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The binary signal is encoded using rectangular pulse amplitude modulation with polar
non-return-to-zero code
For a given data signaling rate, i.e., bit rate, the NRZ code requires only half the
bandwidth required by the Manchester code.
NRZ-Level itself is not a synchronous system but rather an encoding that can be used in
either a synchronous or asynchronous transmission environment, that is, with or without
an explicit clock signal involved. Because of this, it is not strictly necessary to discuss
how the NRZ-Level encoding acts "on a clock edge" or "during a clock cycle" since all
transitions happen in the given amount of time representing the actual or implied
integral clock cycle. The real question is that of sampling--the high or low state will be
received correctly provided the transmission line has stabilized for that bit when the
physical line level is sampled at the receiving end.
However, it is handy to see NRZ transitions as happening on the trailing (falling) clock
edge in order to compare NRZ-Level to other encoding methods, such as the mentioned
Manchester code, which requires clock edge information (is the XOR of the clock and
NRZ, actually) and to see the difference between NRZ-Mark and NRZ-Inverted.
Contents [edit] Unipolar Non-Return-to-Zero Level
Main article: On-off keying
"One" is represented by one physical level (such as a DC bias on the transmission line).
In clock language, "one" transitions or remains high on the trailing clock edge of the
previous bit and "zero" transitions or remains low on the trailing clock edge of the
previous bit, or just the opposite. This allows for long series without change, which
makes synchronization difficult. One solution is to only send bytes with lots of
transitions, see RLL.
The diagram shows a line representing the physical zero below the biased logical zero--
showing the less usual case of "one" being a high voltage.
In clock language, in bipolar NRZ-Level the voltage "swings" from positive to negative
on the trailing edge of the previous bit clock cycle.
An example of this is RS-232, where "one" is -5V to -12V and "zero" is +5 to +12V.
Non-Return-to-Zero Mark
In clock language, the physical level transitions on the trailing clock edge of the
previous bit to represent a "one." No transition occurs for a "zero."
In clock language, the level transitions on the trailing clock edge of the previous bit to
represent a "zero."
This "change-on-zero" is used by High-Level Data Link Control and USB. They both
avoid long periods of no transitions (even when the data contains long sequences of 1
bits) by using zero-bit insertion. HDLC transmitters insert a 0 bit after five contiguous 1
bits (except when transmitting the frame delimiter '01111110'). USB transmitters insert a
0 bit after six consecutive 1 bits. The receiver at the far end uses every transition -- both
from 0 bits in the data and these extra non-data 0 bits -- to maintain clock
synchronization. The receiver otherwise ignores these non-data 0 bits.
Also, NRZI might take the opposite convention, as in USB signalling, when in Mode 1
(transition when signalling zero and steady level when signalling one). The transition
occurs on the leading edge of the clock for the given bit. This distinguishes NRZI from
NRZ-Mark.
However, even NRZI can have long series of zeros (or ones if transitioning on "zero"),
so clock recovery can be difficult unless some other encoding is used on top of it (such
as RLL). Manchester encoding always reflects a clock edge, but it is less efficient than
NRZI.
NRZI encoding is used for recording on magnetic tape and for data transmission in the
standard USB. Note that USB injects a transition if 6 bits were the same.
El acrónimo SDLC (del inglés Syncronous Data Link Controller, controlador
de enlace de datos síncrono) se utiliza para nombrar el protocolo diseñado
por IBM para enlaces síncronos a través de una línea para la capa 2 del
modelo OSI de comunicaciones. Como su nombre implica, es un protocolo
síncrono, lo que supone la transmisión de la señal de reloj con los datos.
In 1975, IBM developed the first bit-oriented protocol, SDLC. This de facto standard
has been adopted by ISO as High-Level Data Link Control (HDLC) and by ANSI as
Advanced Data Communication Control Procedures (ADCCP). The latter standards
added features such as the Asynchronous Balanced Mode.
The parity bit can either make the number of "one" bits
between any start/stop pair odd, or even, or it can be omitted.
Odd parity is more reliable because it assures that there will
always be at least one data transition, and this permits many
UARTs to resynchronize.
[edit] History
Some early telegraph schemes used variable-length pulses and
rotating clockwork mechanisms to transmit alphabetic
characters. The first UART-like devices (with fixed-length
pulses) were rotating mechanical switches (commutators).
These sent 5-bit Baudot codes for mechanical teletypewriters,
and replaced morse code. Later, ASCII required a seven bit
code. When IBM built computers in the early 1960s with 8-bit
characters, it became customary to store the ASCII code in 8
bits.
[edit] Structure
A UART usually contains the following components:
• Manchester code
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Contents
[hide]
• 1 Features
• 2 Description
o 2.1 Manchester encoding as phase-shift keying
o 2.2 Conventions for representation of data
• 3 Shortcomings
• 4 References
• 5 Further reading
• AMI
• 2B1Q
• 4B5B
• 4B3T
• 6b/8b encoding
• 8b/10b encoding
• 64b/66b encoding
• B3ZS
• B8ZS
• CMI
• Conditioned Diphase
• Eight-to-Fourteen Modulation (EFM) used in
Compact Disc
• EFMPlus used in DVD
• HDB3
• NRZ - Non-return-to-zero
• NRZI - Non-return-to-zero, inverted
• Manchester code (also variants Differential
Manchester & Biphase mark code)
• Miller encoding (also known as Delay encoding, and
has variant Modified Miller encoding)
• MLT-3 Encoding
• Modified AMI
• RZ - Return-to-zero
• Hybrid Ternary Codes
• Surround by complement (SBC)
• TC-PAM
•
• Universal asynchronous
receiver/transmitter
• From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
• (Redirected from Universal asynchronous receiver
transmitter)
• Jump to: navigation, search
• "DUART" redirects here. For the castle on the Island
of Mull, see Duart Castle.
• A universal asynchronous receiver/transmitter
(usually abbreviated UART and pronounced /ˈjuːɑrt/)
is a type of "asynchronous receiver/transmitter", a
piece of computer hardware that translates data
between parallel and serial forms. UARTs are
commonly used in conjunction with other
communication standards such as EIA RS-232.
• A UART is usually an individual (or part of an)
integrated circuit used for serial communications over
a computer or peripheral device serial port. UARTs are
now commonly included in microcontrollers. A dual
UART or DUART combines two UARTs into a single
chip. Many modern ICs now come with a UART that
can also communicate synchronously; these devices
are called USARTs.
• Contents
• [hide]
• 1 Definition
o 1.1 Transmitting and receiving serial data
o 1.2 Asynchronous receive and transmit
o 1.3 Serial to Parallel Algorithm
• 2 History
• 3 Structure
• 4 Special Receiver Conditions
o 4.1 Overrun Error
o 4.2 Underrun Error
o 4.3 Framing Error
o 4.4 Parity Error
o 4.5 Break Condition
• 5 See also
• 6 External links
[hide]
• 1 Advantages
• 2 Alternate Mark Inversion
• 3 Error detection
• 4 Other T1 encoding schemes
• 5 References
• 6 See also
The DC component of the encoded signal is not dependent on the data and therefore
carries no information, allowing the signal to be conveyed conveniently by media (e.g.
Ethernet) which usually do not convey a DC component.
[edit] Description
Extracting the original data from the received encoded bit (from Manchester as per
802.3):
original data = clock XOR Manchester value
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
Summary:
Manchester code always has a transition at the middle of each bit period and may
(depending on the information to be transmitted) have a transition at the start of the
period also. The direction of the mid-bit transition indicates the data. Transitions at the
period boundaries do not carry information. They exist only to place the signal in the
correct state to allow the mid-bit transition. Although this allows the signal to be self-
clocking, it doubles the bandwidth requirement compared to NRZ coding schemes (or
see also NRZI).
In the Thomas convention, the result is that the first half of a bit period matches the
information bit and the second half is its complement.
Manchester encoding is a special case of binary phase-shift keying (BPSK), where the
data controls the phase of a square wave carrier whose frequency is the data rate. Such a
signal is easy to generate.
To control the bandwidth used, a filter can reduce the bandwidth to as low as 1Hz per
bit/second without loss of information in transmission. In radio transmission, the
encoded signal may also be modulated with a carrier wave; however, the property of
1Hz per bit/second is preserved.
The first of these was first published by G. E. Thomas in 1949 and is followed by
numerous authors (e.g., Tanenbaum). It specifies that for a 0 bit the signal levels will be
Low-High (assuming an amplitude physical encoding of the data) - with a low level in
the first half of the bit period, and a high level in the second half. For a 1 bit the signal
levels will be High-Low.
The second convention is also followed by numerous authors (e.g., Stallings) as well as
by IEEE 802.4 (token bus) and lower speed versions of IEEE 802.3 (Ethernet)
standards. It states that a logic 0 is represented by a High-Low signal sequence and a
logic 1 is represented by a Low-High signal sequence.
[edit] Shortcomings
Manchester code needs twice the bandwidth of asynchronous communications, and the
signal spectrum is much wider. Most high-speed communication now uses encoding
schemes with better coding performance.
A very similar encoding scheme, with the logical positions reversed, is also used and is
often referred to as pseudoternary encoding. This encoding is otherwise identical.
Line code
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For digital data transport line coding is often used. Line coding consists of representing
the digital signal to be transported, by an amplitude- and time-discrete signal, that is
optimally tuned for the specific properties of the physical channel (and of the receiving
equipment). The waveform pattern of voltage or current used to represent the 1s and 0s
of a digital signal on a transmission link is called line encoding. The common types of
line encoding are unipolar, polar, bipolar and Manchester encoding.
For reliable clock recovery at the receiver, one usually imposes a maximum runlength
constraint on the generated channel sequence, i.e. the maximum number of consecutive
ones or zeros is bounded to a reasonable number. A clock period is recovered by
observing transitions in the received sequence, so that a maximum runlength guarantees
such clock recovery, while sequences without such a constraint could seriously hamper
the detection quality.
After line coding, the signal is put through a "physical channel", either a "transmission
medium" or "data storage medium". Sometimes the characteristics of 2 very different-
seeming channels are similar enough that the same line code is used for them. The most
common physical channels are:
• the line-coded signal can directly be put on a transmission line, in the form of
variations of the voltage or current (often using differential signaling).
• the line-coded signal (the "baseband signal") is further modulated to create the
"RF signal" that can be sent through free space.
• the line-coded signal can be used to turn on and off a light in Free Space Optics,
most commonly infrared remote control.
• the line-coded signal can be printed on paper to create a barcode.
• the line-coded signal can be converted to a magnetized spots on a hard drive or
tape drive.
• the line-coded signal can be converted to a pits on optical disc.
• Unfortunately, most long-distance communication channels cannot transport a
DC component. The DC component is also called the disparity, the bias, the DC
coefficient. The simplest possible line code, unipolar, because it has unbounded
DC component, gives too many errors on such systems. Most line codes
eliminate the DC component -- such codes are called "DC balanced", zero-DC,
zero-bias, "DC equalized", etc. There are 2 ways of eliminating the DC
component:
• Use a constant-weight code. In other words, design each transmitted code word
such that every code word that contains some positive or negative levels also
contains enough of the opposite levels, such that the average level over each
code word is zero. For example, Manchester code and Interleaved 2 of 5.
• Use a paired disparity code. In other words, design the receiver such that every
code word that averages to a negative level is paired with another code word that
averages to a positive level. Design the receiver so that either code word of the
pair decodes to the same data bits. Design the transmitter to keep track of the
running DC buildup, and always pick the code word that pushes the DC level
back towards zero. For example, AMI, 8B10B, 4B3T, etc.
• Line coding should make it possible for the receiver to synchronize itself to the
phase of the received signal. If the synchronization is not ideal, then the signal to
be decoded will not have optimal differences (in amplitude) between the various
digits or symbols used in the line code. This will increase the error probability in
the received data.
• It is also preferred for the line code to have a structure that will enable error
detection.
• Note that the line-coded signal and a signal produced at a terminal may differ,
thus requiring translation.
• A line code will typically reflect technical requirements of the transmission
medium, such as optical fiber or shielded twisted pair. These requirements are
unique for each medium, because each one has different behavior related to
interference, distortion, capacitance and loss of amplitude.
• Contents
• [hide]
• 1 Common line codes
• 2 See also
• 3 References
• 4 External links
[hide]
• 8 References