
completely cover the pot, this would be a prohibited act of hatmana.
The reasoning behind these

conditions has to do with the Sages’
understanding of the physics of
7
heat. As we learned earlier, a food
retains its warmth most effectively
in the vessel it was cooked in. Once
it’s transferred to another vessel,
heat is lost in the process. Since
insulating a food outside of a first
vessel (kli rishon) would therefore not be very effective, the Sages did
not extend the restriction that far.8
Similarly, when a pot is not fully covered by insulation, or when the

insulation doesn’t directly touch the pot, a significant amount of heat
escapes. Under such circumstances, the amount of heat being
maintained was not sufficient, nor is it the usual manner of insulation,
to be classified as hatmana.9
Insulation ‘Types’
Before getting to specific examples, we need to know that all

insulation is not created equal. The Sages distinguished between
7
See lesson #20.
8
Be’er Hatev 257:8. An example is pouring hot water into a thermos (a second vessel that is
insulated.)
9
Orach Chaim 257:8.
3
materials that actually increase the heat, and those which only retain
heat.10
To be considered a material that ‘increases’ heat, the insulation itself

does not have to be the actual source of the heat. (An example of
insulation that is a source of heat is an electric blanket). If you have a
heat source connected to your food or pot, and you insulate this food
or pot, the combination of these factors classify the insulation as an
‘increasing’ type.11
Imagine a hot water urn that is plugged into an outlet. So long as it is

plugged in, heat will be generated by the heating element inside the
urn. If you then wrap the urn in a heat-proof ‘jacket’ – which often
comes with the urn when you purchase it – you have created a
situation where the insulation acts to ‘increase’ the available heat.12
There is a halachic difference between the two kinds of insulation.
If you’re insulating with something that ‘increases’ heat, then you can’t
even insulate the food before Shabbat to leave it that way during
Shabbat.13
However, if you’re using one of the ‘retaining’ materials, then it is

permitted to insulate prior to Shabbat.14 As an example, say you
baked challah right before Shabbat and you’d like to keep it as warm
as possible for the meal. If the challah is not going to be put on the
blech (so that it’s not connected to a heat source), then before
Shabbat you may wrap it tightly in a towel or aluminum foil.
10
Rambam (Shabbat 4:1); Orach Chaim 257:3; Halachos of Shabbos, XIV:G.3 (p. 371); see also
Principles of Hilchos Shabbos, ‘Bishul’. In the classical sources, the term for the ‘increasing’ type of
insulation is ‘Davar Hamosif Hevel’. The term for the ‘retaining’ type is ‘Davar She-aino Mosif
Hevel’.
11
12
Ibid.
13
Orach Chaim 257:1.
14
Orach Chaim 257:1; Halachos of Shabbos, XIV:G.6 (p. 372).
4
Applications
Let’s now look at some other applications of these halachot.
• Baked potato – these are commonly wrapped in aluminum foil.

Given what we’ve learned, on Shabbat we cannot completely wrap a
hot potato, because this would be hatmana. We can wrap it in a way
that some part is exposed. If we do this, we are letting air in, which
will act to cool the potato, and prevent the insulating from being fully
effective.15
• Atop a pot – Let’s say you want

to heat some kugel or challah by
placing it atop another pot that is
sitting on the blech. (This method
of reheating was discussed in
Lesson #21.) According to what
we’ve learned here, it would be
forbidden to wrap the food
completely in aluminum foil. Since
the blech is a “heat-increaser,” we
may not place food in this way –
even before Shabbat begins.
Again, it’s permitted to wrap it in a
way that some part of the food is exposed.16
• Covering a pot with a lid – this seems like hatmana, but actually
it isn’t. Placing a lid on a pot is permitted because the primary purpose
is to protect the food, even if one’s intention is also to keep the food
warm.17
15
Orach Chaim 257:6; Shu”t Igros Moshe (Orach Chaim 4:74, Hatmana 3); 39 Melochos, p. 628.
16
Shu”t Igros Moshe (Orach Chaim 4:74, Hatmana 3).
17
Orach Chaim 257:2; 39 Melochos, p. 629. However, as we said previously, one cannot put a lid
on any pot that is over a flame, since this helps the cooking process.
5
• Slow cookers – as we’ve
mentioned, the slow cooker is an
important part of many people’s
Shabbat kitchens. But there is a
stream of thought in halacha that
considers the use of these vessels to
be a form of hatmana. The thinking is:
the slow cooker’s insert (which
contains the food) is surrounded by an
outer component which has a heating
element. Thus it’s as if the food is being insulated. Although the top of
the insert sticks out slightly from the heating element – which means
the food is not completely wrapped and thus is not a problem of
hatmana18 – according to many opinions this is not sufficiently
noticeable. To avoid the problem, you may
• place a plastic liner or aluminum foil in between the insert and

the outer component
• place some item (balls of aluminum foil or empty tuna fish

cans) underneath the insert to raise it above the walls of the
outer pot19
An important word of caution: any time you want to insulate a food,

whether it’s on a heat source or not, please be careful. What may be
halachically permitted vis-à-vis Shabbat, is not always safe and wise.
In our next lesson, we’ll discuss a few more issues, to conclude the
topic of Bishul.
18
Shu”t Igros Moshe (Orach Chaim 4:74, Hatmana 4); 39 Melochos, citing Rav Shlomo Zalman
Auerbach, p. 632-33.
19
The prevailing Sefardi custom is to require that the insert be raised considerably higher than the
outer pot.
6
Stirring the pot, and a summary

of all the cooking laws.
written by
Alan Goldman
edited by
1
We’ve now covered how to prepare and serve hot food on Shabbat.1 In
our last lesson on Bishul, we’ll deal with a few remaining issues.
Activities Related to Food
Stirring the pot – Recall from our earlier lessons that, in halacha,
there are many ways to increase the effect that heat has on food. You
can raise the flame; cover the pot with a lid; wrap or insulate the food;
and so on. One other way is to stir the food being cooked. This action,
known as maygis, is not allowed on Shabbat, on the assumption that
moving the food around will better distribute the heat, and this would
be an act of Bishul.2
The problem of stirring applies

when the food is hot and not fully
cooked. The classic example
would be stirring chollent cooking
in a crock pot just after Shabbat
began. Although the chollent is at
least partially cooked by this
time, it might not be fully
cooked. It is certainly hot, and
connected to its heat source.
Some Sages extend this prohibition to food that is fully cooked, if it is

still connected to its heat source. It is good to avoid doing this as
well.3
1
It’s important to know that these lessons cover only the basic laws of Bishul. Once a person
becomes comfortable with the basics, there is a great deal more that he or she can learn. Refer to
the booklist cited in Lesson #1.
2
Orach Chaim 318:18. The Hebrew term for this is kiruv Bishul – i.e., making the cooking happen
more quickly.
3
Rema - Orach Chaim 318:18, with Mishnah Berurah 113; 39 Melochos, p. 647. Ideally, one
should have all food fully cooked before Shabbat.
2
Only stirring or shaking the food is a problem. You are allowed to
remove the food for serving, provided that the pot is not on the fire
(Point-A of the blech, as discussed in Lesson #22), and that you
remove the food without any stirring action.4
Too Hot, Too Cold – A common situation we face during Shabbat

meals is having a drink or liquid food that is either too hot or too cold
for our taste. How do we deal with this within the boundaries of
halacha?
• “Too hot” – The normal way

to cool off hot soup (or tea) is
to add ice or cold water. We
might instinctively think that
this can’t be done on Shabbat,
because it seems that the hot
soup, say, would ‘cook’ the ice,
and this would violate the laws
of Bishul. In fact, it is okay to
put the ice in, since the soup bowl is, at worst, a ‘second vessel’,5 and
the halacha says that water cannot be cooked in such a vessel.6
Note, though, that we cannot pour hot water over ice – say, putting a
piece of ice in a teacup and then pouring in the tea – because of the
prohibition on melting ice through a direct act (as discussed this in our
lesson on Dosh #9), and also the problem of iruy kli rishon.
4
This is because removing the food is obviously not intended to better cook it. Mishnah Berurah
318:117; 39 Melochos, p. 647-48 and footnote 308.
5
Recall the types of vessels from lesson #20. The soup bowl would be considered a ‘second
vessel’ if the host served the soup straight from the pot (the ‘first vessel’) into the bowl. If the soup
was first put into a tureen, and then into the individual bowls, the bowl would be only a ‘third
vessel’. Some Sages say that nothing can become halachically cooked in a third vessel.
6
Here we are only discussing water. The halacha will not be the same if you put most other
substances into the soup bowl.
3
• “Too cold” – Say you have some cold water that you’d like to heat
up. An example: in the winter, the water coming from the tap is often
quite cold. When it comes time to wash our hands before eating bread,
we might want to take the chill out of the water by adding some hot
water.7 Can we do this?
The answer is yes – so long as the hot water will not heat the cooler
water to the temperature of Yad Soledet Bo (the temperature at which
liquids become halachically ‘cooked’).8 This means that we need to
take care that the volume of cold water is much greater than the
volume of hot water.9
Another example: warming up a baby bottle. Babies prefer drinks that

are not refrigerator-cold. So how do you take the chill out of a bottle
that’s been in the fridge? The most common solution is to pour some
water from your urn into a mug or small bowl, and then immerse the
bottle in that water. Again, we are using a ‘second vessel’ (the mug or
bowl), and also the heat of the hot water is not even touching the
liquid in the bottle.10
• “Just right” – No halachot here; we just included it for the sake of

completeness. ☺
7
As we’ll soon discuss, running the hot water from the tap is not allowed on Shabbat.
8
On this concept, please go back to lesson #19 (our first one on Bishul).
9
Mishnah Berurah 318:83; 39 Melochos, p. 652. Using the same logic, it is also okay to heat up
food that is inside a baby’s bowl, where the bowl has a hollow bottom for water to be put into.
10
Here’s something you may not have considered: Completely immersing the bottle in the hot
water is a problem of hatmana! See 39 Melochos, p. 655-6 on this issue, and for other approaches
to warming bottles.
4
Non-Food Issues
Surprisingly enough, there are some Bishul issues outside the context
of food.
First, we should be aware that Bishul can occur with any substance
that will be physically changed by heat.11 Bringing metal to the point
where it is red-hot is considered Bishul. This, incidentally, is one of the
problems with turning on an incandescent light bulb on Shabbat: the
filament becomes red-hot.
Hot Water Tank – There is also the

issue of using hot water inside your
home. When you turn on the hot
water faucet, it of course comes out
of the hot water heater. To maintain
the water pressure, new cold water
automatically gets sent to the
heater. This new water will then
become heated to a high
temperature – in other words,
halachically ‘cooked’. So, we are not
allowed to activate this process by using hot water from the tap.12
Solar Heat – In terms of the melacha of Bishul, solar heat is not

considered “heat,” since it is not a usual form of cooking.13
Therefore it is permitted to cook something directly in the sun. For

example, one could use a magnifying glass to direct the solar heat to
cook an egg.
A solar water heater is problematic, because typically it also has an

electric component for use on a cloudy day. So that makes the entire
system generally off-limits on Shabbat.14
11
Take a look again at the definition of Bishul (in lesson #19).
12
Orach Chaim 318:9; Shemirat Shabbat K’Hilchato 1:39; 39 Melochos, p. 639.
13
Talmud - Shabbat 39a, Rashi s.v. “D’Shari”; Orach Chaim 318:3; 39 Melochos, p. 587-88.
14
Shemirat Shabbat K’Hilchato 1:45 (127).
5
Overall Review
What have we learned over six lessons on this most complex of

melachot?
• We began with the definition of Bishul: “using heat to change the

physical structure of an object.”
• The threshold of Bishul is different for solids and liquids. For solid
foods, cooking is achieved when the food is partially edible; for liquids,
when they reach the temperature of yad soledet bo (113ºF or 45ºC).
• Stirring a pot of food, putting a lid on a pot, and closing an oven

door are all forbidden actions, as this will cause cooking to take place
more rapidly.
• "Cooking" can still occur when removed from the heat source. In this
regard, there are three types of 'vessels':
First Vessel – the pot in which food is actually cooked. This will
halachically cook anything that is placed in it (that has not
already been cooked).
Second Vessel – When you transfer the food from this initial pot
and place it in a bowl, that bowl becomes a 'second vessel'. Only
water and oil can be placed in this, since all other things will
become halachically cooked.
Third Vessel – here, items cannot become halachically cooked

(at least according to one of the main opinions we discussed).
• Iruy Kli Rishon – When pouring hot liquid from a first vessel onto
solid, uncooked food, the outermost layer of the food will become
cooked. When pouring hot liquid from a first vessel onto a cold liquid,
whether or not an act of Bishul takes place will depend on the volume
of each liquid.
• There are certain exceptions where something gets the status of

“first vessel”: a ladle, and a hot solid food (davar gush) like a potato.
6
• Once a food is cooked, it is permitted to reheat it. A cooked solid
can be put into a first vessel (that’s removed from the fire), whereas a
cooked liquid that has cooled off to room temperature can only be put
into a second vessel.
• A food can be reheated only using the same method that was used
to cook it in the first place: Something that was previously cooked
may be reheated only via hot liquid, and something previously
baked/roasted can be reheated only via dry heat.
• There are three significant rabbinic decrees regarding Bishul:
• She’hiyah – not leaving food on an open flame. We solve this

problem by using a blech.
• Chazarah –It is permitted to return food to the blech only on

condition that when you remove the food, you: 1) intend to put
it back, 2) continue to hold the pot, and 3) the food does not
cool off before you return it.
• Hatmanah –It is permitted to insulate food only if the

wrapping does not completely cover the pot and/or food.
• Cooked food may be taken from the refrigerator and reheated by

placing it on top of a pot which is on a heat source.
• Uncooked food can only be put in a place where the food will not
reach the temperature of yad soledet bo (e.g. on a radiator).
• There are also non-food applications of Bishul – e.g. bringing metal

to the point where it is red-hot.
Congratulations! We've not only completed Bishul, but we've

completed the entire 'Order of Bread' that we began way back in
lesson #3. Our bread, so to speak, has just come out of the oven.
Enjoy!
7
Issues of removing hair, skin and nails.
written by
Alan Goldman
edited by
1
Shorn any sheep recently?
Probably not.
That’s okay – with Gozez,1 our 12th melacha, we’re about to learn
about how to get from wool to fabric. This labor category opens the
second major grouping of melachot, known as the “Order of
Garments.”2 These melachot detail the process of making fabric, from
the shearing of the wool until the finished fabric.
As we’ve mentioned earlier,

each prohibited melacha (labor
category) is based on an
activity that took place in the
Mishkan (the Tabernacle). The
curtains in the Tabernacle were
made of fabric, woven from
animal wool.3
Within the ‘Order of Garments’,

there are three groups of labor categories.
• The first four melachot deal with obtaining and preparing the wool.
These are: Gozez (shearing), Melaben (cleaning), Menapetz
(combing), and Tzovaya (dyeing).
• The next group, containing five melachot, deals with the actual
weaving process, by which the wool is made into something you can
wear.
1
Pronounced goh-ZAYZ (Sephardic) or GOH-zayz (Ashkenazic).
2
This is Rabbi Ribiat’s term. 39 Melochos, v.2, p. 669 and 673.
3
See Exodus 26:7. Some authorities maintain that there was another use of Gozez in the
Tabernacle: The tachash (a special animal that existed only in biblical times whose hide was used
for an added covering of the Tabernacle) had to have the hair trimmed off of it. See the opinion of
Ran and Rivash, cited in Biur Halacha 340:1 - s.v. “V’Chayav.” Also, wool was used for the special
garments worn by the Kohanim while serving in the Tabernacle.
2
• The last group (of four melachot) discusses types of labor done with
fabrics, including tying and untying knots, sewing, and tearing.
That’s the big picture. Now on to Gozez.
Basics of Gozez
In order to produce these fabrics, the first step was to shear the wool
from the animal. So, the classic act of Gozez would be shearing your
sheep’s wool on Shabbat.4 Extending this idea, the Sages taught that
any removal of something that grows upon a living being is also
considered an act of Gozez.
How does this principle apply in daily life?
To review, Gozez means:
• removing a part of the body

• that grows
• from any living being
• in the normal manner
Here’s the rule: The item being cut off must be something “separate”
from the organism (like hair and nails, and not an actual limb) and
must be something that grows back.5
For humans, the three things that grow on our bodies are hair, skin
and nails.6 Therefore, if we cut any of these on Shabbat, we are
engaging in a Torah-prohibited act of Gozez.
4
During biblical times, sheep-shearing was a festive occasion; see (Genesis 31:19; 38:12,13; 1-
Samuel 25:4-8,36; 2-Samuel 13:23-28). It is a mitzvah to give the first shearing of sheep to a
Kohen (Deut. 18:4).
5
See R’shash - Eruvin 103a; responsa Torat Chesed quoted in Yecha’ve Daat 6:53.
6
Mishnah Berurah 340:7
3
What if you remove the hair (or skin or nails) not ‘in the normal
manner’ – e.g. by biting it off, rather than cutting with an instrument
like a scissors or nail clipper? Though this shinui reduces the act from
the realm of a Torah prohibition, removing hair, skin or nails in a non-
normal manner is still not allowed, based on rabbinic decree.7
Let’s look more closely at each of these issues.
A Hair-Raising Topic
Brushing Hair
It’s Shabbat morning and

you’re headed for shul. You
are ready to leave when you realize you would like to brush
your hair. As you reach for the brush, you pause for a moment.
It might seem that brushing hair is not a problem of Gozez. After all,
we brush hair so it will look good, not in order to “remove it.”
However, almost all of the time, some hair will come out during
brushing.8 As a result, this activity falls within the category of Gozez.
There is a halachically acceptable way to avoid this dilemma. Brushing

hair may be done on Shabbat if you satisfy all of the following:
(a) a very soft brush is used

(b) you brush gently
(c) you brush only at the surface of the hair, not close to the
scalp, and
(d) the brush you use is designated for Shabbat use only 9
7
Recall that a general rule of the melachot of Shabbat is that many behaviors are considered
prohibited by the Torah only when they are performed in the normal way. On this issue relative to
Gozez specifically, see Mishnah Berurah 340:2; 39 Melochos, p. 673-680.
8
Recall in Lesson #2, we discussed the idea of Psik Raisha: When your action will inevitably result
in a labor that is not allowed on Shabbat, you can't do that action – even if you don't intend for the
prohibited labor to take place.
9
Mishnah Berurah 303:86; 39 Melochos, p. 676-7. Using the same brush as the weekday is a
problem of Uvdah D’chol (a weekday activity).
4
The first three conditions are aimed at avoiding the activity of Gozez;
the fourth condition is imposed to create extra awareness that Shabbat
brushing is different than weekday brushing.
Combing hair on Shabbat is always prohibited, since it is virtually

impossible to avoid removing hair when combing.
Beard – Let’s consider another, similar issue: stroking one’s beard. In

this case, one would need to be careful to do so only gently, so that
hairs do not fall out in the process.
Plucking eyebrows, or removing a gray hair – These activities are

prohibited on Shabbat, whether by hand or with an instrument.
Removing a Band-Aid – Can you

remove a band-aid from a part of your
body that is covered by hair? The simple
answer would be no, because hair will
certainly be pulled out. The solution is to
apply some vegetable oil or olive oil, in
order to dissolve the adhesive and get
the band-aid to slide off without any
pulling.10 However, if there is discomfort
and no other way, one may remove it.11
Gum – What if chewing gum got stuck in your hair? Of course you
could not forcibly remove the gum, since hair will inevitably be pulled
out. Here’s a simple solution (that helps on weekdays, too): Apply ice
to the gum, which will cause it to harden and lose most of its
stickiness. After a few minutes, the gum will slide off without pulling
hair.
Wigs – May a woman brush a wig on Shabbat? In this case the

halacha permits it – certainly if the wig is made from synthetic
10
Mishnah Berurah 312:20; Shemirat Shabbat K’Hilchato 35:29
11
Shemirat Shabbat K’Hilchato footnote 73, quoting Rabbi Shlomo Zalman Auerbach. The
rationale is that this is an “abnormal” way of removing hair, and it is an “unwanted” result.
5
materials (since this does not fit the basic Gozez definition of
“something that grows upon a living being”), or even if it is made from
human hair. Why? Because these hairs have already been removed
from their original “source of growth.” Yet, because of other halachic
problems, one should still use a soft brush.12
Fur Coat – Regarding Gozez, furs are not similar to wigs, since furs
are still attached to the source of original growth. The Sages note that
Gozez applies even if the being is not actually alive when the removal
takes place.13 Therefore plucking hair from a fur coat would be a
biblically-proscribed act of Gozez.14
Bird feathers – The basic halacha is that one may not pluck feathers
from a bird, whether dead or alive. But what about removing a feather
stub that you find still attached to cooked chicken?
Rabbi Moshe Feinstein writes that it is permissible to remove these

feathers, since once they have been cooked with the chicken, they no
longer have a fitting use. (As for the issue of Borer, the feathers are
considered a ‘barrier’ to getting to the food.)15
The Skinny on Skin
Like hair and nails, skin is a part of the body that grows (or more
precisely, regenerates). So the principle behind Gozez applies here,
and cutting, biting off, or removing pieces of dead skin is prohibited.16
One should, therefore, not remove any skin, cuticles or scabs from
one's body. Nor should one bite off the loose skin from chapped lips.17
12
13
14
Mishnah Berurah 340:5, also see Aruch HaShulchan 336:35.
15
Shu”t Igros Moshe (Orach Chaim 4:74, Borer 9). This is similar to one who does not want to eat
chicken skin, and may therefore remove the skin in order to get to the meat.
16
Orach Chaim 340:2. On all three of these examples, see Biur Halacha 340 s.v. ‘Yabelet’; 39
Melochos, p. 681.
6
Dandruff – It is prohibited to scratch one's head if it will cause
attached dandruff to fall. However, it is permitted to remove
completely loose dandruff.18
Splinter – Can one remove a splinter that is under the surface of the
skin? If the splinter is causing pain, then one may cut into the outer
surface of the skin (being careful not to cause unnecessary bleeding)19
to the point where one can reach it with tweezers. One should be
careful to only cut the skin and not detach it.
Nails
In general, it’s good to get into the routine of cutting your nails (and
trimming cuticles) before Shabbat. It is, in fact, a mitzvah to cut your
fingernails on Friday in honor of Shabbat.20
Biting nails – In general, nail-biting is discouraged, especially since it

may lead to biting fingernails on Shabbat, which is not allowed.21
Nevertheless, the halacha does not consider ‘biting’ to be the normal

manner of cutting nails (even if it might be your normal manner). As a
result, biting nails is not prohibited on Shabbat by Torah law – but it is
still prohibited by rabbinic law.22
17
See Biur Halacha 340:2, s.v. ‘Yabelet' who explains that it is especially problematic to bite skin
off lips with the teeth – because that is the normal way it is done. To chew and swallow one’s
chapped lips even on a weekday may also be a problem – see Rambam (Ma’acholot Asurot 4:21);
Sh'ailat Yavetz 1:41.
18
Shemirat Shabbat K’Hilchato 14:43, based on Orach Chaim 328:22.
19
Mishnah Berurah 328:88; Shemirat Shabbat K’Hilchato 35:17. This would violate the melacha of
Shochait; see upcoming lesson #33.
20
Orach Chaim 260:1
21
Rabbi Shimshon Pincus zt"l called biting fingernails on Sunday through Friday as "transgressing
Shabbat during the week" (chillul Shabbat bechol), due to the high probability of accidentally doing
the same on Shabbat.
22
Recall that a general rule of the melachot of Shabbat is that many behaviors are considered
prohibited by the Torah only when they are performed in the normal way. On this issue relative to
Gozez specifically, see 39 Melochos, p. 673-680.
7
Hang-nails
Sitting at home on a Shabbat afternoon, you realize that you

have a ‘hangnail’ (a part of your nail that has become
detached). It is uncomfortable and even painful. During the
week, you would simply clip it or gently pull it off. What about
today?
This scenario appears straightforward. Why

would you be allowed to remove the
hangnail, if nail-clipping is considered
Gozez?
Here, two factors make it possible to get rid

of the offending nail:
1) If the hangnail is already majority

detached (i.e. more than halfway of its
width), the halacha views it as about to
come off on its own.23
2) Halacha is sensitive to physical discomfort, and allows certain

leniencies to relieve it.24
So if you are bothered by the hangnail, and it is majority detached,

you are permitted to gently remove the hangnail in a ‘non-normal
manner’ – that is, by using your hands, rather than an instrument.25
This lenient ruling does not apply to loose or dead skin.26
23
“A nail that is mostly detached is considered detached.” Therefore, removing it is only forbidden
on a rabbinic level. Orach Chaim 328:31.
24
Mishnah Berurah 328:96; 39 Melochos, p. 681-82. By contrast, if you are not bothered by the
nail, you would need to leave it alone. See Orach Chaim 328:31, according to Ktzot HaShulchan
143:1 and Shemirat Shabbat K’Hilchato 14:54; also see Shonei Halachot.
25
Keep in mind that even under these conditions, you should not remove the hang-nail in a manner
that it would be inevitable that you will draw blood. This would be a problem of Shochait, a future
melacha which we will discuss. See Pri Megadim (Mishbetzot Zahav 328:23); Shemirat Shabbat
K’Hilchato 14:54 (147).
8
Big picture
To sum up:
• Gozez (shearing) is a labor category with a number of fairly common

applications – cutting hair, brushing hair, removing dry skin, biting
nails.
• Under Torah law, Gozez means removing a part of the body that
grows from any living being, in a normal manner.
• The Sages also prohibited activities which are similar to Gozez, such
as shearing in a non-normal manner; as with other melachot, they did
this so as to prevent confusion and avoid having people inadvertently
transgress Torah law.
26
Biur Halacha 340, s.v. ‘Yabelet.’
9
Cleaning stains from various materials.
written by
Alan Goldman
edited by
1
We are learning the ‘Order of Garments,’ which begins by shearing
(Gozez) wool for the various fabrics hung in the Tabernacle.
Once our sheep has been shorn, we wind up with raw wool, called
‘fleece’. In Rabbi Ribiat’s words, the raw wool ”is not a soft white fluffy
material… In reality, [it] comes off as a dirty, matted blanket, packed
together by an abundance of grease, sand, and numerous other
impurities.”1 Obviously, we need to clean up the fleece before it is
ready to be processed into wool. This type of cleaning gives rise to the
melacha of Melaben.
The word Melaben literally means “making something white.” Within

this category, the halacha includes cleaning any absorbent
materials.
Let’s understand what these terms mean.
Two Types of Materials2
The original Melaben material, as we’ve seen, is wool. Therefore, we

learn that Melaben is limited to an absorbent type of material.
“Absorbent” means that if the material comes into contact with

something wet, some of the moisture will remain within it.
In practical terms, there are two types of material:
1. Porous material – The laws of Melaben will apply to fabrics like

cotton and canvas. So, most articles of clothing are subject to
Melaben, as is carpet, many pieces of furniture, bedding, and other
household items.
2. Non-porous material – Melaben does not apply to items like glass,

stone, metal, wood, plastic, or laminated surfaces.
1
2
This follows the outline set forth by Rabbi Yitzchak Berkovitz; see Principles of Hilchos Shabbos.
2
What about semi-porous material like leather, which does not absorb
as readily as the others, but still allows moisture to penetrate? This is
regarded as a sort of in-between category, and will be clarified as we
go on.
Four Types of ‘Dirt’
To review: Melaben applies to porous materials like fabrics. The next

step is to differentiate between the four types of ‘dirt’ substances:
Dirt #1: Non-absorbed – e.g. feathers, hair, lint. These may be

removed from all materials, even by hand. That’s because if, for
example, a feather falls onto your coat, it does not at all become
absorbed into the fabric; rather it is just sitting on top of the coat.
However, using a brush to remove lint

or hairs is prohibited because of its
resemblance to a weekday activity
(uvda d'chol). It is permitted to brush
off feathers or hair with a brush that is
designated for use only on Shabbat
("Shabbat brush").
Dirt #2: Absorbed and Small – e.g.

dust or powder. Removing this type of
dirt on Shabbat depends on what type
of ‘material’ has become dirty.
• With plastic (i.e. non-porous material), the dust may be removed

either by hand, with a rag, or with a ‘Shabbat brush’.3
• What about cloth (i.e. porous material)? These situations are quite
common, as when a hat falls to the floor and becomes dusty, or when
a child’s shoe hits your skirt. In such a case, one may not brush off the
dust – or even shake the garment – since the dust is (partially)
recessed into the cloth. However, it is permitted to lightly blow the
cloth, because this will only remove the surface dust.4
3
4
Talmud Shabbos 147a, with Rashi; Shemirat Shabbat K’Hilchato 15:23
3
And if you have to walk around for the rest of Shabbat with a dust
mark on your clothes? One rabbi refers to this as the “Badge of
Courage” – i.e. it is a stain to be worn with pride, showing that one’s
commitment to halacha supersedes aesthetic concerns.
Dirt #3: Absorbed and Dry
• Porous material: As we just saw, Melaben applies only when you

clean something by getting rid of the dirt embedded in the material,
but not to items that are only on the surface.
So, if you drop some rice with sautéed mushrooms on your pants (for
some reason, a frequent occurrence in my case), you can remove the
pieces of food from your lap, but you can’t scrape out the residue that
has become embedded in your clothing.5
Furthermore, you may not apply any water to the stain. Certainly,
soaking a stained or dirty item in water (shriyah6) is one of the main
ways to clean an item, and this action is prohibited as Melaben. Even
sprinkling water on a stain is not permitted.7
5
This action is known as Shifshuf (pronounced sheef-SHOOF), literally, “rubbing.”
6
Pronounced shree-YAH.
7
4
The only way to deal with the absorbed stain is: (1) to remove it with
a shinui (change) – e.g. by gently using the backside of a spoon or
knife, flicking one's fingers on the other side of the material, and (2) if
a spot is left behind – i.e. you do not clean the absorbed part of the
stain.8
• Non-porous material like plastic: These stains can be removed in

any manner, even by applying water and rubbing off the stain.
The only restriction is not to rub the surface vigorously. This is part of
a general restriction against excessive exertion on Shabbat.9
• In this case, the halacha makes a distinction with a semi-porous

material like leather: One may either apply water to these absorbed
dry stains without rubbing, or one may gently rub off the dirt without
using water.10
Dirt #4: Absorbed and Wet – i.e. liquids such as wine, juice, soda,
dirty water.
• Porous material: A typical Shabbat scenario is you're eating and

some ketchup squirts on your shirt. Such wet stains may not be
cleaned in any manner from cloth materials – neither by applying
water, rubbing the stain, or squeezing it
out.11
• Non-porous material: Wet stains can

be removed in any manner from glass
or plastic material. For example, one
may clean eyeglasses by first putting
on water and then wiping it away.12
8
9
10
Biur Halacha 302 s.v. “Assur”; Shemirat Shabbat K’Hilchato 15:5.
11
Biur Halacha 302 s.v. “Yesh Omrim”; Shemirat Shabbat K’Hilchato 15:24.
12
Mishnah Berurah 323:38; Shemirat Shabbat K’Hilchato 15:31.
5
Cases: Liquids, Spills & Thrills
There are some situations where what we normally refer to as

“cleaning” is not considered Melaben – i.e. halachic cleaning.
For example, you spill some gravy and wipe it up with a rag. Since the
rag is not becoming ‘cleaned’ by your action, but on the contrary, is
becoming more soiled as a result, you are allowed to clean the spill in
this way.13
However, the Sages prohibited soiling a material in such a way that

might tempt you to clean it afterwards. Therefore, you could clean up
the gravy spill with a rag, but not with a clean bath-towel.14
It is also advisable to avoid situations in which a material may get

dirty. For example, when holding an infant on your lap, you should
place an extra towel or diaper to protect your nice Shabbat clothes.15
Wiping a spill with a small towel or cloth is also not allowed,

because the towel will become saturated, which is likely to lead to
some liquid being squeezed out.16 As
we’ve seen (in our lesson on Dosh),
such squeezing (known as sechitah) is
not allowed on Shabbat.17
Consequently, one may not even

touch or move a soaking wet cloth,
as it is inevitable that water will be
squeezed out in the process.18
13
14
15
Mishnah Berurah 302:6, Shemirat Shabbat K’Hilchato 15:32.
16
Mishnah Berurah 302:59 with Sha’ar HaTziyun 73.
17
See lesson #8. There, the squeezing was a problem of releasing juice from a fruit; here, the
squeezing removes unwanted moisture from cloth, thus improving its appearance. This is why
squeezing is included within Melaben as well.
18
Orach Chaim 301:46.
6
Further, we cannot soak up liquids with something that one does not
want to become wet, because you are likely to wind up squeezing out
the liquid (which is an act of cleaning). It is permitted, however, to dry
dishes with a special dish towel, even if the towel will get wet, since it
is designed for this purpose.19
A hand towel – Similarly, it is okay to use a hand towel. However, if

the towel becomes completely saturated with water, then any further
use will lead to sechitah, and the towel can’t be used any longer. A
good example is when many people in a row are washing their hands
for Netilat Yadayim.20 By the time you get toward the end of the line,
you need to evaluate whether the towel can still be used.21
Cases: Braving the Elements
Getting caught in the rain – Since umbrellas can’t be used on

Shabbat (as we’ll learn, G-d willing, in a future lesson), if it’s raining
and you are outside, you will get wet. When you get to your
destination, you’ll want to hang up your coat, and if you’re at home,
you might want to change into dry clothes. So far, so good.
However, when it comes to hanging up your wet clothes, the halacha

provides a limitation: you should not hang the wet clothes in a place
where you normally dry them, like a laundry room. This is because of
the concept of Marit Ayin – it would seem to a casual observer that
you’ve just washed the clothes and are now hanging them to dry.22 To
avoid this mis-impression, the Sages required that we hang the
clothes in an unusual way or place.23
19
20
The ritual washing of hands before eating bread.
21
22
Talmud – Shabbat 146b; 39 Melochos, p. 717-18.
23
This requirement does not extend to outerwear such as a raincoat, which can be hung anywhere.
The assumption is that anyone seeing the hanging coat will figure that it got wet from rain, not from
being washed. Mishnah Berurah 301:170; 39 Melochos, p. 719.
7
Laundry hung before Shabbat may be left there during Shabbat, and
can even be taken down on Shabbat – provided that: (1) it is needed
for use on Shabbat, and (2) that it was not soaking wet at the
beginning of Shabbat (because it would then be Muktzeh).24
Drying off a wet garment using heat – This is not an obvious

halacha. Placing a wet raincoat or other garment near a source of
heat, so that it will dry, is considered Melaben. The logic is that the
coat’s appearance will improve as it dries; thus, the drying is a form of
‘cleansing’.25
Brushing off dust and snow – Often, things like snow or dust will
settle on your coat as you’re walking outside on Shabbat. It is
impossible to tell how well-absorbed
the dust has become, so as a rule
we are not allowed to brush the dust
off (unless it is a large particle which
is clearly on the surface only).26 As
for snow, if it’s on the surface it can
be shaken off, but if it has melted
into the coat, hat, or other item,
then you just need to let it dry.
In practice, however, once you come indoors, some snow begins to

melt, and if you shake off the coat, you may wind up squeezing out
some of the moisture from the melted snow. This means that you need
to blow or shake the snow off gently, so you’ll only dislodge the stuff
that is right on top and has not yet melted.27
24
25
Mishnah Berurah 301:169; 39 Melochos, p. 715. Consider also that this could be a problem of
Bishul -- as the heat evaporates the water in the coat, it is essentially “cooking” the water, which is
forbidden on Shabbat.
26
27
Orach Chaim 302:1 with Biur Halacha s.v. “Min”; 39 Melochos, p. 714.
8
Three melachot that involve cases of

cosmetics, food coloring, and spills.
written by
Alan Goldman
edited by
1
Combing - Menapetz
We now continue with processing the wool we’ve just cleaned. Our
next job is to arrange it so that the fibers become smoother and
straighter. This activity is known as Menapetz,1 and may be done by
beating the wool, picking through it, or combing it. Since this last
method is the most effective and common, we use it to define this
melacha.
There are only a few applications of Menapetz.
Combing a wig – A sheitel is the traditional name for the wig that
many observant women use to cover their own hair. They may be
made of human hair, synthetic hair, or a combination. Combing the
sheitel so that the hairs are in place is considered an act of Menapetz
according to some opinions.2 To avoid this issue, a woman may use a
soft-bristle brush or wide-toothed comb that will improve the sheitel’s
appearance, but will not closely align the fibers.3
Untangling tzitzit – Let’s move over to the

men’s side now. Tzitzit, the fringes that many
observant men wear, are made of tightly tied
wool, and attached to a light garment that is
worn underneath a man’s shirt. If the tzitzit
fringes become tangled, a person is not
allowed to disentangle them on Shabbat, since
this closely resembles combing out wool.4
1
Pronounced meh-nah-PAITS.
2
They reason that, since Menapetz involves “creating usable fibers from… tangled fibers”
(Principles of Hilchos Shabbos, ‘Menapetz’), this action is no different. Orach Chaim 337:2; 39
Melochos, p. 735.
3
4
Principles of Hilchos Shabbos, ‘Menapetz’.
2
Coloring - Tzovaya
In the Mishkan, three specific colors of wool – scarlet, blue and purple
– were required,5 so it was necessary to dye the wool once it had been
cleaned and combed.
This melacha, called Tzovaya,6 is actually very relevant today. Tzovaya

may be defined as “creating a more suitable object by changing or
strengthening its color.”7 This melacha is a good illustration of a basic
principle underlying the laws of Shabbat: ‘creative labor’ is forbidden,
regardless of the amount of effort it takes.
Now, in order to be considered Tzovaya under Torah law, the action

has to result in a “lasting” form of coloring. That is, the coloring needs
to remain in place for at least a short period of time. This is because
the classic case of Tzovaya is dyeing fabric, which is actually a
permanent form of coloring. However, even coloring that lasts only
briefly is considered to be Tzovaya under rabbinic law.8
In practice, then, there are only a few examples of coloring that is so

temporary that it is permitted on Shabbat. One of these is photo-gray
lenses (the kind that darken automatically in sunlight and then fade to
normal indoors).9
What Actions Involve Coloring?
What comes to mind when we think of “coloring”? There are some

obvious examples, such as painting your house (or anything else) and
drawing a picture.10 (And these activities are, indeed, not allowed on
Shabbat.)
5
See Exodus 25:4.
6
Pronounced tsoh-VAY-ah.
7
Principles of Hilchos Shabbos, ‘Tzoveyah’.
8
Rambam (Shabbat 9:13)
9
Shu”t Igros Moshe (Orach Chaim 3:45); Shemirat Shabbat K’Hilchato 18:70; 39 Melochos, p. 748.
There is room to suggest that there is no coloring of the lens at all, but is rather like pulling down a
shade. Also, nothing is done by the person to effect the color change.
10
Drawing a picture is also a problem of Kotaiv (writing), a melacha we’ll learn about soon.
3
Cosmetics
An important, and common, application of Tzovaya is putting on

cosmetics. Almost all types of makeup – including blush, lipstick, eye
shadow, nail polish, and so on – are intended to add color to a
person’s body. As a general rule, then, putting on makeup during
Shabbat is not allowed.11
This halacha probably comes as a surprise to

many readers. Indeed, many observant
women do not use makeup on Shabbat.
Nevertheless, a couple of qualifications are in
order:
• Makeup can be put on prior to Shabbat and

left on until Shabbat ends.
• The melacha of Tzovaya only applies when

the coloring is actually attached to the
material being colored. Because of this, some opinions do permit the
use of makeup that does not ‘attach’ – i.e. it is (a) non-oil-based and
(b) in the form of powder.12
In fact, there are cosmetic products on the market that are advertised
as acceptable for use on Shabbat. If this sounds tentative, it is – this is
a complex area of halacha, and each product should be researched
before being used.13
Finally, it is permitted on Shabbat to ‘remove color’ – e.g. by washing

makeup off one’s face.14
11
Using makeup is also a problem of Memaraich (smoothing), a melacha we’ll learn about soon.
12
Principles of Hilchos Shabbos, ‘Tzoveyah’.
13
For those who want to read further, there is a thorough and clearly-written set of three articles
about the use of makeup on Shabbat by Rabbi Chaim Jachter. They are available at
www.koltorah.org/rabbij.
14
Shemirat Shabbat K’Hilchato 14:79
4
Food
Perhaps the most common kind of “coloring” we do takes place in the

kitchen. Whenever we combine foods, the colors mix with each other.
This would seem to be a major issue, but actually there is a principle
in halacha of Ain Tzovaya B’ochlin – “there is no (prohibition of)
coloring regarding foods.” Why? Because food is meant to be
consumed, and so is different from dyed wool or other items that we
color and keep for ongoing use.15
What this principle means is: If you

add an ingredient to food to make it
taste better, the fact that the food’s
color will change is not a problem.16
Similarly, if you have two foods next
to each other on your plate – a good
example would be turkey and
cranberry sauce – the fact that the
color of one will rub off on the other
is also fine.
This principle does not include coloring food merely for decoration. So
adding food coloring which adds no taste and only makes the food look
better is an act of Tzovaya and is therefore not allowed.17
Wiping Spills
Finally, there is the issue of coloring that actually makes something

look worse. The classic example is wiping up a dark spill (e.g., wine)
with a clean white cloth. To be sure, the cloth gets colored, but not in
15
16
Some authorities prefer that you add the ‘coloring’ ingredient first, and then add the item that will
be colored. For example, if you’re making chocolate milk by adding syrup to the milk, put the syrup
in first and then add the milk. In this way, the coloring is accomplished less directly. Sha’ar
HaTziyun 318:65; 39 Melochos, p. 751.
17
5
a way that a person wants. As a result, many authorities say that this
kind of coloring is permitted on Shabbat.18
Other authorities don’t like this exception. They recommend that we

should wipe colored stains with a cloth that is (1) not white and (2)
not the same color as the stain.19
Disposable cloths (such as napkins and paper towels) can be used

according to everyone. There’s no issue of improving their appearance
since they are thrown out right away.20
(It is important to take care in handling a paper towel that is fully

saturated, as moving it will inevitably cause liquid to be squeezed out,
which is a prohibition of sechitah – see Lesson #9.)21
Spinning - Toveh
Once the wool was dyed in the

Tabernacle, it needed to be spun into a
form that could be used to create fabric.
Such spinning is known as Toveh,22 and
was accomplished by twisting the
individual strands of wool into a stronger,
“continuous thread.”23
The idea behind Toveh has little

application outside of spinning thread or
some other fiber (for example, twisting cotton to form a wick).24 These
would be prohibited whether the spinning is done by hand or using a
spinning wheel.
18
19
Principles of Hilchos Shabbos, ‘Tzoveyah’. White is not recommended because any color will
show up on it, and using the same color as the stain is not recommended because the stain acts to
deepen the color of the fabric.
20
21
As discussed there, some opinions are lenient regarding paper towels.
22
Pronounced toe-VEH.
23
Mishnah Berurah, appendix to Orach Chaim 344; 39 Melochos, p. 757.
24
Sha’ar HaTziyun 514:52; 39 Melochos, p. 758.
6
All about the construction and

operation of a loom.
written by
Alan Goldman
edited by
1
Once threads have been made from wool, the next job is to weave
them together. This, of course, was the reason for making the threads
to begin with.
There are four labor categories associated with the process of weaving.
Since they are so closely connected, we will study them as a unit.
Outside of weaving, you are unlikely to encounter these melachot.
Nevertheless, understanding them is worthwhile, both to see how we
get to the next set of melachot, and to fully appreciate this area of
halacha.
What is weaving, anyway? What actions does it involve?1
Basically, weaving is the

combining of threads to
form a fabric. Even in the
times of the Talmud
(roughly 1,500 years ago),
weaving was done by
means of a loom. For our
purposes, we’ll describe a
loom as a hand-operated
machine that enables
many threads to be
combined at the same
2
time.
How it Works
You start by setting up vertical threads (called the warp threads). We

refer to them as ‘vertical’ because they go up-and-down from the
perspective of the weaver. To set them up, you stretch them around
1
The explanations of weaving in this lesson are taken from 39 Melochos, pp. 759-777 and from
Talmud Bavli, The Schottenstein Edition, Tractate Shabbos vol. 3, Appendix Part I (Mesorah
Publications, 1996). This work will be referred to in this lesson as ‘Schottenstein Edition’.
2
The looms used in Talmudic times were somewhat different, and are described in 39 Melochos, p.
764.
2
two beams that run parallel to each other. These threads will serve as
the ‘base’ for the horizontal threads to be added.
This set-up, or “dressing the loom,” is the first of our melachot, known
as Maysech.3
Next, the warp threads need to be made ready to ‘receive’ the

horizontal threads (called weft threads).
To do so, two square frames,

called harnesses, are set up in
the middle of the loom,
perpendicular to the two
beams. Each harness holds
strings running from top to
bottom, and each string has a
circular loop in the middle. The
weaver runs the warp threads
through these loops, to make
them ready for combining with the weft threads.4 These loops are
known in weaving terminology as heddles, and in halacha as batei
nirin. Creating these loops is a melacha known as Oseh Shtei Batei
Nirin (“making two heddles”).5
At this point, the weaver is ready to do the actual weaving. This

involves moving the weft threads through each of the two sets of warp
threads (see the description in footnote 5). The weft thread is first
wrapped around a spindle. The weaver then uses a foot pedal to raise
3
Pronounced may-SEKH.
4
More specifically, the weaver divided the warp threads into two groups, ‘odd-numbered’ and
‘even-numbered’, depending on their place within the loom. Then, the odd-numbered warp threads
are drawn through the heddle[s] of one harness and between the heddles of the other, and the
process is repeated with the even-numbered threads. (Schottenstein Edition) This will allow for the
weft threads to be moved in perfect succession, under and over each of the thousands of warp
threads. (39 Melochos, p. 772)
5
Pronounced oh-SEH SHTAY bah-TAY nee-REEN. Rashi on Talmud – Shabbat 73a. Rambam
(Shabbat 9:16) holds that running the warp threads through the loops is what constitutes this
melacha. 39 Melochos, p. 772.
3
one harness, and pushes, or ‘shuttles,’ the spindle of weft thread
through the warp threads on that harness. He repeats this process
with the second harness.
Combining the warp and weft creates the actual weave of the fabric,
and this action is the melacha of Oreig (weaving).6
Finally, the weaver uses a rod-like object to beat the threads into
place. This ensures that the weave will be even. Because this beating
completes the act of weaving, it too falls within the labor category of
Oreig.7
With the fabric now woven, a few finishing touches are needed:
After removing the completed cloth from the loom, the weaver has to
deal with the loose ends (in the literal sense) – that is, the last threads
on each side of the fabric. One way of doing this involves ‘un-weaving’
some of the threads and then reweaving them back together so that
the entire fabric is neatly finished.8 Doing this is known as Potzaya
(‘unraveling’).9
(It is worth noting that the activity here appears to be a destructive

one, and normally only constructive actions are considered melacha.
The reason Potzaya qualifies as a melacha is because the unraveling is
done to make it possible for the fabric to be re-woven in a better way
– that is, the destructive act is in service of a new constructive act.)
6
Pronounced oh-RAYG.
7
See Schottenstein Edition.
8
9
Pronounced poe-TZAY-ah. This is one of the major opinions about this labor category; there are a
number of others. Tosafot Rid on Talmud - Shabbat 87; Mishnah Berurah in appendix to 344; 39
Melochos, p. 779-80.
4
Now that we have a basic understanding of how weaving works, we

can understand a few applications of these melachot:
• Simple weaving – Till now,

we’ve focused on the use of a
loom. However, the same
processes take place with
crochet, embroidery, needle-
point, rug-hooking, basket-
weaving, knitting and other
such craftwork. Therefore, one
cannot make these items on
Shabbat.10
• Loose or ‘snagged’ threads – Often, a thread will come loose on a

woven item – e.g., you catch your sweater on something, and some
threads are pulled out. Fixing this ‘pull-thread’ by pulling it back into
the sweater is halachically an act of weaving (Oreig). This is because
the effect of your action is to “realign the threads.”11
Also, removing such a loose thread from the garment is Potzaya,

because by un-weaving part of the fabric you are making the whole
garment look better.12
Understanding these melachot is much easier if you see them

performed in real life (or at least in photos).13 If you’re able, try to find
an opportunity to watch someone use a loom.
10
Rambam (Shabbat 9:19); Principles of Hilchos Shabbos, ‘Oreig’. Although these activities are not
exactly like weaving, and do not involve all of the melachot discussed here, they are similar enough
to be prohibited on Shabbat.
11
Talmud – Shabbat 75b, Rashi s.v. ‘Medakdek’ there; 39 Melochos, p. 778.
12
13
Helpful photos can be found in the book Sefer Ha-Shabbat by Rabbi Y.M. Stern (Bnei Brak,
1995).
5
A halachic knot is permanent and tight.
written by
Alan Goldman
edited by
1
As I was preparing this lesson, I came across a curious event listed in
a national magazine. It was a knot-tying demonstration, and the
description read, in part: “Knots… have been vital throughout history
to the livelihood of farmers, cattle hands, sailors, and [others].”1 In
fact, there are hundreds of types of knots, many devised specifically
for a particular usage.
Knots were needed in the Tabernacle, to tie together stitches at the

end of a piece of fabric.2 Therefore, it is the next logical labor category
in the sequence we are now studying.
What is a Knot?
As we’ll explain, not everything that we call a “knot” is actually a knot

according to halacha (hence our lesson’s title).
There are two major characteristics of a knot in halacha:
• it is permanent3
• it is tight and therefore unlikely to come undone4
By “permanent,” we mean a knot that is intended to last for at least

24 hours. (In halacha, the prohibition is greater if the knot is intended
to remain tied for more than one week, and even more so if the intent
is for one month.)5 An example might be a thread of tzitzit (ritual
fringes) or a knot used to tie a boat to a dock.
By “tight” and “unlikely to come undone,” we mean that the knot is

tied in a way that it is strong and will hold (barring some unusual
event). The conventional double knot is a classic example.6
1
The New Yorker, November 20, 2006, p. 28.
2
For additional reasons as to why knots were needed, see Talmud - Shabbat 74b; Jerusalem
Talmud 7:2; Me’iri on Talmud - Shabbat 73a; 39 Melochos, p. 783.
3
This is known in Hebrew as a kesher shel kayama (an ‘everlasting’ knot).
4
The Hebrew term for this is kesher uman (a professional knot). On both of these concepts, see
Biur Halacha 317:1; 39 Melochos, p. 784-86.
5
Beit Yosef (Orach Chaim 317).
6
2
Of course, you can have a knot that is “permanent” but not “tight”: for
instance, the docked boat may be attached by a rope that is meant to
be there for weeks or months, but it could actually be pretty loose.
Similarly, there can be a knot which is “tight” but not “permanent”:

the typical shoelace knot, although very strong, is not meant to be left
tied for very long. Most people untie their shoes at the end of the day,
when they remove them.
For something to be a knot

according to Torah law, both
conditions need to be met: that
is, it needs to be both
“permanent” and “tight.” If it has
only one of these characteristics,
it qualifies as a knot according to
rabbinic law.7
Defining an Act of Koshair
Tying either a Torah-level knot or a rabbinic-level knot is an act of

Koshair, and therefore can’t be done on Shabbat.
The flip side of this rule is that any knot which is neither “permanent”
nor “tight” may be tied on Shabbat. The most common example is the
garden-variety bow knot used to tie shoes. It is not “tight” according
to our definition, since it can come undone relatively easily; and it is
not “permanent,” since it is intended to be untied at the end of the
day.8
Now, let’s say you are someone who ties your shoes, leaves them tied
until the next time you wear them, and then just slips into them. You
would not be able to tie your shoes on Shabbat. Why? Because for
you, the knot is considered “permanent,” since you do not loosen it
within 24 hours.9
7
Orach Chaim 317:1; Mishnah Berura Introduction to Koshair; 39 Melochos, p. 790 and 792.
8
Rema – Orach Chaim 317:1; Shemirat Shabbat K’Hilchato 15:52; 39 Melochos, p. 791 and 796.
9
Mishnah Berurah 317:29; Shemirat Shabbat K’Hilchato 15:53 and 39 Melochos, p. 798.
3
Some other examples of knots:
Neckties – Most opinions allow you to tie a necktie on Shabbat. This

is because the way a tie is formed does not involve
a true halachic knot. Instead, it involves a variation
on a slip-knot, which is “a knot made so that it can
readily be untied by pulling one free end.”10
Because a slip-knot can be easily undone, it is

viewed differently than a true knot. In Hebrew, the
terminology is also different: a true knot is called a
kesher, while a slip-knot is known as an anivah.11
Overhand Knot – Imagine taking a single string, and giving it a single

knot on itself. This is prohibited, because it cannot be untied by pulling
one end.12
Garbage bags – Many garbage bags

have two small loops at the top, which
are meant to be pulled up and tied to
each other once the bag is full. Tying
them in this way is similar to the bow-
knot used for shoes, and is permissible.
Twist-ties – Also common in the kitchen, twist-ties (small threads of

wire used as fasteners) may present a problem of Koshair. Therefore
they should either be untied within 24 hours, or initially the ends
should only be twisted around once.13
10
Definition and image courtesy of Answers.com (www.answers.com/topic/running-knot).
11
Anivah is, in fact, the modern Hebrew word for a necktie.
12
Orach Chaim 317:1, Mishnah Berurah 15.
13
For more details, see Addenda to Shemirat Shabbat K’Hilchato 15 (166); 39 Melochos, p. 799-
800.
4
Loosely double-knotted belts – Many raincoats and bathrobes come
with a belt that is meant to be tied loosely at the waist. Often, the belt
will not stay on if you loop the ends together only once. You may make
two loops to hold the belt in place on Shabbat, because (a) even when
doubled, the knot is quite loose and (b) you are certain to undo it
within 24 hours. This is an exception to the usual rule about double-
knots.14
Koshair has a ‘partner’ labor category, which is known as Matir

(Untying). We’ll turn now to this issue.
Matir: Untying a Knot
This seems at first to be a strange melacha, since it is about undoing,

rather than creating – and, as we learned at the very beginning of this
course, the laws of Shabbat are about creative labor. Indeed, some
authorities rule that Matir15 is only prohibited if you are untying the
knot so as to retie it in a different, or better, way.16
According to other opinions, however, Matir stands on its own as a

melacha based on a particular activity done in the Tabernacle. In order
to obtain a certain blue dye, known as techeilet, the Jews needed to
capture a sea-creature that produced this coloring. The trapping
required nets, and constructing the nets involved both tying and
untying strings. Therefore, the act of untying emerged as a separate
labor category.17
14
Sha’arei Teshuva 317:1; 39 Melochos, p. 797.
15
Pronounced mah-TEER. This word is identical to the word for permitting an action in halacha.
Both share the connotation of ”to free something up.”
16
Tosfot Shabbos 73a s.v. ‘HaKoshair’; Biur Halacha 317:1 s.v. ‘Dino’; 39 Melochos, v.3, Hebrew
section, p. 786, fn. 2.
17
Rashi (Shabbat 74b s.v. Shari); Rambam (Shabbat 10:8); 39 Melochos, p. 805. The name of the
dye is pronounced teh-KHAY-lett.
5
Understanding the Melacha
Matir is essentially the mirror image of Koshair: All knots which are
permitted to be tied on Shabbat are permitted to be untied, and all
knots which are prohibited to be tied are prohibited to be untied.18
As a leniency of Matir, you are allowed to undo a knot that
(1) was meant to last for 24 hours or less
or
(2) was meant to last for a week or less, but the knot is causing
discomfort or hardship. For example, if a person has an item of
clothing that has been double-knotted (say, a decorative part of
a dress), and can’t use it without undoing the knot, she may do
so.19
Another leniency is that any accidentally-tied knot (whether tied on

Shabbat or beforehand) may be untied on Shabbat, because it was
never considered a "knot."20
You cannot undo a knot that was made to last for more than a week –
anything above this time frame is considered to be “permanent” from
a halachic perspective.21
18
Rambam (Shabbat 10:7).
19
Rema – Orach Chaim 317:1; 39 Melochos, p. 806; see also Shemirat Shabbat K’Hilchato 15:55.
In other words, this last type of knot could not be made on Shabbat, but under these limited
circumstances, it can be undone.
20
Chayei Adam (Shabbat 27:2).
21
Orach Chaim 317:1.
6
Practical Cases
Matir comes into play in some common situations.22
The bakery cake – We all love to get nicely wrapped cakes from the
kosher bakery. But often those thin strings used to tie the package are
impossible to get off. If so, it is better not to untie it – because, if it’s
so difficult to undo, it qualifies as a “permanent” knot. There is a
permitted alternative, however: You can use a scissors or knife to cut
the string in the middle (thereby spoiling it), and not in the spot of the
knot.23
Bagged food items – Some items

come packaged in a sealed plastic
bag with a knot at its end. It is
better to rip the bag and remove
the food, rather than untie the
knot.24
Shoelaces – Just as we cannot tie

laces in a double-knot, we can’t
undo such a knot, either – unless (as we noted earlier) it is causing
discomfort (i.e. you can’t get the shoe off otherwise).25
22
For these, see Orach Chaim 314:7-8; 39 Melochos, p. 807-08.
23
24
Shemirat Shabbat K’Hilchato 9:14. As we’ll learn later, G-d willing, we need to be careful not to
rip through any words on the packaging.
25
Rema – Orach Chaim 317:1.
7
Tightly attaching two flexible surfaces

by means of a third material.
written by
Alan Goldman
edited by
1
Among the melachot within the ‘Order of Garments’, Tofair1 (sewing) is
one with several everyday (or ‘every-week’) applications.
As compared to Koshair, where two items are tied together but can be
separated, Tofair is “tightly attaching two flexible surfaces by means of
a third material.”2 The
paradigm activity is sewing,
as the name of the melacha
suggests. When you sew, you
combine materials in such a
way that they become one.
Sewing was performed in the
Mishkan in order to combine
the woven cloths which we’ve
been discussing for the past
several lessons.3
Beyond using needle and thread, other types of ‘attaching’ fall under
the heading of Tofair. Some examples:
• taping – e.g., taping together parts of a paper that has torn

• gluing – e.g., by using glue or sealing a gummed envelope
• stapling4
What’s Not Included?
There are a number of actions that involve ‘attaching’ but are not
considered a violation of this melacha.
Buttoning – Securing something with a button is not Tofair, because

the items are not fused together (as they are with sewing).5
1
Pronounced toe-FAIR.
2
Aruch Hashulchan Orach Chaim 317:18; Principles of Hilchos Shabbos, ‘Tofair’. See 39
Melochos, p. 784.
3
Rashi (Exodus 26:3); 39 Melochos, p. 811.
4
Rambam (Shabbat 10:11); Biur Halacha 340:14 s.v. ‘Harei Zeh’; 39 Melochos, p. 812 and 821.
2
Fastening with Velcro – When you use Velcro, you are connecting
one side of the item with the other. Why, then, is this not an act of
Tofair?
Here we need to understand the concept

of “a thing’s normal use” (in Hebrew,
derech tash’misho). When I use an object
in the way that it was meant to be used,
that action is generally not a melacha.6
There needs to be some other creative
element to my action in order for it to
qualify as ‘labor’ for Shabbat purposes. With Velcro, its very purpose is
to be closed and opened repeatedly. As a result, when I use it, I am
not doing any melacha.7 In addition, as we’ll see below, Velcro
closures are temporary, which provides another basis for permitting
them.
Safety pins – In light of what we’ve just said, it would seem that
safety pins should also be okay for use on Shabbat. In fact, this is the
case, although there are differing opinions. Unlike buttons, safety pins
penetrate the surface of the fabric they are being used to connect,
which makes them a more serious mode of fastening with respect to
the laws of Shabbat. However, because the pins are so easily detached
from the fabric, and their essential use is only temporary, safety pins
are, indeed, ‘safe’ for Shabbat use8 (most of the time – see the next
section).
A straight pin is forbidden to be used in an “in, out, in” manner,

because this too closely resembles an act of stitching.
5
39 Melochos, p. 815-16. However, removing a button that is partially detached is not allowed.
Similarly, if a button comes off on its own, you can’t then remove the threads that remain in the
place the button used to occupy. Shemirat Shabbat K’Hilchato 15:68. These two actions do not
violate Tofair, but they involve other melachot.
6
7
See Principles of Hilchos Shabbos, ‘Tofair’.
8
Shu”t Igros Moshe 2:84; 39 Melochos, p. 816-17.
3
‘Temporary’ vs. ‘Permanent’
An act of attaching that would be considered ‘permanent’ is not

allowed. This is because of an opinion that the primary prohibition of
Tofair is in connecting something in a permanent way.9 As we saw in
Koshair, ‘permanent’ means anything lasting for at least 24 hours.
Thus, an action that is permitted when it is ‘temporary’ in nature can

become a violation of Tofair when it becomes ‘permanent.’ As an
example: you are attaching something with a safety pin, and you
intend for it to remain closed for more than 24 hours, there is a
limitation on your use of the pin. You can pierce the fabric once, but
not more.10 Piercing it twice would strengthen the permanence of the
connection.
On the flip side, connections that are temporary in nature are

acceptable. We’ve already mentioned this regarding Velcro; other
classic examples are zippers and magnets.
Another application is Band-aids (or similar bandages). You are

allowed to tape the Band-aid onto skin, since it will be there for only a
short period of time.11
In the same category are disposable

diapers. These often have adhesive tabs
on either side, which fasten the diaper
onto the baby. You can attach the diaper
with these tabs because – and this is
certain – the diaper will not remain on
the baby for 24 hours.12
9
10
Principles of Hilchos Shabbos, ‘Tofair’.
11
While it is possible for the Band-aid to remain for more than 24 hours, this is generally not its
usual use. When using the Band-aid, you cannot put a piece of gauze or other fabric underneath it,
since connecting these two fabrics would be a true act of Tofair. Orach Chaim 340:14; Shemirat
Shabbat K’Hilchato 35:25; 39 Melochos, p. 821.
12
Shemirat Shabbat K’Hilchato 15:81; Addenda 35 (63); 39 Melochos, p. 813. Some contemporary
Sages are strict regarding two issues with diapers:
4
Koraya: A Ripping Good Subject
Tofair has a partner melacha, known as Koraya (tearing).13 Indeed, all

the halachot of Tofair will apply in their opposite form to Koraya.
Let’s look at a few illustrations of this melacha:
• Tearing a piece of paper: If tearing paper is Koraya, then what

about using things like tissues and napkins?
Tissues and napkins may rip during normal use; however, since this
tearing isn’t intended or inevitable, we can use these things. If they
happen to tear, it is not a violation of Shabbat.14
(Toilet paper is more complicated, because it comes on a roll, and

needs to be intentionally torn in order to be used. We will discuss this
in lesson #34, the melacha of Mechateich.)
• Removing a glued label from a bottle or other item: This is

prohibited, since the rule is: Any time two objects are attached
together (i.e. glued or sewn), separating the objects is an act of
Koraya.15
• What about pages of a book that you find accidentally glued together
(e.g. by way of a dried food stain)? This may be separated.16
• Issue #1 – Although the adhesive is designed to be removed (and that’s its normal use, as we
saw with Velcro), the reality is that the adhesive could stay that way forever. This gives rise to the
idea of “preparing the diapers before Shabbat” -- i.e. the adhesive should be opened (and then it
can be closed again) before Shabbat. This argument would apply to Band-aids as well.
• Issue #2 – When removing the baby’s dirty diaper and throwing it in the garbage, some Sages
suggest that you do not close it using the adhesive strips, since the strips could now stay attached
this way indefinitely. Other contemporary Sages do not accept the reasoning for these stringencies,
but we mention them here for the sake of thoroughness.
13
Pronounced koh-RAY-ah.
14
15
16
5
Koraya in the Kitchen
In our kitchens, we use many packaged goods, as well as fresh items

that come in packages. Of course, to remove the food from its
container usually involves some form of tearing. We therefore need to
understand what kind of package-opening is allowed on Shabbat.
The most practical approach is to open necessary packages before

Shabbat. For example, if I know my children will want crackers on
Shabbat afternoon, I should open the package before Shabbat begins.
However, not everything can be opened ahead of time, and you don’t
always know what you’re going to need. So pre-opening is not going to
be a complete solution.
The basic rule in halacha is that food packaging may be opened on

Shabbat if it wasn’t possible to open it before, or you forgot to do so.
Although the Sages extended the melacha of Koraya to include even
destructive tearing, they made an exception for tearing that is needed
to obtain food, medicine, or other necessaries.17
Sounds pretty straightforward, but it’s not quite that simple.

Depending on the type of packaging and how you’re opening it, there
are situations where one or more additional melachot are implicated.
In these cases, you would not be allowed to open the item. The
melachot most commonly involved are Mechataich18 (cutting
something along a specific line or to size), Boneh (building or
otherwise creating an object), and Makeh B’patish (putting the final
touch on a project or object).19 Since we have not studied any of these
melachot yet, we will defer the numerous cases of opening packages
on Shabbat to the upcoming lesson on Boneh.
17
Mishnah – Shabbat 22:3; Shemirat Shabbat K’Hilchato 9:11-12; 39 Melochos, p. 831.
18
Pronounced meh-chah-TAYCH (with the ‘ch’ as a hard sound, as in Bach).
19
For more explanation, see 39 Melochos, p. 831-32.
6
But before ending this lesson, let’s take one example:
On Shabbat afternoon, your children are

clamoring for milk, but the cardboard
carton is unopened. Can you open it?
We are not allowed to open the flaps at the

top of the carton along the glued seams,
as this is a classic example of Koraya.20
What we can do, however, is open the box
in a non-conventional way. For example,
we could cut the box open along one of the
edges, preferably so that it is destroyed
and no longer usable.21
With this lesson, we’ve finished ‘The Order

of Garments’, which began with shearing wool from our neighborhood
sheep and ended up with a completed unit of fabric.
Next up: All about animal hides.
20
Orach Chaim 314:1; 39 Melochos, p. 837. Newer cartons, which have a spout on the side
sealed by a plastic ring, present different issues.
21
Shemirat Shabbat K’Hilchato 9:3. One must be careful not to tear through any writing on the box;
see the upcoming melacha of Mochek for more on this.
7
Confining the movement of a living creature.
written by
Alan Goldman
edited by
1
With Tzad, we begin another category of melachot.
We’ve already completed the melachot associated with baking bread

and those involved in making fabric. The next group of labor
categories deals with processing animal hides in order to make leather
goods or similar items. And, as usual, we begin at the beginning – in
this case, capturing the animal.
You might expect this to be a short lesson, since most of us don’t have
opportunities to capture animals too often. But, as we’ll see, the
application of this melacha extends beyond the immediately obvious.
What is “Trapping”?
As we’ve mentioned a number of

times, each melacha is derived
from an activity done in the
Mishkan. Animal hides were
needed to make decorative
coverings for the Mishkan
building, as we learn: “You shall make a cover for the tent, of rams’
skins dyed red, and a cover of tachash1-skins above” (Exodus 26:14).
Getting hold of a large animal like a ram would involve a trap of some
sort. From this original case, the labor category of Tzad (which means,
‘hunting’ or ‘trapping’) came to include any actions that confine a living
creature.2
1
The tachash was a species of animal, now extinct, that had exceptionally beautiful fur. Talmud –
Shabbat 28b; 39 Melochos, p. 851. For a lengthy description of opinions, see The Living Torah by
Rabbi Aryeh Kaplan (Exodus 25:5).
2
Talmud – Shabbat 107a and 43a; Rema – Orach Chaim 316:3; Shemirat Shabbat K’Hilchato
27:31; 39 Melochos, p. 852.
2
• Trapping is prohibited when:
a. Prior to trapping, the animal had freedom of movement, and

b. Your action will cause the animal to be more easily caught.
It is prohibited to trap an animal whether you intend to use the animal

itself, or because it is a nuisance.3
• On the other hand, trapping is permitted when:
a. The animal's movement is already very restricted, or

b. It can easily be caught with one lunge.4
Let’s examine these points in greater detail.
Does Tzad Apply to All Animals?
Wild animals –Tzad generally applies only to wild creatures such as

deer, birds and fish, as well as to hard-to-catch things like insects.5
These creatures are naturally in a free state, able to move about and
instinctively afraid of being caught.
But there are some creatures who don’t

fit this model. These fall into two
categories:
Very s-l-o-w creatures – Think of the

proverbial tortoise, or a snail, caterpillar,
ant or earthworm. They move so slowly
that the halacha views them as being
‘inherently confined’.6 Therefore, Tzad does not apply to them, and it
is permitted to further restrict their movement on Shabbat.7
3
The first is a Torah-level prohibition; the second is rabbinic. Principles of Hilchos Shabbos,
‘Tzeida’. (This is the noun form of the word, whereas ‘Tzad’ is the verb form.)
4
Principles of Hilchos Shabbos, ‘Tzeida’.
5
According to Torah law, Tzod applies only to creatures that are normally trapped or hunted. The
Sages extended the prohibition. Orach Chaim 316:3; 39 Melochos, p. 871 and 885.
6
Orach Chaim 316:2; Shemirat Shabbat K’Hilchato 27 (145); 39 Melochos, p. 863.
3
Domesticated animals – This group both includes animals that are
used to being owned by people (like a house pet) and those that are
by nature passive (for example, cows).8
In halacha, an animal is considered “domesticated” if it immediately

submits to someone trying to hold onto it. When I grab the collar of
my pet dog Hav-hav,9 she reacts by relaxing and following my
commands. Since she will come when called, and won't run away when
approached, she lacks complete freedom of movement. I am therefore
permitted to restrict Hav-hav further by locking her into an enclosed
area or attaching her to a leash on Shabbat.10
Now, applying this rule depends on context. You may have a dog who
is usually compliant, but on one particular day, he is bad-tempered
and disobedient. In this case, he does
not fit the criterion of “domesticated.”
And if he tries to run away on
Shabbat, you would not be able to
capture him.11
There is also a middle category of

animal which we could call “partially-
domesticated.” In halacha, this means
that they will return home at night even if they had been somewhere
else during the day.12 You may restrict the movement of such an
animal only if it might hurt itself or be dangerous to others.
7
Although it is not clear why someone might need to catch one of these creatures on Shabbat. In
general, a person should not do something on Shabbat that isn’t needed for that day. So, if you are
doing a science experiment during the upcoming week that involves snails, you can’t catch a snail
on Shabbat because doing so isn’t needed for Shabbat itself. Furthermore, animals are in the
category of Muktzeh, items that may not be handled on Shabbat.
8
9
So named after the Hebrew version of a dog’s barking sound.
10
Mishnah Berurah 316:59; Shemirat Shabbat K’Hilchato 27:34. This may seem like a
contradiction: why would I need to capture the animal if it is submissive? Say that the dog went up
the street further than I’d like. I can go and block her way so that she’s forced to turn back and
come home.
11
Orach Chaim 316:12; Principles of Hilchos Shabbos, ‘Tzeidah’.
12
Mishnah Berurah 316:57; Shemirat Shabbat K’Hilchato 27:35; 39 Melochos, p. 865.
4
One other point: There are various things that aren’t supposed to be
moved on Shabbat, because their use is (generally) not Shabbat-
related. These items are known as muktzeh13 (which means reserved
or set apart). We will get to a full exploration of this issue in a
subsequent lesson, G-d willing. In the meantime, it’s important to
understand that animals are considered muktzeh. Under normal
conditions, we aren’t supposed to move them on Shabbat.
Degrees of Tzad
What do we mean when we speak of “confining” an animal? How

confined does it have to be?
For these purposes, we’ll refer to three levels of confinement:14
Level-1 - Not Confined – the animal has the natural freedom

of movement to which it is accustomed.
Level-2 - Loose Confinement – the animal’s movement has

been restricted, but it cannot be grabbed without being chased
and outmaneuvered.
Level-3 - Narrow Confinement - the animal is in a place

where you could actually take hold of it with ‘one lunge’.
On Shabbat, it is prohibited to restrict an animal’s movement from one

degree to the next. In other words, you could not take an animal that
is totally unconfined (i.e., at level-1) and restrict its movement to
loose confinement (level-2). Nor could you then further restrict that
animal (or any other animal) from loose confinement (level-2) to
narrow confinement (level-3).
13
Generally pronounced MOOK-tseh. (‘Mook’ rhymes with ‘brook’).
14
Rambam (Shabbat 10:18); All terms are from Rabbi Ribiat - 39 Melochos, p. 855.
5
We’ll get to some concrete examples in a minute. But first a few more
principles:
What constitutes ‘confinement’ depends on the size and speed of the

animal. For example, it is permitted to further restrict a large, wild
animal that is already confined to a small room. But if that same
animal is in a large room, it is prohibited to further restrict it.15
Additionally, the issue is based on how the animal would react in full
consciousness. For example, it is rabbinically prohibited to restrict a
wild animal that is lame, but it is prohibited on the Torah level to
restrict a wild animal that is sleeping.16
• If a bird flies into your house, you cannot close the window, since
that will somewhat restrict its movement. With the window open, the
bird can fly anywhere; with the window closed it is “loosely confined”
to your house.
• If a deer walks into your living room, you could not close the door,
as this effectively restricts the deer’s movement. And it would not help
you to leave the window open, since the
deer is unlikely to leave the house
17
through the window.
• During the warm months, a bee, fly or

other insect will often get into the house.
Capturing the bee in a cup, for example,
would be an act of Tzad. However, you
can close the bee up in one large room of
the house and then shut the door. Even
though the bee has less room to buzz
15
Rambam Shabbat 10:19; Principles of Hilchos Shabbos, ‘Tzeidah’.
16
Orach Chaim 316:2, with Mishnah Berurah 7, 9.
17
In fact, you might want to keep the door open, so the deer can find a way to leave.
6
around, it is too small to be considered ‘confined’ in so large an area.
You could not, however, shoo the bee into a closet and then shut the
closet door, as this reaches the level of ‘loose confinement.’
• If there are flies in a garbage can, you could not close the lid, as this
would constitute ‘trapping.’ In order to avoid this, you must leave the
lid slightly open, or make an effort to wave away the flies before
closing the lid (though you need not be certain that they have all left).
• If a grasshopper jumps onto your Shabbat table, you could not place
a bowl over it. You could, however, bang on the table to scare it away.
• If a caterpillar is crawling across your Shabbat table, you could place

a bowl over it. Because the caterpillar is so slow-moving, it is already
considered ‘trapped.’ (You could not touch the caterpillar directly, due
to Muktzeh.)
• It is prohibited to close a cage that

houses an animal. Since the animal could
have easily escaped from the cage if left
unattended, closing the cage is an act of
trapping, even though the animal made no
attempt to leave. For example, if you want
to open a bird cage on Shabbat (e.g. at
time of feeding), need to do it in a way
that prevents the bird from fleeing even
during the time the cage door is open.
(For example, you can hold your hand in front of the cage’s opening).
• You come home from shul on Shabbat morning, and as you enter
your house, a bird flies in behind you. You don’t notice the bird,
however, until after you’ve closed the door.18 So the bird is now in
your living room. Could you close the bedroom doors, thus narrowing
the available space for the bird to fly around in? The answer is ‘yes,’
because the bird was previously at ‘level 2’ (Loose Confinement’, and if
18
As we said, you could not intentionally close the door, as that is now restricting the bird to ‘loose
confinement’. (Mishnah Berurah 316:1)
7
you close the bedroom doors, it will still be at ‘level 2’. The prohibition
on Shabbat is to change the animal’s halachic degree of confinement,
and here the degree has remained the same.19
Trapping Dangerous Creatures
When faced with a creature that could be dangerous to you or

someone else, you are allowed to trap it.20 We will discuss these laws
in detail in the next lesson, on Shochait.
Setting an Animal Free
The reverse of Tzad – freeing a trapped animal – is completely

permitted. In fact, it is a mitzvah to alleviate the discomfort of any
living thing. (However, since animals are Muktzeh, this should not be
done by directly moving the animal with your hands.)21
Setting a Trap
It is permitted to set a trap before Shabbat, for example to put up fly

paper, because you are taking no action on Shabbat itself.
It is forbidden, however, to erect a trap on Shabbat, because your

Shabbat action will be the indirect cause of a trapping that may
subsequently occur on Shabbat.22
19
Shemirat Shabbat K’Hilchato 27 (115).
20
Rambam (Shabbat 10:25).
21
22
8
Actions that cause bleeding

or kills a living thing.
written by
Alan Goldman
edited by
1
Introduction
The melacha of Shochait1 shares a name with a traditional Jewish

profession – that of the ritual slaughterer. In the context of Shabbat,
though, ‘Shochait’ has a broader meaning: it refers to any action that
involves killing a living thing.2
This labor category is the next logical one in the ‘Order of Hides’ we
are now studying. Once you’ve captured an animal, you’ll need to kill it
if you want to use it for food or some other purpose.
Although most of us don’t live in farming communities, Shochait is still

relevant to our Shabbat. Among the common activities it includes are:
• killing household pests such as roaches, ants, mice, and the

like – whether by physical means or by using insecticides or
poisons3
• killing mosquitoes or other insects that are disturbing you

outdoors
What about not actually killing an animal, but placing it in a situation

where it will die, such as fishing? This is also prohibited. A common
scenario is that you find an ant in your sink. In such a case, you could
not flush it down the drain.4
1
Pronounced show-CHAITE.
2
Rambam (Shabbat 11:1); Principles of Hilchos Shabbos, ‘Shochet’.
3
Rambam (Shabbat 11:1); 39 Melochos, p. 887. However, we are allowed to kill lice and nits
(Orach Chaim 316:9).
4
Mishnah Berurah 316:42. Even if you don’t have intention to “kill” the ant, but merely remove it,
the act of flushing it down the drain will definitely kill it, and thus this is a prohibited act of Psik
Reisha.
2
Dealing with Dangerous Creatures
As we mentioned briefly in the previous lesson, there are exceptions to

the basic rule of Shochait: when faced with a dangerous (or potentially
dangerous) creature, you may be able to kill it.
We may divide this into four categories, organized by descending

levels of danger:5
(1) Life-threatening danger - The

most straightforward scenario is if you
find yourself near something that
could cause life-threatening danger.
Examples would include a scorpion, a
poisonous snake, a poisonous spider,
and a rabid animal.
If possible, the halacha prefers that we ask a non-Jewish person to kill

the animal. If this is not possible, then we may kill it ourselves.
The halacha notes that you don’t have to wait until the creature is
actively trying to harm you. The fact that it has the potential to harm
is enough to override the prohibition of Shochait.
(2) Great pain - What about where the creature isn’t normally life-
threatening, but you are especially sensitive to it and it could cause
you great pain? For example, say you are allergic to bee stings. Here,
the preference is to trap the insect. If you can’t trap it without killing
it, then you should seek a non-Jewish person to help you out; if this
also isn’t possible, you can kill it while walking about in a normal
manner (as will be explained later).6
5
6
Orach Chaim 316:10, with Mishnah Berurah 27; Orach Chaim 328:12, with Mishnah Berurah 37;
3
In the case of someone who is
allergic to bee stings to the point of
a life-threatening danger, then the
bee could be killed outright, as in
category (1) above.
(3) Painful - What if the creature

can cause harm which is not life-
threatening, but is serious and/or
painful? An example would be a bee
or wasp sting (for someone who is not allergic), or a non-poisonous
snake.7 Here, if the creature is not chasing after us, we are only
allowed only to trap it. If it is coming after us, we may kill it.8
(4) Annoying - Bites from a fly or mosquito are not considered

sufficiently painful to warrant trapping these creatures.9
In all of these cases, when we speak of killing an animal, the halacha

prefers that we do it in a non-obvious way (unless, of course, the
nature of the danger is such that the animal must be killed as quickly
and directly as possible).10
What does this mean, and why is it necessary?
The Sages were concerned about someone killing an insect (or other
thing) in a visible way, such as by emphatically stamping on it or
swatting it with a heavy object. They felt that if this behavior was seen
by people who didn’t know the halachic specifics, they might conclude
that it is okay in general to kill animals on Shabbat. Therefore, the
Sages required us to be more discreet: For example, you might walk
over to the area where the insect is and step on it, although to the
7
This means that a creature which causes mere discomfort, like a mosquito, cannot be killed,
unless there is reason to suspect that it is carrying a more serious disease (e.g., malaria or West
Nile).
8
Again, if we can’t find a non-Jewish person to get rid of the animal for us.
9
Shemirat Shabbat K’Hilchato 25:3. This means that such creatures cannot be killed, unless there
is reason to suspect that it is carrying a more serious disease (e.g., malaria or West Nile).
10
Orach Chaim 316:10.
4
innocent observer, it seems that you are merely walking about. The
Talmud calls this approach dorso l’fi tumo – literally, ‘you step on the
creature innocently’.11
To summarize – we aren’t allowed to kill anything on Shabbat unless

there is a real possibility that it can cause harm to someone. Indeed,
the halacha requires us to respect the lives of animals and other
creatures all the time, not just on Shabbat.12
Causing Bleeding
The melacha of Shochait also encompasses other activities.
We are not allowed to cause someone to

bleed, or to create a bruise. Both of these
actions release blood,13 which is considered
the ‘life’ of a living being. Thus this is
treated as a form of Shochait, even though
the person (or animal) remains alive after
being wounded.14
Some examples of this aspect of Shochait

are:
• using a toothpick, if you know your gums are sensitive and are
likely to bleed
• removing a loose tooth
• scratching a sore, if it is likely to bleed
11
Talmud – Shabbat 121b; 39 Melochos, p. 891-92. Whether this approach is possible will depend
on the situation.
12
Talmud - Baba Metzia 32b; Even Ha'ezer 5:14.
13
With a bruise, the blood remains underneath the skin.
14
Orach Chaim 316:8, with Mishnah Berurah 30 and Biur Halacha s.v. 'V'HaChovel'; Mishnah
Berurah 328:147; 39 Melochos, p. 893-94.
5
Of course, as with any health issue, if someone has a serious problem,
then Shabbat restrictions may be overridden. We discussed these
issues in detail in lesson #17; it’s best to consult a rabbi for specific
advice.
The Next Group of Melachot
The concepts we’ve been addressing – capturing an animal and killing

it – are relatively straightforward (even though the details can get
complex). However, the next five melachot are more technical, and
reflect actions that most of us probably haven’t done. So a short
overview is in order.15
How are skins or hides processed into a finished product like leather?
First, the hides must be physically removed from the animal. This is
the labor category known as Mafshit. Then, the hides must be
preserved so they don’t spoil. This process, called tanning, is another
melacha, Me’abeid. The hide is then smoothed over to remove dirt,
hair, and other unwanted stuff, an action known as Memachaik.
These activities result in a smooth product, ready to be made into

whatever the craftsman wishes. Before cutting the hide into the proper
pieces, the artisan will score some lines to show where the cutting will
take place. He or she will then follow these lines and actually cut up
the material. Each of these steps – the scoring (Mesarteit) and the
cutting (Mechataich) – are separate melachot.
We will now learn more about this set of labor categories.
15
Rambam (Shabbat 11:5); Rambam (Peirush HaMishnah - Shabbat 73a); Jerusalem Talmud -
Shabbat 7:2); 39 Melochos, pp. 899, 901, 913, and 931.
6
Salting and pickling your food.
written by
Alan Goldman
edited by
1
Mafshit1 - Removing Skin
It’s probably safe to assume that we will not often confront the
melacha of Mafshit (skinning), because it has such a limited scope.
The classic illustration of this labor category is stripping hide from an
animal carcass (doesn’t sound very appealing). This, of course, is the
next thing to be done – within the ‘Order of Hides’ – after the animal
has been slaughtered.
Mafshit applies also to any separation of skin from its original place.
So, for example, removing raw chicken skin from the chicken would be
an application of this melacha.2 However, removing cooked skin would
not be.3 Why?
As we’ve seen with other melachot, an action that is normally done

in the course of eating is not considered ‘work’ for Shabbat
purposes.4 With Mafshit, we have a further rationale, which is that the
skin is effectively loosened during the cooking process, so when you
remove it afterwards you are not really skinning in the true sense.5
Me’abeid6 - Tanning without the Sun
When we think of ‘tanning’, most of us conjure up an image of a sunny

beach. Here, though, we’re talking about the hard work of preparing a
finished product from a raw animal hide. This is what allows a pretty
grungy object to be transformed into beautiful (and costly) leather or
suede.
Tanning involves first curing the hide (usually using salt), then adding
a chemical substance to further preserve it, and then finishing its
1
Pronounced mahf-SHEET.
2
Aruch HaShulchan 321:26; 39 Melochos, p. 899. Removing skin from a fish is also included.
3
Aruch HaShulchan 321:26; Principles of Hilchos Shabbos, ‘Mafshit’.
4
For example, see lesson #16 on Tochen.
5
Shu”t Igros Moshe (Orach Chaim 4:74 - Borer 8, 9); 39 Melochos, p. 899.
6
Pronounced meh-ah-BAID.
2
appearance by adding an oil to soften the leather or doing something
else to harden it.7
How do these activities apply in contemporary life? Any improvement

in a leather item would be an act of Me’abeid. Some examples:
stretching out a new pair of shoes by bending them back and forth;
adding oil or other liquids to leather furniture to make it smooth.8
Me’abeid and Foods
According to Torah law, Me’abeid does not

apply to foods (as we just saw above with
Mafshit).9 However, the Sages saw a
similarity between Me’abeid and certain
activities involving food; as a result, they
added another layer of restrictions. The
similarity has to do with the use of salt.10
Salt is used in tanning because it helps
preserve the hide. Similarly, it has traditionally been used to preserve
meats and other foods (think pickles). Since the physical make-up of
the food changes, this act resembles the process of tanning hides.
So, does this mean that we can’t use salt on Shabbat? Thankfully, no.
(Where would the Jewish kitchen be without it?)
When salting food, we need to ask two preliminary questions:
• What kind of food are we salting?

• Why are we salting it?
7
For good summaries, see 39 Melochos, p. 902 and the Wikipedia article on tanning
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanning).
8
9
Talmud - Shabbat 75b.
10
Rashi on Talmud – Shabbat 108b with Rashi; 39 Melochos, p. 903-04.
3
What kind – The restriction applies only to foods that are preserved
by adding salt. This winds up limiting the melacha to raw fish, raw
meats, and raw vegetables.11
Why – Salting food so that it will be preserved – that is, it will last for
a while – certainly appears like Me’abeid, since this is the same activity
that was done with the hides in the Mishkan.12 On the other hand, if
we are salting just for flavor, then it is allowed given any one of the
following conditions:13
(1) the food is cooked

(2) you are salting only one vegetable at a time
(3) the vegetable is not normally preserved in salt (i.e., pickled)
(4) you have already added other ingredients which blunt the
salty flavor
Each of these conditions reflects how

Me’abeid comes into play only when what
you’re doing is similar to actual
curing/pickling. Let’s take them one by one:
Condition #1 - Vegetables are pickled raw,

so if they are cooked, the rabbinic restriction
on salting doesn’t apply.14
Condition #2 applies because pickling or

preserving is done with a large quantity of
vegetables, not with just one or a few. So if you’re just salting one
item, this is not at all like Me’abeid. ‘One at a time’ can mean you have
one vegetable on your plate and you pour salt on it, or you have
several on the plate but you dip each one individually into the salt.
11
Orach Chaim 321:5 with Mishnah Berurah 21; 39 Melochos, p. 905.
12
This manner of preserving food is known as pickling. As a result, any salting of raw meat is not
allowed, since this is what the salting will accomplish. (Mishnah Berurah 321:21; Principles of
Hilchos Shabbos, ‘M’abeid’)
13
Mishnah Berurah 321:13, 14, 18; 39 Melochos, p. 907-910; Shemirat Shabbat K’Hilchato 11:1, 2.
14
Kitzur Shulchan Aruch 80:22.
4
Condition #3 – Examples of items that are pickled include cucumbers,
tomatoes and radishes. Given this, it is permitted on Shabbat to salt
eggs, bread, and other items not usually preserved through salting.
According to some opinions, it is also permitted to sprinkle salt on

vegetables that are not in a ‘form’ suitable for pickling – e.g. sliced
tomatoes or peeled cucumbers.15
Condition #4 – It is permitted to salt this type of food if oil is added

before the salt.16 The oil neutralizes the salt’s preserving and pickling
ability. So if you want to salt a large bowl of salad on Shabbat, you
should first add oil or salad dressing, and mix it very well.
By understanding these conditions, you can enjoy a meal that includes

salt and is within the boundaries of halacha.
Saltwater
One additional related issue: Since a saltwater solution is a medium

for tanning (or pickling), we need to avoid making it on Shabbat. This
includes adding salt to any large volume of water, as well as making a
very heavily salted solution, regardless of the amount of water in it.
The Sages define ‘heavily salted’ as a ratio of two parts salt to one
part water.17
15
16
17
5
Smoothing out solids,

and cutting things to size.
written by
Alan Goldman
edited by
1
Av and Toladah
Think fast: what do brushing your teeth, making something with Play-
Doh® and using hand cream have in common? Don’t know? You’ll find
out in this lesson.
First, a brief review. Remember when we discussed the difference

between an av melacha and a toladah? (It was way back in our first
lesson.) An av melacha (a ‘parent labor’) is the classic example of a
particular labor category – in other words, the way it was performed in
the Tabernacle. A toladah (roughly, a ‘descendant’) is any other
activity that resembles the melacha.1
The melacha of Memachaik2 illustrates this distinction well. The av

melacha is smoothing out a hard or somewhat flexible object. Such
smoothing was done to animal skins after they were tanned. Of
course, this kind of work is not something that we normally deal with
on Shabbat. On the other hand, there is an important toladah of
Memachaik, which is relevant to each of us on virtually every Shabbat.
Let’s first look at the av melacha. Under this heading would fall
activities like sanding wood (smoothing a hard object); using bar soap;
and smoothing leather.3 In each case, the object you are working on
will become smoother as a result of your activity.
Now to the toladah, which is known as Memarayach.4 (Since this is an

awkward-looking word in English, we’ll refer to it as smoothing, in
italics, for ease of reference). Under this heading, we will discuss three
categories of objects.
1
The activities covered within the toladah are also Torah-level prohibitions.
2
Pronounced meh-mah-CHAYK (last syllable rhymes with rake).
3
It is possible to smooth leather without even intending to do so – for example, scraping off wet
mud from a leather shoe using a knife. When you do this, you inevitably smooth out the leather and
improve its appearance, even though your goal is just to get it clean. Talmud – Shabbat 141b;
Orach Chaim302:8; 39 Melochos, p. 914-15. As we learned in lesson #2, where something
prohibited will inevitably result from your action, you aren’t allowed to do it.
4
Pronounced meh-mah-RAY-ach (last syllable rhymes with Bach).
2
(1) Solid but Flexible
The first category includes items which are solid yet flexible.5 That is,
they can be molded, but they generally keep their basic shape.
Some examples: stick deodorant; wax; tar.6
The normal use of these substances

involves stretching or rolling them, such
that they become smoothed out or
thinned. This is the essence of
smoothing. Other activities falling under
this category include using Chap-Stick
or lipstick, and making something with
Play-Doh® or clay.7
(2) Not Quite Solid
What about materials which are not quite solid, but still hold their
shape, such as toothpaste, Vaseline®, anti-fungal creams, and so
forth?
These things also fall within the category of smoothing, under rabbinic
law.8 In some cases, the activities associated with these substances
can be done on Shabbat, though, although in a modified form. For
example, if a baby needs to have some ointment put on, we dab it,
rather than rub it into the skin, as we normally would. For this reason,
we also do not use toothpaste on Shabbat.9
5
Rabbi Schloss refers to these substances as ‘semi-solid’. Principles of Hilchos Shabbos,
‘M’machek.’
6
7
Orach Chaim 314:11 with Mishnah Berurah; 39 Melochos, p. 918.
8
Talmud – Shabbat 146b; 39 Melochos, p. 919 & 922-23. Many types of makeup are included in
this category, and the halachic issues regarding makeup go beyond just the issue of smoothing.
For a discussion, please see lesson #27.
9
Shabbat-friendly toothpaste is available; it has a thinner consistency. See
www.kosherinnovations.com.
3
(3) Not Solid at all
When it comes to substances that are truly thin or porous, there is no

prohibition of smoothing. This would include liquid soap, baby oil, and
hand lotions that pour freely.10
Smoothing and Foods
You might be thinking ahead and wondering if you need to stop

spreading cream cheese on your bagel during Shabbat. After all, this
would seem like a classic case of smoothing. As it turns out, you won’t
have to forgo this pleasure. The
melacha of Memachaik does not
apply to activities we do in the
normal course of preparing food,
such as spreading cheese, jam,
peanut butter or the like.11
There is one important exception,

though. Smoothing out a food
solely for aesthetic reasons is not
allowed – for example, creating ripples in a dish of mashed potatoes
by rolling a spoon or fork over the top, or applying icing to a cake.
Since this action isn’t necessary for the food to be eaten, Memachaik
applies to it.12
Memachaik thus turns out to be a very important melacha for us to

know, with its many common applications.
10
Some words of caution: There is a more stringent opinion about liquid soap, which holds that it
needs to be diluted before it can be used on Shabbat. Also, it can sometimes be difficult to
determine if a lotion is pourable enough to be considered ‘not solid at all’. Aruch Hashulchan
326:11; Shu”t Igros Moshe (Orach Chaim 1:113); 39 Melochos, p. 920.
11
Rambam (Shabbat 11:5); Rema - Orach Chaim 321:19, with Biur Halacha s.v. ‘Tovo Alav
Bracha’; Principles of Hilchos Shabbos, ‘M’macheik’; 39 Melochos, p. 926-27. As Rabbi Ribiat
explains there, all of the labor categories in the ‘Order of Hides’ do not apply to foods.
12
Ibid.
4
Mesarteit: Keeping Score
We now turn to two closely related melachot: the first, Mesarteit, is

about preparing (or ‘scoring’) lines on an object prior to cutting it, and
the second, Mechateich, deals with actually cutting on such a
measured line.
These were the final two actions taken to complete the processing of
an animal hide. As we’ve seen, the hide was first tanned and
smoothed into a workable item. Then it needed to be cut into its
desired shape. To do this, the artisan would score lines on the hide,
and then follow those lines when cutting.13
Mesarteit is defined narrowly – you

have done this melacha only if you
make visible lines on an item so
that you know where to cut (or
fold) it later. For example, if you
fold a piece of paper in half so that
you can tear it at the fold, this
would be an act of Mesarteit.14
Making lines or marks for other purposes does not fall within this
category.
13
Jerusalem Talmud – Shabbat 7:2; 39 Melochos, p. 931 & 935; Principles of Hilchos Shabbos,
‘M’sarteit’ and ‘M’chateich’.
14
5
Mechateich: On the Lines
Mechateich is a broader melacha: it includes “cutting any object to a

specific size,” if that is your intent.15 Intent is an integral factor here –
if you were tearing something on Shabbat,16 and it happened to get
torn it in a specific shape, this would not be a violation of Mechateich.
An illustration of this principle would be removing the tamper-proof
plastic strip on a food container (e.g., cottage cheese). This is allowed,
since your goal is just to get the plastic off, not to cut it in a measured
way.17
With some packaging, the specific shape is already prepared, and you
finish the job by removing or tearing something. Examples include
taking off the lid of a tissue box (where there is a perforated line
showing you where to tear), and separating garbage bags from each
other along a perforated line. Tearing along any such line would be
Mechateich.18
Which brings us to the example of toilet paper. Because it comes on a

roll, and needs to be intentionally torn in order to be used, toilet paper
is a classic case of Mechateich. The solution: pre-rip it before Shabbat.
In Israel, pre-cut toilet paper is widely available, and is a fixture in

many observant homes. Of course, regular facial tissues work fine for
this, too. But here also, you’d need to be careful about certain
‘cheaper’ brands where the tissues are not completely detached from
one another. In such a case, detaching them would constitute
Mechateich.
15
Rambam (Shabbat 11:7); 39 Melochos, p. 936; see also Principles of Hilchos Shabbos,
‘M’chateich’
16
Recall from our discussion of the melacha of Koraya (lesson #31) that, given certain conditions,
you are allowed to rip items on Shabbat.
17
39 Melochos, p. 937 and Hebrew footnotes 16 & 17a.
18
A potentially uncomfortable example is toilet paper. It would be Mechateich to tear off a piece on
the perforated line. If there is no alternative – such as a tissue – to use, then it’s best to tear the
paper not on the line and using an unusual method, such as your fists, rather than your fingers.
(Principles of Hilchos Shabbos, ‘M’chateich’)
6
What if you find yourself in a situation where you are in a bathroom
and realize there are no tissues or pre-cut toilet paper? In this case,
the Sages allowed one to “break” a rabbinic-level melacha for the sake
of human dignity. As we’ve discussed before, by performing an action
in an unusual way, known as using a shinui (literally, a change), the
action is reduced to a rabbinic-level melacha. So in this case, one may
tear off the paper in a non-customary manner, such as by using your
elbows.19
You might be surprised to know that we’ve now finished the ‘Order of
Hides.’ This is the third set of melachot within the laws of Shabbat.
With this lesson, we have now learned together 31 of the 39 labor
categories. Coming up, G-d willing, are some very fascinating topics,
including writing, building, and carrying in a public place. Stay tuned.
19
As this issue makes clear, all aspects of life fall within the realm of halacha. For a more detailed
discussion, see Shemirat Shabbat K’Hilchato 23:16; 39 Melochos, p. 842-43.

Laws of Shabbath

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Laws of Shabbath

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Laws of Shabbat - Class #1

An introduction to the idea of

Resting and Working

The Torah, in its second recital of the Ten Commandments, refers to

Shabbat empowers us – not to discard our workaday world – but to

Our first take-home point, then, is that

Refraining from creative labor is an essential element of

The Tabernacle represents a microcosm of the universe – a distillation

The Mishnah6 lists 39 ‘labor categories’ that were performed in

In halachic terminology, the classic case in each category is known as

Torah Law and Rabbinic Law

Shabbat is an encompassing experience, one in which we are

The Big Picture

In this lesson, we have

• defined what ‘work’ means with regard to Shabbat

For Further Reading

There are a number of excellent articles on Aish.com that discuss

About the Sources

This lesson provides a general overview of the topic covered. It is

This course follows these main source materials:

• The 39 Melochos by Rabbi Dovid Ribiat (Feldheim)

• Principles of Hilchos Shabbos by Rabbi Daniel Schloss,

There are a number of other helpful studies of the labor categories,

• Halachos of Shabbos by Rabbi Shimon Eider (Feldheim)

• The Shabbos Kitchen by Rabbi Simcha Bunim Cohen

For those readers who wish to reference more primary sources, we

• Shulchan Aruch (literally: "Set Table") is the main authoritative

• Many subsequent commentaries have been written on the Shulchan

• Mishnah Berurah is a 20th century Ashkenazi 'update' of the

• Shu”t Igros Moshe is an 8-volume work written by Rabbi Moshe

Eight key conditions to constitute

In order for an action to be considered true “work” on Shabbat, it must

For any action to be ‘thoughtful work’, the following must be true:

(4) The action is constructive, not destructive

(6) You do the action in the normal way it is done

Let’s examine the first three conditions using a scenario:

Joshua is setting up a Shabbat meal in his backyard. (His guests like

On the other hand, if the bench is

Let's consider a similar case. Joshua wants to walk on his grass. We

(Even though here, too, the action produced an “inevitable result,”

As this scenario illustrates, a person’s frame of mind is central to the

Conditions Relating to the Effect of the Action

In order to be considered melacha, an action’s effect must be

By ‘constructive’ (condition #4) we mean that it resulted in

By ‘permanent’ (condition #5) we don’t mean something that will last

We mentioned that an action needs to be done in its usual way

An action also needs to be done directly (condition #7). There are

• If the furnace would only go on after some time, the action is

Davar She-Aino Mitkaven – This is an action that is allowed since there

Ke-darkah – An action done in the usual way.

Shinui – An action done in an unusual way.

Gramma – An action done in an indirect way.

There are many additional nuances to these conditions, but in this

Rules of walking and playing on the ground.

Now that we’ve learned the fundamentals of the laws of Shabbat, we

As we’ve learned in our prior lessons, each category is based on an

Since the ground must be plowed in order to plant, plowing is one of

So let’s start – literally – at the roots.

Other activities are also included

These are all toladot (‘offspring activities’) of Choresh.

Choresh applies only to land that may be cultivated, known as arable

For a quick review, then:

Choresh involves the loosening of soil on arable land, in such a

(1) Making a Pathway