Jesse Timmons Period 5

6.1 I. Memory A. Memorythe system by which we retain information and bring it to mind B. Memory encodingtaking information in 1. Converting information into a form we can store 2. Acousticallyencoded by sound 3. Visuallyencoded by mental image 4. Semanticallyencoded by meaning C. Memory storageretaining information in memory D. Memory retrieval 1. Accessing stored information to make it available to our consciousness 2. Availability may be a function of retrieval cues 3. Encoding specificity principleretrieval better when surrounding cues similar to those present when information learned 4. Context-dependent memory effectretrieval best when in same setting 5. State-dependent memory effectretrieval best when in same physiological or psychological condition Memory StagesThree-Stage Model A. Sensory memory 1. Very brief sensory information storage 2. Sensory registertemporary storage device for sensations 3. Iconic memory a. Holds sensory visual images b. Lasts fraction of a second 4. Eidetic imagery 5. Echoic memory a. Holds sensory auditory input b. Lasts three or four seconds B. Short-term memory 1. Holds information up to 30 seconds 2. Most information stored acoustically 3. Working memory because we are actively processing 4. Magic number: 7 units can be stored 5. Chunkingmore remembered when restructured into units 6. Maintenance rehearsalrepeating information to keep longer in STM 7. Three-component model of memory a. Phonological loopstores verbal/speech-based information b. Visuospatial sketchpadstores visual and spatial information c. Central executivecoordinates both and interfaces with LTM C. Long-term memory (LTM) 1. Retains information for a longer period of time 2. Essentially unlimited in capacity 3. Consolidation a. Converting less stable STM information into LTM b. Needs at least twenty-four hours after learning to occur c. Both REM sleep and slow-wave sleep crucial to this process 4. Information stored on basis of meaning 5. Elaborative rehearsalfocus is on meaning of material 6. Semantic network model a. Leading model regarding LTM organization b. Information held via interlinking concepts c. Spreading activationone concept triggers recall of related others 7. Levels-of-processing theory

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Information held best depending on depth of level at which it is encoded or processed b. Elaborative rehearsal more effective than maintenance rehearsal The Contents of Long-Term Memory A. Declarative memory 1. Knowing that 2. Takes conscious effort to bring to mind 3. Categories a. Semantic memorycompare to our storehouse of information b. Episodic memorypersonal experiences, personal story c. Retrospective memorymemory of past events d. Prospective memorykeeping in mind future events B. Procedural memory 1. Knowing how 2. Engaged without conscious effort 3. Less easy to explain verbally 4. Involves motor or performance skills 5. Types of procedural memory a. Implicit memorymemory evoked without intentional effort b. Explicit memoryintentional effort needed to bring it to mind The Reliability of Long-Term Memory A. Constructionist theory 1. Memories not a perfect copy of past experience 2. Memories created from integrated pieces of stored information 3. Possibility that memories can be distorted B. Flashbulb memories 1. Vivid, lasting, highly detailed memories 2. Derived from extremely salient past events 3. Also may be inaccurate, distorted C. Eyewitness testimony 1. Possible that it is inaccurate, distorted 2. Misinformation effectsuggestions lead to inaccuracies in recall 3. Accuracy involves the following factors: a. Ease of recallslower response indicates less accurate b. Degree of confidencemore confident eyewitness not necessarily more accurate c. General knowledge about a subjectmore knowledgeable witness is more accurate regarding that particular subject d. Racial identificationmore errors made when identification crosses racial lines e. Types of questionsleading, suggestive questions result in more errors from witnesses than open-ended questions Are Recovered Memories Credible? A. Often a lack of corroborating evidence B. Some memories may be genuine; some surely are false or distorted C. Very difficult to differentiate between false vs. true

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6.2 I. Why Do We Forget? A. Some people more forgetful than others B. Variety of explanations for normal forgetting Decay Theory A. Belief that memory is a trace that fades over time B. Hermann Ebbinghaus (1885) used nonsense syllables to test himself and memory C. Ebbinghaus forgetting curvemost information lost shortly after learning (66 %) D. Savings methodmuch less time to relearn forgotten information E. Massed vs. spaced practice effectmore information retained when learning sessions spread out over time F. Weakness in decay theory:

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1. Forgetting over time is quite uneven 2. Seems to be related to meaningfulness of original material Interference Theory A. Belief that memory loss is due to occurrence of other similar events B. Retroactive interferencewhat learned now interferes with previous learning C. Proactive interferencewhat learned now interferes with what will be learned in the future D. Steps to minimize memory disruption from interference: 1. Sleep after learning 2. Practice new information when first learned 3. Schedule breaks between learning sessions 4. Avoid studying similar topics in close succession E. Serial position effect 1. Tendency to recall first and last items in a list best 2. Interference most likely to occur with items in middle 3. Primacy effectrecalling items best when they are given first 4. Recency effectrecalling items best when they are given last Retrieval Theory A. Forgetting results from breakdown in retrieving stored memories B. Encoding failure 1. Memory cannot be retrieved because information was never originally stored 2. We encode only as much information as we need 3. Distinct, unique events tend to be remembered 4. Similar events tend to be encoded as a group (based on common features) so more difficult to distinguish among these C. Lack of retrieval cues 1. Information encoded but not accessible 2. Insufficient distinctive cues to help us retrieve 3. Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenonpartial recall; may be associated with general word retrieval difficulty Motivated Forgetting A. Sigmund Freudmemories are not forgotten, just kept hidden (repression) B. Repressed information is threatening or unpleasant C. Repressiondefense mechanism that helps protect from overwhelming anxiety D. Concept is controversial since there is evidence that refutes Measuring Memory A. What is remembered may in part depend on how it is assessed B. Recall taskreproduce information that has been stored in memory 1. Free recallremember as much as possible; order does not matter 2. Serial recallrecall items or numbers in a particular order 3. Paired-associates recallafter word pairs are memorized, one word is presented C. Recognition task 1. Select correct answer from among choices given 2. Recognition memory nearly always better than recall AmnesiaSevere Type of Memory Loss A. Types of amnesia 1. Retrograde amnesia a. Loss of memory regarding past events b. May involve disruption of consolidation process c. Loss is greatest for more recent events 2. Anterograde amnesiadifficulty or inability to store new memories 3. Childhood amnesia a. No recollection of earliest childhood years b. May be due to lack of sufficient organization of pre-verbal memories in the brain or immature brain structures for LTM B. Causes of amnesiaphysical or psychological 1. Physical causes a. Blows to the head, degenerative brain diseases b. Blood vessel blockage, infectious diseases, alcoholism c. Early detection critical to successful treatment

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Psychological causes (dissociative amnesia)memory is traumatic, too disturbing for conscious awareness

6.3 I. Brain Structure in Memory: Where Do Memories Reside? A. Karl Lashleysearch for engram 1. Believed to be the physical trace or record of a memory 2. Research on ratsremoving portions of cortex 3. Rats still retained memory, regardless of what removed 4. Conclusion is memory is stored throughout brain B. Neuronal networkscurrent technology reveals memory stored in intricate circuitry of neural constellations C. Hippocampus 1. Portion of limbic system in brain 2. Responsible for converting STM into long-term declarative (semantic, episodic) memory 3. Is not involved in procedural memory processes 4. Temporary storage only of new declarative memories D. Other brain structures 1. Thalamusif damaged, results in amnesia 2. Amygdalahelps encode emotional experiences Strengthening Connections Between Neurons: The Key to Forming Memories A. Research on sea snail by Eric Kandel B. Shows memory formation involves biochemical changes C. Long-term potentiation 1. Connections between nerve cells become stronger as a result of repeated stimulation 2. Stronger synaptic connections mean neuron communication easier 3. LTP believed to be a factor in STM to LTM conversion Genetic Bases of Memory A. STM-LTM transformation in brain requires various proteins B. Production of these proteins regulated by certain genes

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6.4 I. Using Mnemonics to Improve Memory A. Mnemonicdevice for improving memory B. Types of mnemonics 1. Acronyms and acrosticsuse first letter of a series of words to form a word or a verse 2. Popular sayings and rhymes 3. Visual cues, visual imageryleave a visual note or create an associated visual image 4. Chunkingrecombine larger amounts of information into a useable or familiar unit General Suggestions for Improving Memory A. Pay attentionfocus on task, have quiet surroundings B. Practiceespecially with elaborative rehearsal C. Use external memory aidsa reminder note is fine! D. Link time-based tasks to external cues E. Mentally rehearseplan and visualize your tasks in advance F. Enhance context-dependent effects G. Control stress H. Adopt healthy habitshealthy diet and exercise help memory

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