SYSTEM AND ISSUES IN INDIAN EDUCATION TUTORIAL-1

SUBMITTED BY:SHIVANI CHAUDHARY B.Ed-B 91

Q. TRACE OUT THE DEVLOPMENT OF WOMEN EDUCATION IN INDIA. CRTICALLY ANALYSE THE STATUS OF WOMEN EDUCATION IN CONTEMPORARY INDIA?

WOMEN EDUCATION

Jawaharlal Nehru had once said-Educate a man and you educate one person. Educate a woman and you educate the whole family.
Women constitute almost half of the population of the world. Education for women is the best way to improve the health, nutrition and economic status of a household that constitute a micro unit of a nation economy. In this context, it can be argued that lack of woman education can be an impediment to the countrys economic development. Female Education in India is not a gift of modern civilization. India has always been a relentless champion of the cause of women at all international and national front. The policy makers have become conscious that real development cannot take roots if it bypasses women, who represent the very essential part around which social change must take shape. The past few years have seen unprecedented changes in the political, diplomatic, economic and ideological spheres, but certainly a lot of developments have also taken roots. From growth to growth with equity, from economic development to human development and from services endowment to empowerment, the paradigms of development have certainly come a long way.

In India, women achieve far less education that of men. As per the Census report 2001, the literacy rate of women is 54.16 per cent and that of men is 65.38 per cent. There has been a sincere effort to improve the education attainment of women by both government and voluntary organizations. The changes in the policies and infrastructural supports on primary, secondary and higher education reflect the initiatives of the Government of India towards women education. Although in the Vedic period women had access to education in India, they had gradually lost this right. However, in the British period there was revival of interest in women's education in India. However women's education got a fillip after the country got independence in 1947 and the government has taken various measures to provide education to all Indian women. As a result women's literacy rate has grown over the three decades and the growth of female literacy has in fact been higher than that of male literacy rate. While in 1971 only 22% of Indian women were literate, by the end of 2001 54.16% female were literate. The growth of female literacy rate is 14.87% as compared to 11.72 % of that of male literacy rate. Gender discrimination still persists in India and lot more needs to be done in the field of women's education in India. The gap in the male-female literacy rate is just a simple indicator. While the male literary rate is more than 75% according to the 2001 census, the female literacy rate is just 54.16%. Women constitute almost half of the population of the world. Education for women is the best way to improve the health, nutrition and economic status of a household that constitute a micro unit of a nation economy. In this context, it can be argued that lack of woman education can be an impediment to the countrys economic development. In India, women achieve far less education that of men. As per the Census report 2001, the literacy rate of women is 54.16 per cent and that of men is 65.38 per cent. There has been a sincere effort to improve the education attainment of women by both government and voluntary organizations. The changes in the policies and infrastructural supports on primary, secondary and higher education reflect the initiatives of the Government of India towards women education. This paper examined the trends in women education, the investments on education and infrastructural supports in India. The study revealed that there had been significant progress in the performance of women education revealed from female literacy levels and its change over time. It was also observed that the gaps between rural and urban female literacy rates are narrowing down. It was observed that rural poverty acts as a push factors for womens education rather than as an obstacle to womens education. The significant influence of urbanization on womens education implied that urbanization had been playing a beneficial role in the attainment of womens education in India. At the same time, the drop-out rate had a negative effect on womens education. It revealed that that reduction of girls drop-out rates is necessary for achieving womens education. The initiatives of the government through investment and infrastructure in developing education in India were examined. With regard to facilities in schools, it had improved significantly, but a lot more need to be done. In sum, the study revealed that there have been concerted efforts to encourage girls to attend schools, which would lead to higher literacy in future. The study also

revealed that there are several infrastructural barriers to women education in India. The study calls for focused approach towards increasing women centred educational infrastructure so as to reduce the women drop-out rates and to improve female literacy levels in India.

WOMEN EDUCATION IN ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL PERIOD:Female Education is not new to us. In olden days women were allowed to enter gurukuls. They also composed Rigvedic hymns. They excelled in the sphere of education and hence the goddess of learning was conceived of as a female who was popularly known as Saraswati, which is followed even today. However all this declined and the situation worsened till the coming of the British.The social reform movements which arose as a result of the interaction with the western civilization stressed on educating the women. The pioneering work of womens education was done by such socio-religious reform bodies as Brahmo Samaj, Arya Samaj, Ramakrishna mission and also Danish, American, German and British missionary societies. "The skill of a teacher imparted to a worthy student attains greater excellence as the water of a cloud is turned into a pearl in a sea-shell", exclaims teacher Ganadasa, a creation of Kalidasa in Malavikagnimitram. This remark was the result of observing for quite some time that whatever graceful movement was taught to Malavika, was so well received by her that it seemed she taught him back by improving on it! In ancient India as in any other country of all times, it was the dream of a teacher to get good students and see the fulfilment of his attainment in them. How far they could fulfill this eternal dream with the help of the society, is a worthwhile study. In Vedic times, there was no discrimination of sex in the field of studies. A particular mantra was prescribed to beget a learned daughter in Brihadaranyaka upanishad. In the same upanishad, we find Gargi and Maitreyi distinguishing themselves in Brahmavidya, the highest knowledge. In the grihyasutras are found several mantras to be recited by women and the commentary on Gobhilagrihyasutras, states that the female-folk should be taught, for without such studies they cannot perform agnihotra sacrifice. Both Panini and Patanjali refer to women admitted to Vedic study. Thus a woman-student of the Katha school was called a Kathi, and the Rigvedic Bahvricha school, Bahvrichi. Female students were also admitted to the study of mimamsa and the one who studied mimamsa-sutra of the sage Kasakritsna is called Kasakritsna. There were chhatri (lady students) and Upadhyayi (Lady teachers). This trend of liberal female education declined in the period that followed. The right of women for initiation to Vedic studies by way of upanayana seems to have receded slowly, though we find mention of learned women in the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. By the time of the smritis, their education came to be limited to domestic and vocational studies only, by which they could become good housewives. Santoshkumar Das feels that it is probably the early foreign invasions of India which may account for the exclusion of women from Vedic studies. "In almost every nation of the world, in the primitive stages of its development, the early ideas about the inferiority of the female sex prevailed - When the people of Hindustan who had already

attained to a high degree of civilization came in contact with their first foreign rulers, far less civilized than they, they might have adopted those rules concerning the position of women, which belonged peculiarly to an imperfect civilization". Our country is known for assimilating outer influences and giving coloring of its own. It is not unlikely that this alien custom become slowly part of the Indian society. However, the study of the fine arts like dance, music, painting and practice of innumerable crafts continued. Vatsyayana enumerates duties of a housewife which included planting in her garden, rows of trees, flower and fruit plants and medicinal herbs, cooking, spinning, pounding, grinding, knowledge of wages of servants and their disbursement, the care and welfare of cattle, knowledge of constructing conveyances, looking after domestic pets, reckoning of daily income and expenditure and careful supervision of purchases and sales. Vatsyayana also lists sixty-four arts which were to be mastered by women which included besides those given above, reading of books (pustaka-vachanam), preparing medicines, recitation of difficult slokas (durvachakayoga), knowledge of dramas and stories (natakakhyanaka - darsanam), knowledge of languages of different countries (desabhasha-vijnanam) and knowledge of science of physical exercise and development of body (vyayamikanam vidyanam jnanam). Vatsyayana makes it clear that these accomplishments could also be vocational. "A woman gifted with these arts will by these means maintain herself well when her husband is in exile, when she is suffering from some great trouble or has become widowed or even when living in a foreign country". From Vatsyayana again, we learn about the degree of independence enjoyed by a punarbhu or remarried widow. Though she lost religious status, she had more leisure and cultivated a greater knowledge of the arts, took part in sports, excursions, and festivities, which usually the wife in the house missed. It may be noted that all available material regarding education of women pertains to more or less three classes viz., women of royalty or nobility, the courtezans and the nuns. Hence Vatsyayana can be taken as an important source for our knowledge about the accomplishments of women of the middle class. The courtezans occupied a special status in the society and cultivated various types of arts and crafts to distinguish themselves in their profession. In Dasakumaracharita, we get glimpses of education, the members of this class received. At a very young age, they were carefully instructed in the arts of dancing, acting, playing musical instruments, singing, painting, preparing perfumes and flowers, in reading, writing and expressing themselves with elegance and wit, even in outlines of grammar, logic and astrology. They were also taught to play various games with skill and dexterity, how to dress well and show themselves off.

This curriculum of studies is common with the one Vatsyayana prescribes for housewives in the 64 arts and does honour to the country which evolved a system including all the elements for a course of 'Home Science' which any modern women's university would have appreciated. In the following centuries also, the courtesan class tried to keep up the tradition of accomplishments. In Damodara Gupta's Kuttanimatam (9th century A.D.), we find a refined vesya besides specializing in the books on science of sex, studied natyasastra of Bharata, treatises on art, music, vrikshayurveda (treatment of plants) painting, needlework, woodwork, metalwork, clay-modeling, cookery, playing instrumental music, singing and dancing". This age did not lag behind in learned women. Vijjhika, Vikatanitamba, and Avantisundari contributed their mite in enriching Sanskrit poetry. Poet Rajasekhara, who met accomplished princesses, poetesses, daughters of the nobility and the courtezans, exclaimed that culture is connected with the soul and not with the sex. He quotes his wife Avantisundari's opinion thrice in his Kavya-mimamsa giving rise to the assumption that she herself was the author of some work on poetics. Women of Buddistic and Jaina faiths had comparatively more freedom to pursue the path of knowledge because womanhood was no bar to salvation as per their respective precepts. From Asokan times we find women becoming preceptors and nuns and even going outside India for teaching Buddhism. Among the women authors of the Therigatha (stories of nuns) 32 were unmarried women and 18 were married ones. When so large a number of women were leading a life of celibacy, in pursuit of religion and philosophy, it is but natural that the average level of intelligence and education among them must have been fairly high according to Dr. Altekar. Hiuen Tsang has observed that Rajyasri, the sister of Harshavardhana was of great intelligence and distinguished for her knowledge of Sammatiya school of Buddhism. She sat along with the king and seemed to appreciate the learned discourse of Hiuen Tsang on the Mahayana doctrine. We hear of a large number of women in Jaina texts who distinguished themselves as teachers and preachers. We also come across women who dressed in men's attire, putting on armour, equipped with weapons, arms, shields etc.. It is interesting to know that in the 14th century, in Gujarat, the university of Tapogaccha conferred various degrees on women like, Ganini, Pravartini, Mahattara etc. These titles or degrees mean a leader of a Gana, a worker, and a great lady respectively. The names of the women on whom the above degrees were conferred are also mentioned in the work . In Karnataka, we have illustrious examples of queens and princesses who distinguished themselves not only in various fine arts but also in the field of administration. There were great patrons of learning like Attimabbe and Sovaladevi. In the days when sword reigned supreme, these women philanthrophists tried to spread education by giving numerous grants. Attimabbe patronised poet Ranna and popularised Ponna, by getting one thousand copies of his Santipurana copied and distributed free. Her great gift which later generations should remember with

gratitude, is this gift of books, which led to diffusion of learning and raised our cultural level. The heroes, fighters, administrators and builders who strode that world of her time are not remembered; but she is remembered and will be remembered as long as Kannada language lives, because of the writings of her protgs Ponna and Ranna. Women connoisseurs of art and literature were quite common. There used to be learned (vidagdha), skilful in the use of words (vakya-chature), witty and humorous (parihasavinodi), who could appreciate the import of, and sentiment of literature (sahityarasabhavajna), and expert reconteurs (kathana-kovida) women in the palace according to Manasollasa. The Virasaiva movement set in motion liberating influences among which emancipation of women was one. The women apostles like Akkamahadevi, Moligeya Mahadevi, Viradevi, the reciter (uggadisuva kanne), Sivamayidevi, the reconteur of moral stories, and other Siva-saranes (saints), helped in the spread of education by imparting the spiritual message. They reached the poor, the humble and the illiterate. Their aim was to make the people aware of the highest products of the human mind, rather than make them read, write and cipher. Indeed culture, not literacy, was the highest aim of education in ancient India. Basava Purana of Bhima mentions various instruments played by women, like maddale, kahale, flute, tala etc. A detailed survey of different temples of Karnataka reveal that, the educated and accomplished women are very well represented in the sculptures of different periods. In a sculpture of Vijayanagara times, a lady student is engrossed in learning a string-instrument from her teacher. In another sculpture of the same period an elderly village lady doctor is busy examining the pulse of her young patient. A writing lady has been well depicted in a Hoysala sculpture of Belur. Similar instance is also found in Jalasangavi, in Bidar district. In a Chalukyan sculpture of Gadag, a lady student practicing archery is well represented. In a Lakkundi figure of the same period, a young lady is busy in exhibiting her gymnastic skills. Wrestling ladies are carved on a pillar of a Hampi temple. In Pattadkal, a women dancer is shown practising to the tune of accompanied music. Similar sculptures could be observed in almost all the temples of Karnataka. Domingo Paes who visited Vijayanagara in the 16th century attests the evidence of these sculptures by stating that there were women who could wrestle, blow trumpets and horns, and handle sword. He also describes how women were taught to dance inside the palace. There was a big hall with pillars, which had panels that showed positions at the end of a dance. If the students forgot the various poses, they were reminded of them by simply looking at the panels. There was a painted recess where women clung on with their bodies and legs to make their bodies supple. Nuniz who came to Vijayanagara slightly later than Paes, observed that there were women in royal service who could wrestle and others who were astrologers and soothsayers, women who could write all the account of expenses that were incurred inside the gates and there were still others whose duty it was to record all the affairs of the kingdom, and compare their books with

those of the writers outside. He further writes that there were judges, bailiffs and watchmen who guarded the palace and these were all women. Doubtless, there existed an organised system of education which trained all these women for various occupations. We do not have evidence of public schools except the ones mentioned by Ibn Battuta (14th century A.D.), who had noticed 13 schools for girls along with 23 for boys in Honavar, like of which he "had not seen any where". He was a great traveller and had toured through much of the then known world and his observation carries great weight, that too, when he refers to Muslim girls who attended Public Schools without observing purda. The mode of educating women in ancient and medieval Karnataka was mainly domestic. We come across expressions like Oduva Honnamma and Oduva Tirumalamba signifying that there used to be staff to teach through reading classics, and other books. The existence of such teachers and halls in the palaces provided instruction for the nobility and education on similar but modest lines must have existed for women of other classes. This brief survey shows that women took in their stride the changing circumstances and adjusted themselves. In the Vedic age, they were equals of men. In middle ages their education became circumscribed; still those in the higher strata took advantage of education available. Now in modern times with facilities of co-education in all fields they have been doing as well as, if not better than men, provided they get equal opportunity to learn.

WOMEN EDUCATION IN COLONIAL PERIOD:One scholar drives home the point that "The lives of Indian women began to change significantly in the late nineteenth century when the colonial government, critical of the treatment of both The Muslim Rule in India Muslim women, found allies among Indian reformers. Keen to reform their own society, these men agreed that women should be educated and play some role in public life." Indeed, reformist stalwarts like Raja Rammohun Roy formed a coalition power with the British to abolish the social abuse, Sati. Again, Pundit Ishwarchandra Vidyasagar consolidated the way for the remarriage of socially forsaken widows through the Widow Remarriage Act no XV of 1856.He empathetically lamented the deep distress of Indian womanhood, while campaibning for widow- remarraige: "The country, whose male population is unkind, unreligious and unaware of the distinction between the good and the evil and dont care about justice and fairness and where abiding the rituals is the chief preoccupation of religion, should not give birth to girls!" The air of reformation held high the urgency for casting the enlightenment of education on women. The sea or sagar of Vidya, i.e. Knowledge, the erudite and social-activist, Vidyasagar inundated the nation with the deluge of education. He opened 30 schools for girls in to promote the betterment of the feminine community. Similar to him was the Telegu feminism-enthusiast, Kandukuri Virasalingam Pantulu of Andhra Pradesh. In fact, the Bengal Renaissance of Consciousness, Intellectuality and Cultural pursuits, ushered in a phenomenal rebirth or Renaissance of the Consciousness of Women. Well-being amidst the prevalent tyrannical society.

The British government eager to prove their liberal, ethical and pro-modernity attitude resorted to the "woman question". This is the fundamental feminist question concerned with the rights and progress of women. British denounced the existing insignificance of Indian womanhood, and tried to initiate some feminist welfare activities to show their socio-cultural advancement and Western nobility. They took help of the native indigenous modern minds like Raja Rammohan Roy, Ishwarchandra Vidyasagar, Keshubchandra Sen and other eminent Indians. What began as a more or less contest for moral supremacy among the oriental tradition and the Western civilization, was turned into a beneficial move by the benevolent Indian priests of humanism, like Rammohan Roy. The ancient Indian system of learning involved the accretion of the knowledge of the sacred Vedas and Puranic Sastras . The biased caste-system made Vidya available for the Brahmin or the priestly class, the Kshatriya or the warrior class and the Vaishya or the businessman`s class. The Shudras or the non-Aryan class were the socially marginal section, barred from accessing education. Early Vedic society, allowed girls to acquire knowledge and grow into prominence. We can boast of women poets like Lopamudra and Gargi but in the later Vedic society, the orthodox Brahmins introduced blind superstitions, rituals, and rigid customs, which forbade Girls from learning. Only some women hailing from the upper class Vaisnavite families could study the precious Puranas. Islam wanted girls to be knowledgeable about the Quran and accounting tactics. However the austere confinement of girls within the four wall of the interiors of house-prison , minimized the possibilities. We recognize a severe disappointment of the Western educational entrepreneurs with the oppressive social norms. In his Report on the Condition of Education in Bengal (1836), the annoyed William Adam informed with condescension: "A superstitious feeling is alleged to exist in the majority of Hindu families, principally cherished by the women and not discouraged by the men, that a girl taught to read and write will soon after marriage become a widow." Adam was disgusted with the disgraceful fear, that loomed large over the Hindu and Muslim social arena. The overriding tension was that "knowledge of letters" would teach female to oppose the meaningless coercion. The terrible situation made Hindu women absolutely dependent on fathers in childhood, then on husbands in marital life, and ultimately on the sons during the old age. All her life, a woman observed religious practices wishing for the long and safe life of the male members of her family, as per as the custom. So, it was easy to impose the demeaning superstition that a woman contact with learning was harmful. She would welcome the curse of her husband & death, and thereby would turn her into hell. Rassundari Devi , the author of the autobiographical, "Aamar Jiban" and one of the pioneers in indigenous women & writings , poignantly describes her indomitable struggle for reaching the gateways of education: "I was so immersed in the sea of housework that I was not conscious of what I was going through day and night. After some time the desire to learn how to read properly grew very strong in me. I was angry with myself for wanting to read books. Girls did not read. That was one of the bad aspects of the old system. The other aspects were not so bad. People

used to despise women of learning... In fact, older women used to show a great deal of displeasure if they saw a piece of paper in the hands of a woman. But somehow I could not accept this." Rassundari did accomplish in her mission, although it was a slow but steady process. It was obvious that women were so intellectually and emotionally blind, under the cover of false definition of femininity tied on their vision, that one woman was prejudiced against the efforts of the other to attain freedom. On the contrary, true womanhood is only understood and adhered to, when illuminated by education. It is education which makes a female competent enough to handle the issues of her life, to be self-sufficient, to become an able daughter who can have economic independence and support her family, to stand by her husband in difficult times, and to rear up her children with the right education. Certainly, the strength of today & global woman lies in the truth that she is a multi-tasker, invested with such outstanding caliber. Indian society thus deliberately practiced conspicuous gender-equality. There sprouted a lot of hostility from the conservative lawmakers of society against the new innovations, like advent of education for women. And hence it was really tough for the colonial government as well as the interested reformers, to give a concrete shape to their dreams. The Calcutta School Society was built in 1816 to improve the status of female education. Radha Kanta Deb, the secretary of this society, was committed towards the cause and helped the coming up of the Calcutta Female Juvenile Society (founded in 1819 by Baptists). In 1821, the School Society asked Miss Mary Anne Cooke, who came down to Calcutta to manage the task. The Church Missionary Society appointed Miss Cooke for the purpose. The resultant was the establishment of thirty schools for "respectable" Hindu girls. The schools expanded their work under the finances funded by the Hindu aristocracy. However the endeavor, did not bear fruits, as the elite class intentionally distanced themselves from the institutions where the poor crowded tempted by gifts of clothing and other articles. The Church Missionary Society tasted greater success in South India. The first boarding school for girls came up in Tirunelveli in 1821. By 1840 the Scottish Church Society constructed six schools with roll strength of 200 Hindu girls. When it was mid-century, the missionaries in Madras had included under its banner, 8,000 girls. J. E. Drinkwater Bethune was a legal member of the Governor-General`s Council and President of the Council of Education in British India. Calcutta witnessed the contribution of J.E.Drinkwater in the creation of the Hindu Bahka Vidyalaya in 1849. The curriculum was secular and the medium of instruction was Bengali. Pandit Vidyasagar was entrusted with the responsibility of the school secretary. Bethune motivated various renowned families to take part in this venture. By 1850 there were eighty students, going to the school. In 1863 the school was populated with ninety-three girls, ranging from five to seven years in age. Portions of them were related to the "lowest class", a data that exhibited the developing circulation of education.

Initially the Indian social-correctors and the British supervisors went into a dispute over the course of operations. The Indian intelligentsia did not approve of the first girls` school, founded by the Missionaries. It was unfortunate that until the grants were afforded by the government and the Wood Despatch, 1854, in the second half of the nineteenth century. The Wood& Despatch, launched in July 1854, drew the government & to the importance of placing the means of acquiring useful and practical knowledge within reach of the great mass of the people & Wood & Despatch, particularly emphasized on the need for women & education: "The importance of female education in India cannot be over-rated; and we have observed with pleasure the evidence which is now afforded of an increased desire on the part of many of the natives to give a good education to their daughters. By this means a far greater proportional impulse is imparted to the educational and moral tone of the people than by the education of men. To conclude, women & education started spreading its wings. The outcome was the evolution of the nineteenth century generation of the "new woman". The latter half of the 19th century started seeing the rise of Indian womanhood to freedom and assertion. Women used to attend schools and colleges, though in limited numbers, receive education and assume the respectable professional roles of teachers and doctors. Saraladevi Chaudhurani, Kamini Roy, Lady Abala Bose, Pandita Ramabai were the celebrated examples of the "new woman" of the times. The new women voiced their feelings on contemporary affairs, penned their arguments in instruments of expression, such as the journals or magazines, and even participated in mainstream nationalist politics, to represent the Indian womanhood. Women established their presence in almost all the areas, which were previously the monopoly of men.

WOMEN EDUCATION IN CONTEMPORARY INDIA:According Indias constitution, women are legal citizens of the country and have equal rights with men (Indian Parliament). Because of lack of acceptance from the male dominant society, Indian women suffer immensely. Women are responsible for baring children, yet they are malnourished and in poor health. Women are also overworked in the field and complete the all of the domestic work. Most Indian women are uneducated. Although the countrys constitution says women have equal status to men, women are powerless and are mistreated inside and outside the home. India is a society where the male is greatly revered. Therefore women, especially the young girls, get very little respect and standing in this country. The women of the household are required to prepare the meal for the men, who eat most of the food. Only after the males are finished eating, can the females eat. Typically the leftover food is meager, considering the families are poor and have little to begin with. This creates a major problem with malnutrition, especially for pregnant or nursing women. Very few women seek medical care while pregnant because it is thought of as

a temporary condition. This is one main reason why Indias maternal and infant mortality rates are so high. Starting from birth, girls do not receive as much care and commitment from their parents and society as a boy would. For example a new baby girl would only be breast fed for a short period of time, barely supplying her with the nutrients she needs. This is so that the mother can get pregnant as soon as possible in hopes of a son the next time (Coonrod). Even though the constitution guarantees free primary schooling to everyone up to 14 years of age (Indian Parliament), very few females attend school. Only about 39 percent of all women in India actually attend primary schools. There are several reasons why families choose not to educate their daughters. One reason is that parents get nothing in return for educating their daughters. Another reason is that all the females in a household have the responsibility of the housework. So even though education does not financially burden the family, it costs them the time she spends at school when she could be doing chores. In addition, even if a woman is educated, especially in the poorer regions, there is no hope for a job. Most jobs women perform are agricultural or domestic which do not require a formal education. Another reason girls are not educated is because families are required to supply a chaste daughter to the family of her future husband. With over two-thirds of teachers in India being men and students predominately male, putting daughters in school, where males surround them all day could pose a possible threat to their virginity (Coonrod). Because women are not educated and cannot hold a prestigious job, they take on the most physically difficult and undesirable jobs. A typical day for a woman in an agricultural position lasts from 4am to 8pm with only an hour break in the middle. Compared to a mans day, which is from 5am to 10am and then from 3pm to 5pm. Most women are overworked with no maternity leave or special breaks for those who are pregnant. Plus women do the majority of the manual labor that uses a lot of energy compared to the men who do mostly machine operating (Coonrod). Even though women work twice as many hours as men, the men say that women eat food and do nothing. This is mainly because the work the women perform does not require a lot of skill and are smaller tasks.

STATUS OF WOMEN IN INDIA:When we talk of status, we understand that it implies the social and legal position of an individual or, an individuals standing vis--vis others. I do wonder why, in a country where women were at once time, ( and even today ) worshipped as incarnations of goddesses, there should be any problem of status for women. However, this is the irony of the fate of Indian women that their status which should have been an identity to reckon with, has become a topic of debate. This situation has emerged in India during the period of Muslim domination wherein was set the purdah system with all its concomitants. This system so deteriorated, as time passed that the status of women became an issue to be discussed on several platforms. The last few decades have seen a mushroom growth of

organizations struggling to get for women their dues, and these organizations have also made great headway in this direction, but, how far has this helped in the improvement of the status of women in the home, in society in office, or in the country as a whole, is still a debatable issue. The last few decades have no doubt seen women coming out in the open and joining the mainstream of development of the country. Ever, it is to be seen whether this has helped them in achieving a status for themselves, in the minds of people at large. Can we consider women now equal to men in status, at least those who are working with men? No, I really dont think this has been achieved. Women are today, found in every field of mans working, and several have even become economically independent but has even that enhanced our status? On the countrary, with this onward march on the one hand, we can see a mushroom growth of crimes against women, never heard of ever before. At one time a young girl only was an item of lust for men, but with this advent of so called womens lib, infant girls of four to five years and even less, or ladies of sixty and above are becoming objects of mans lust. It is high time that we analyse the cause of all this, for if our achievements on the one side result is such chaos on the other, we will have to weigh the advantages accrued to women against the holocaust set for them. The last fifty years the Independence of India, we have seen women coming out to be educated, to do jobs, to make careers, yet the perception that women are second to men has not been erased. Now thus it is time to study and analyse the anomaly that, though she work shoulder to shoulder with men, she still remain second - why ? We women are fighting in the wrong way. Why do we, women feel that it is only by entering into the domain of men can we bring succour to our pained nerves, and does experience of the last fifty years justify this by our achievement in the field of stauts? I feel that, the more we are going out, the more we are prone to dangers, and the more we are destroying our images, and the more we are making men feel adamant against us, women. This is because we enter their domains, thus causing of working outside the home but that should not be our sole objective, because when we do that, we are trampling on mens toes. Our womens objective should be to excel in our own domain, instead of entering the domain of men. Our field of work is no mean task, it is to bring up the family and rear children, bringing up a happy Nation and a happy future. We should not consider this as a meagre task, if we have such a tremendous task, then why do we have to try to emulate men and get into their avenues of work. I feel that even though continuing to achieve a greater spectrum for ourselves to work upon, we should also need to change our attitudes to our targets. Happiness for women obviously does not lie in emulating men, but in doing our own tasks with excellence and continuing our onward march towards equality with men in status. We must remember that, when we educate a woman, we educate a family. So this is clear that, our present march forward should continue but

our attitudes to the matter should change for, our status will not change only by entering the world of men, but by creating a niche for ourselves, as best as we can. I do not vouchsafe that women should not enter jobs etc, no, it is not so, but if we expect only this to produce results, Im afraid, the past experience of fifty years has shown that this is not enough. We must realize that, first and foremost, how many of us women can become financially independent, and if at all we do so, the point to be then considered is that after achieving financial independence, do we women start feeling equal to men, or, do start getting treatment like men? If not then women are putting in a fruitless effort. Are we getting any extra honour and respect at home in society, and from the would at large, if not then what have we done, where have we gone wrong? Our pursuit of status for ourselves is obviously not giving the desired results, so I feel that we women need to change our attitudes in order to achieve our goals, and the men too must be made to feel differently. Men have to feel that women are their equal partners, only with different attributes and different assignments. On the other hand, women must understand and different assignments. On the other hand, women must understand that, by emulating men we will not become their equals, instead, they will start taking us as their rivals and so never cooperate with us. We must realize that our women status depends a lot on how we carry ourselves in this male dominated society. Two people having different assignments can be equal only if they have a clear perception of their roles. By interchanging or exchanging roles we achieve nothing tangible, we only trample each others feet, and call for an altercation instead of amity. So now, after five decades of trying to emulate men it is time for us women to take stock of the situation and make a more rigorous effort to fight for out rights and equality with men with men with a changed attitude, and not only a change of assignment or appearance. Two people with different assignment can surely be equals so, why do we women have to hanker for stepping into mens shoes and take up the roles of men. Let us now change our strategy of the struggle and not only stamp men but create for ourselves a new horizon. Women have to play an important role in the development of the country. If we want to make democracy successful, women must be educated. They are the builders of happy homes. It is in their lap that the children receive their first lesson. As the mothers are, so will be the children. Moreover, certain professions are most suitable to the nature of women. Women make the best nurses. Primary education can be given only by women. There are many other professions in which women can play a very important part. In nutshell, the progress of the country depends upon female education. We must give up our conservative out-look. The need of female education was never so great as it is to-day. All now accept the necessity of giving education to women. But there are differences of opinion on the type of education which should be given to them. Indeed, it is a very important issue. Should boys and girls be given the same kind of education? Or should there be different types of

education for boys and girls? If we decide to give different types of education to girls, then of what type should it be? These are the questions which must be answered. Wrong type of education can cause greater harm than good to our girls. Some feel that women should be given a different kind of education from the one given to boys. Women have to discharge their duties as good mothers as well as citizens of a free democratic country. Their education should be such as may enable them to run their homes efficiently-and make them good mothers. Their sphere of activity is entirely different from that of men. So must be their education. However, education in citizenship is also a must for them for they too are citizens of a democratic country. They must also be taught to prevent the misuse of religion for political purposes. They must all shun violence for it leads to terrorism. They must do their best to prevent the disintegration of their country. Another question is whether there should be co-education or not. Opinions differ widely on this issue. There are men who strongly advocate co-education at all stages. On the other extreme are those who are deadly against it. But the truth lies in between these two extremes. Boys and girls may be educated together in primary and university classes. But co-education in high school and inter classes is full of dangers. We should take full advantage of co-education as well as safeguard ourselves against its evil effects. This will be the best policy for giving education to women. The theory that women are inferior to men, physically, mentally and morally, has been proved wrong. The deeds of bravery, courage and velour of Maharani Luxmi Bai of Jhansi make the bravest of the brave bow their heads before her name. Every Indian takes pride in the late Sarojini Naidu. Her sacrifices and her outstanding services to the motherland are a source of inspiration to all. In recent times, late Mrs. Indira Gandhi impressed all by her courage and determination. As a leader, she acquired an international status. Today, Indian women are trying to become economically self-sufficient. Our constitution has provided that our women shall have equal opportunities with men in the fields of education, employment and social, economic and political opportunities. They are entitled to equal wages with men for equal work and have been given the right to take up progressive occupations and professions. Though the position of women in village communities has not yet improved much, in urban areas women are enjoying high position in every walk of life. They are taking to careers which were considered the monopoly of men like the Police and Administrative services. Indeed, society runs on two wheels. Both the wheels must be equally strong to run smoothly. although legally and theoretically women is now recognized as the social equal of man, but the institutions of caste, the patriarchal family, religious mores and the prevailing value system are still surcharged due to the spirit of male dominance. However, women are being educated in increasing numbers. Let all of us give up our fears of, and prejudices against, female education.

All the impediments must be removed from the way of their education. Let no girl remain without it, for educated women would be much better citizens of their country.

THE ROOT CAUSES FOR LOW LITERACY AMONG WOMEN IN INDIA

Women education is a multi-dimensional phenomenon. No single factor or cause can be held responsible for very low literacy rate of women in India. Subsequently it is associated with combination of many factors including social, cultural, economic, educational, demographic, political and administrative and so on. The following are the some of the important factors which could be attributed for the present poor state of affairs of womenfolk in education. The Lower Enrolment: The lower enrolment of girls in schools is one of the foundational factors which stand as stumbling block for women empowerment in India. Reliable sources indicate that more than 50 % of the Non-Starters (those who have never been to school) are girls. According to the latest statistics, two out of every ten girls in the age group of 6-11 are still not enrolled in schools. Higher drop-out rate among girls from schools: The incidence and prevalence of drop outs among girls especially in rural, tribal and slums areas seem to be quite high. According to available sources, occurrence of drop-out and stagnation amongst girls is nearly twice that of boys all over India Girl Child as Second Mother: In many families girl children play the role of second mother by shouldering the responsibilities of household work such as looking after the sibling, fetching water, collecting firewood, bringing fodder for cattle, cleaning and cooking etc. In rural India especially in poor families this traditional sex role makes girl child handicapped and conditioned by the attitude of mother and the family and discourages girl child to go school as it becomes secondary Bonded Labour System: This social evil is a quite discouraging phenomena which stand as barrier for girls education in rural areas for the underprivileged families of washer men and agricultural labour , scheduled caste and scheduled tribes. Cast System as a Barrier; Children belonging to low caste families are forced to learn skills and work ways and not encouraged to go to school due to various factors in the sphere of strict instruction /threat from high caste communities for their selfish motives of keeping them as domestic servants and child labourers in the farms or factory. Dowry as cordon: Dowry system and other social practices act as main causes of the neglect of the girl child and discrimination against girl child including the deprivation of right of education. In many families especially poor and down-trodden think that if their daughters are educated more, they have to accumulate more assets and properties to provide as dowry in large proportion at the time of marriage, so prefer rather to either stop their children with average

education and so on but never higher education. This prevails more in underprivileged families and communities Child Labour Practice: A large segment of child population in India is engaged in child labour practices. According to UN sources India is the most child labour populous nation in the globe with more than 50 million child labourers indulged in beedi works , carpet making , bricks, mining , quarrying ,glass, bangles, match and fireworks, gem polishing ,handloom works. zari, embroidery ,coir industry, domestic works, construction etc. In most of these industries girl children are preferred for high productivity and low cost. Poor School Environment for girls: In general the school environment for girls in India is not really interesting and encouraging. The subjects taught in schools are also not related to the environment of girl children. The methods of teaching are mostly out dated, rigid and uninteresting. There are still hundreds of schools with poor basic amenities such as drinking water, latrine and toilet facilities, improper building, and inadequate number of teachers especially female teachers preferable for any parents for safety of their girl children from different types of exploitation and abuse. Female age at marriage: There is high association of female literacy with female age at marriage. By and large the female age at marriage of 18 ( recently 21 years ) as prescribed by various legislations not at all followed in India .It is very much ignored and neglected by the families of parents with low literacy and illiteracy background. This obnoxious practice discourages female children to continue their schooling and higher education as they enter into family life at the early age which is not advisable from the physical and mental health point of view and also of social development. Inferiority, subservience and domesticity: The female child in Indian culture especially in rural, tribal and poor families is expected to develop the qualities of inferiority; subservience and domesticity which place sever limitations on her education and development Poverty as a Barrier: In many poverty stricken families, children especially girls are considered as economic assets as they bring income for livelihood as well to save from economic crises due to death or incapacity of parents (sick/ handicapped/aged) Ineffective Law Enforcing Machinery: Indian constitution and various legislations pertaining to education to children assure free and compulsory education all children of this nation but unfortunately the enforcement machinery fail to discharge its duties and responsibilities to the satisfaction of the public interest and welfare of women Demographic Factors: The high population growth rate, rapid urbanisation, migration etc also attribute immensely for the poor literacy level of women and girls in India

Poor Political Will and Conviction: Government officials, policy makers, politicians etc of our country have neither political will nor conviction for the empowerment of women in general.

REMEDIAL MEASURES FOR IMPROVING THE LITERACY LEVEL OF WOMEN IN INDIA

The following measures can be considered for bringing phenomenal change in the plight womens education and empowerment in India Since the prevailing situation of poor or less enrolment of girls in schools closes the doors for development and prosperity of future generation of women, concerted efforts must be initiated jointly by the government, parents and civil society to achieve universal enrolment for girls without any compromise. The enrolment can be made even mandatory for every girls by the government in the realm of compulsory education. . The Ministry of Education both at Centre and State level should work out strategic steps to stop firmly the ongoing high drop outs among girls especially in rural, tribal and slums areas with the serious involvement of voluntary organisations in every locality to realize zero drop-out among girls. The poverty stricken families can be identified through proper research and necessary poverty alleviation services be provided to strengthen the income thereby to enable the families to send their children to schools and colleges without much financial difficulties Bonded Child labour and Child labour practice must be abolished with strict administrative measures and the relieved children form bondage should be integratedinto schools with suitable defence social mechanism. Appropriate steps should be taken by the educational authorities with the participation of communities in order to bring the girl children to the main stream of education and development at every level including family and community. The female child in every Indian family irrespective of socio-economic status should be moulded to overcome the challenges of inferiority; subservience and domesticity which place sever limitations on her education and development. Every family irrespective its socio-cultural and economic background can take it a challenge to bring up their girl children as dignified human being with empowerment in physical , mental, economic and social dimensions of life. The Midday meal scheme and other educational supportive services like free text books, Note books , Fee uniforms , Free Bicycles, Free bus , scholarships Free bus pass and so on as done in the state of Tamil Nadu can be provided in all states and union territories to lift up the literacy level among girls

As social evils like dowry, child marriage , caste system and other practices deprive rights of education for children belonging to poor and underprivileged families and communities, they should eliminated through well-designed packages of mass awareness programmes and social welfare measures with full support of public, political parties, NGOs and government agencies. The electronic and print media can play significant role in building a good and positive image about girls and women in general in the society by giving no focus for such advertisements and news fetching commercial gain at the cost of depicting women as an object. This would help in changing the society s attitudes towards girls and their roles to treat every girl or woman as human being with self respect and dignity. Government, voluntary sector and philanthropic organisations and individuals should come forward to provide free education for poor girls and provide free hostel facilities for girls studying in schools and colleges in every state of India. This will certainly encourage children of poor families to pursue good and higher education without much impediments The schools of social work, departments of women studies, Women Universities and other educational institutions in hand with NGOs and social service organisations such as Rotary Clubs , Lions Clubs , women lib organisations associations can work together to improve the educational status of the womenfolk in this country on mutual respect and understanding. The parents of children belonging to poor, underprivileged families must be specially educated with proper social formula to help them to understand the significance of education for their girl children as foundation for empowerment Government, NGOs and public should work hand in hand to implement the minimum age at marriage (21and above) Awareness should be created to institutionalise it as a traditional practice cut acrossing castes, religions, community etc. Government officials, policy makers, political parties and others should have adequate political will and conviction to empower women in India without double standard mind The law enforcing machinery should be made really effective with efficient monitoring vigilant system to implement the constitutional and legislative provisions and administrative measures to assure free and compulsory education for all children of this nation without any gender discrimination.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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