Qualitative Research Methodology

What is it?

Theory and practise in qualitative research

Distinguish between qualitative and quantitative data Qualitative Research Data Textual/deep meaningful Quantitative Research Data Numbers Strengths and limitations of a qualitative approach to research Strengths - study people in their own environment, describe and explain events, provides rich data Limitations- time consuming, difficult, interpretation = subjective To what extent can findings be generalized from qualitative studies Representational generalization: Findings can be applied to populations outside the population of the study. Qualitative research usually involves small samples so not statistically representative + non-standardized interview methods may be used = difficult to generalize. However, if evidence from other studies confirms the findings, argued that generalization is possible. Inferential Generalization: findings of the study can be applied to settings outside the setting of the study. (Transferability/external validity). Theoretical Generalization: theoretical concepts derived from the study can be used to develop further theory.

Ethical considerations in qualitative research

Ethical Considerations: Informed consent, protection of participants, respect for participants, integrity and privacy, right to withdraw. Informed consent: Should always be obtained, researcher must provide the participants with sufficient information Protection from harm: avoid harming participants (psychologically and physically) Anonymity and confidentiality: identity of participants should not be known

Sampling techniques appropriate to qualitative research (snowball sampling etc)

Purpose sampling: targets specific group of people with particular set of characteristics, good to obtain a sample quickly Snowball Sampling: used to get participants without investing a lot of time or energy, having existing participants refer to new participants Convenience Sampling: particular group of people who happen to be available

Effects of participant expectations and researcher bias in qualitative research

Participant expectation: if the participant feels they have to behave in certain ways in order to please the researcher. Researcher Bias: researchers own beliefs that determine the research process.

The importance of credibility in qualitative research

Credibility in research; linked to trustworthiness, leaving a decision trail so that the reader would be able to track and verify the research.

The effect of triangulation on the credibility/trustworthiness of qualitative research

Triangulation: Cross checking information and conclusions in research. If there is agreement between the procedures and or sources there is support in the interpretation of the data. Researchers believe that triangulation can be useful in checking if the findings are trustworthy, adds credibility/ trustworthiness. Method triangulation: comparing data that come from different methods (qual and quan) Data triangulation: comparing data that came from data collected by different qualitative methods Researcher triangulation: Use of several observers Theory triangulation: looking at data using different theoretical perspectives.

Reflexivity in qualitative research

Reflexivity: based on the assumption that it is important that the researcher is aware of his or her own contribution to the construction of meaning in the research process (reflect on ways in which bias could occur) Personal reflexivity: reflecting on the ways in which factors such as researchers values, beliefs, experiences, interests and political commitment have influenced the research.

Epistemological Reflexivity thinking about the ways in which knowledge has been generated in the study

Interviews
Evaluate semi-structured, focus group and narrative interviews
Semi-Structured Interviews: Most widely uses method of data collection in qual research. It involves preparation of an interview guide that lists the themes that should be explored in the interview. Flexible. The order of the questions and the actual wording are not determined in advance. Open minded and closed questions Strengths: socially sensitive issues, better as researcher can ask for elaboration on answers. Less biased. Flexibility of open-minded questions but advantages of structural approach. Analysis in a variety of ways. Limitations: Data analysis very time consuming. One-to-one situation is somewhat artificial. Ethics of semi structures a) Before: review of questions for possible distress, consent forms written b) During: Informed consent, leave at any time, right to withdraw information, inform them of privacy, monitor subjects (end interview with distress), tell aim, method etc c) After: debriefing, confidentiality, counselling, data (transcript, recording) or their interview, final results given, publish results Focus groups: method to asses health education messages, group processes can help people to explore and clarify their views (difficult in one-to-one), 6-10 people, supposed to interact with each other, does not discriminate against people who can not read or write, similar characteristics. Strengths: quick and convenient way to collect data, natural setting, gain insight into what/how/why they think those things Limitations: not guaranteed that people will disclose information, may result in group dynamics (conformity) be a problem if participants are not free (prisons, nursing homes). Ethics of Focus groups a) Before: Whether your topic focus is distressing, decide if they will know each other or not, prior information about your participants b) During: Informed consent, leave at any time, right to withdraw information, inform them of privacy, monitor subjects (end interview with distress), tell aim, method, how people feel, conformity, ask if everyone can respect each other c) After: debriefing, confidentiality, counselling, data (transcript, recording) or their interview, final results given, publish results

Narrative Interviews: Based on the assumption humans are story tellers, purpose is to see how people impose a kind of order on their experiences so as to make sense of events in their lives Strengths: can be used with all people as it uses everyday language, valuable means of exploring the complexity of individual experiences. Limitations: can result in enormous amount of data, time consuming Ethics of Narrative interview a) before: approval of ethics board, consider possible stories (distressing?), aim, method, informed consent b) During: monitor the subjects for distress, and stop if needed or redirect confidentiality c) After: debriefing, make transcript or recording for subject, publish results, counselling, assure them of anonymity, access to facial study.

Considerations involved in before, during and after an interview (sampling method, data recording, debriefing etc)
-Training of the interviewer: so they do not react In ways that may intimidate the participants, and jeopardize the interview. (Avoiding interviewer effects) -Choice of interviewer: consider how interviewer effects can be counterbalanced by varying age, gender, ethnicity in interviewers -Interview guide: themes that need to be explored, script how to conduct interview - Questions can be descriptive, structural (meanings), contrasting (comparing experiences) or evaluative (feelings) - Data recording: tape/video, tell participant in advance - Transcription of the data, professional transcripters, require that the material is word for word (verbatim) -Informed consent - During interview: establish rapport (trusting and close relationship) - Active listening technique restate participants comments to show interviewer has been listening - Participant must be debriefed: ensure participant is fully informed and feels confident

How researchers analyse inductive content analysis on interview transcripts

Data Analysis: interpretative phenomenological analysis(IPA). Common in analysis of qualitative data is the identification of key themes, concepts and categories. Coding, finding categories in data material. Not the same as traditional content analysis, where the categories are defined before analysis begins, since the categories emerge from the data in grounded theory. - IPA: allows the researcher to gain an insiders view of how individual participants make sense of the world. Now used in health Psych. Researcher works on basis of

texts (mostly transcripts) are studied extensively in order to extract themes relevant to the research question. Means analysis are not based on existing theory or prior assumptions - Analysis involves systematic search for themes in the first reading, subsequent readings will try to connect the themes. -IPA works with transcripts of semi-structures interviews, these are the stages a) Reading and re-reading transcripts b) Identification of emergent themes c) Structuring emergent themes d) Summary table of structured themes and relevant quotation that illustrate each theme

Observations
Researcher enters situation where situation is likely to take place and makes notes about it

Evaluate Participant, non-participant, naturalistic, overt and covert observations

Participant observation: researcher becomes part of the group he or she observes, e.g religious groups, to develop scientific understanding of the group. Gain insight into the lives and beliefs of subculture. Researcher should look for regularities and patterns in the data to eventually discover the rules and beliefs that influence people, critical thinking is important. Strengths: Combines the emic dimension (subjective participant perspective) with the etc dimension (objective observer perspective); in depth knowledge of subject is provided, best method to avoid researcher bias, holistic interpretation of a topic. Limitations: Difficult to record data promptly and objectively, time consuming/demanding: not possible with short term projects, there is a risk that researchers will lose objectively Non Participant Observation: researcher not part of group being studied, observes participants with/without their knowledge, deception sometimes used i.e one way glass/laboratories. Naturalistic Observation: Observation takes place in participants natural environment, researchers avoid interfering, should use cameras - Unstructured: record all relevant behaviour, no checklist, data collection and analysis is difficult - Semi-Structured: researcher has decided what areas to look for, no predetermined categories, and allows for analysis at a greater level of depth and detail. - Structured Observations: record specific predetermined features of behaviour, checklist used, data collection is easy, data analysis is restricted to preset categories.

Strengths: ecological validity (natural environment, participants behave in natural ways), can be used to collect data in cases where it would be impossible/unethical to do so otherwise. Limitations: Risk that people react to being observed, if data collect alone may be problems, ethical considerations (observing strangers without their knowledge) Overt Observation: Participants know they are being observed, whatever circumstances participants know that he or she is the researcher Covert Observation: Participants are not aware of being studied, so no consent has been given. Ethical issues.

Considerations involved in setting up and carrying out an observation (Audience effect, disclosure)
Preparation: Research problem under observation, set up a plan for observation, decided whether participant or non-participant, decide what exactly to focus on, become familiar with the setting/people before starting. Be aware of own position, may influence his/her interpretation of the situation What kind of notes: Descriptive (just observes what is happening), Inferential (Researcher makes inferences on what is happening; reactions and emotions), Evaluative (Observes, makes inferences plus evaluates behaviour) Conducting: Establishes rapport with participants, important to be involved but stay analytical, advantage if there is more than one observer, notes must be very detailed (rich/thick). Risk of participants not behaving naturally (reactivity), Researcher may be bias (researcher bias)- influences validity but can be counterbalanced with credibility checks. Afterwards: Can conduct post observational interviews, participants must be debriefed, data analysis then carried out. How researchers analyse data obtained in observational research - Based on field notes, compared to data from other sources - One way to analysis: grounded theory analysis (description, and coding and connecting themes, to produce an account)

DCA
Description: Complete description of the phenomenon of interest context of the action, intentions of actor, process in which action is embedded. Coded and Connecting Themes: Means data is organised into categories: reading/readings field notes. Who/what/when/where/why/who. Notes about the notes called memos. Data classified into main (higher-order) themes and subthemes. Critical thinking is essential.

Account: End product based on all the elements of the analysis, gives theoretical framework, may use theoretical triangulation 9includes alternative theories to explain phenomenon). Important that the researcher makes it possible to track and verify how the conclusion was reached.

Case Studies
The use of case studies in research
- Defined as an in depth investigation of human experience. Could be one person/family/social group/ event/organisation. Often takes place in participants natural environment, should always be seen in context, not research method but a research strategy. - Semi-structured interviews widely used, triangulation is best, conclusions based on multiple sources produce more trustworthy results. Main methods of data collection: semi structured interviews, participant observation, diaries, personal notes, official documents and questionnaires. Intrinsic case studies: studied because they are interesting in their own right, researcher simply wants to gain insight into one particular phenomenon by studying that case i.e. person locked into a basement for years by a perpetrator Instrumental case studies: more general phenomenon being studied i.e. losing a child, being homeless. Descriptive case studies: generate a detailed description of phenomenon, findings of descriptive case study not analysed in terms of existing theories Explanatory case studies: aim to describe AND to find possible explanations of phenomenon. Strengths - Opportunity to investigate phenomena that could not be studied otherwise - Permits insight into social processes in a group - Stimulates new research - Contradict established theory and helps to develop new theories Limitations - Difficult to define a case study - Researcher bias may become a problem - Memory distortions and effects of social desirability Ethical Aspects: if only one or two people are in the case study, there is a chance that they can be identified in the research report. Requires active involvement by

participants, could involve self reflection that may affect the participants negatively (deal with painful memories and emotions)

How a case study could be used to investigate a problem in an organization or group (football team, family) The extent to which findings can be generalized from a single case study
Difficult to generalise one case study with the small sample population, however, if evidence from other cases studies confirms it than it is argued that it is possible to generalise to other people who are similar to those in the case study Single case study can be used for inferential generalization (findings can be applicable to similar settings if researcher has provided detailed description and the context of phenomenon) Transferability Yin (1994), results of a single case study can be generalized to existing theory, but not to populations and if patterns found in that case study can be found in multiple cases, the theory derived from the case study gains in robustness