NATURAL SCIENCE 5

ECOLOGY OF POPULATIONS

ARNOLD V. HALLARE, Dr.rer nat Professor DB, CAS, UP Manila

Importance of this topic

1. To have a basic understanding of the fundamental
principles in population ecology and how these can be applied to human populations.
2. To ensure prudent management of commercially and recreationally important wild populations

3. To effectively control unwanted species of pests, weeds, parasites, and disease agents.

Basic Questions at Population Level

What are the characteristics of populations? What population parameters can we quantitatively measure? How do populations differ in such aspects as density, dispersion, age distribution, carrying capacity, and so on? How do populations grow? What are the patterns of population increase (and decrease)? Are there consistent patterns in changes of abundance among species? What parameters can we use to describe quantitatively the changes in the populations? How are the number of individuals in populations controlled? What factors determine the limits of population size? Are there processes that stabilize populations?

DEFINITION & STRUCTURE

Population a collection of organisms of the same species occupying a particular space at a particular time. The ultimate constituents of the population are individual organisms that can potentially __________ and produce fertile offspring.
e.g. tilapia population in a lake mahogany population in a forest elephant population in savanna human population

What is a Population?

Components? Definition :
One species One area Isolated from other areas Able to interbreed

What is a Metapopulation?

Components? Definition :
One species Multiple areas Isolated from other areas, further away Able to interbreed

Example:

Only minimal genetic flow, at most

POPULATION PROPERTIES
Statistical measures that cannot be applied to individuals such as density, dispersion, natality, mortality, dispersal, age structure and sex ratio. Interpreted to be the summation of individual properties or characteristics

Characteristics of a Population

What features can we measure of a population? Features:

Size (Density) Dispersion Age structure Sex ratios Birth rate Death rate Immigration Emigration

POPULATION DENSITY
Abundance (Size) number of individuals in a given area Density number of individuals expressed per unit area or volume.
e.g. There are 100 birds in a 2.5 ha of land Abundance = 100 birds Density = 100/2.5 = 40 birds/hectare

- number of trees per acre of land - number of humans per square km - number of diatoms per cu m of water

DISPERSION
- how individuals are distributed in space

Random Dispersion (a) the environment is uniform (b) resources equally available through the years (c) no patterns of attraction or avoidance Uniform Dispersion (a) more even spacing than would occur by chance (b) Autotoxicity

Clumped Dispersion (a) due to habitat differences (b) reproductive patterns and social behaviors

NATALITY
- production of new individuals in a population through birth, germination, hatching, budding or fission.
e.g. bacteria by cell division plants by production of seeds animals by production of offspring

Birth rate number of individuals born per 1000 individuals per year.
e.g. a population of 2000 individuals produce 20 offspring per year BR = 10 per thousand per year

Most organisms produce many offspring than are needed to replace themselves.

Related Terms:

FERTILITY a physiological term which refers to the ability of the organism to breed and to produce offspring.

FECUNDITY an ecological term which grades an organism based on the number of offspring it can produce in a given period of time.

MORTALITY
- loss of individuals in a population as a result of death. e.g. seed mortality is very high
immature animals die before they have the chance to reproduce

Death Rate number of people who died per 1000 individuals per year
For population to grow, BR>DR

WHAT IS SURVIVORSHIP CURVE?

- graphical representation of death schedules

I heavy mortality at the ___ of the species life span. e.g. humans, sheep, mammals, and some plants II constant age-specific mortality rate; constant exponential decrease in the population with time e.g. hydras, rodents, birds perennial plants III high mortality rates in early life

e.g. oysters, fishes, invertebrates

AGE STRUCTURE
- refers to the relative proportion of individuals belonging to different age classes in a population.

Ecological Ages (Bodenheimer, 1939) 1. Prereproductive Age (1-14) 2. Reproductive Age (15-54) 3. Postreproductive Age (55- ) e.g. insects (long pre, short rep and no post)

Significance of Age Distribution

(1) influences both natality and mortality (2) determines the current reproductive status of the population and indicates what may be expected in the ______. (GROWING, DECLINING?) (3) helps global agencies and local government to plan for future population trends and needs

Age Pyramid

Is constructed by getting the % of population at different age classes. The % is reflected on the lengths of horizontal bars.

Types of Age Pyramid

Type A (Expanding) shows broad base and sides bow in. Large proportion of young and the population is said to be ________. Type B (Stable) no increase nor decrease relative to numbers in each age class and proportion maintained through time.

Type C (Declining) shows an increasing proportion in the ______ age classes and decrease in membership in the younger.

Types of Age Pyramid

Expanding Population (Kenya, Nigeria, Mexico, Philippines) Stable Population (USA, UK) Declining Population (Sweden, Norway, Germany, Italy)

PHILIPPINES
Population 97,976,603 (July 2010 est.) (July 2010 est ) Country comparison to the world: 11 Age structure 0-14 years: 35.2% (male 17,606,352/female 16,911,376) 15-64 years: 60.6% (male 29,679,327/female 29,737,919) 65 years and over: 4.1% (male 1,744,248/female 2,297,381) (2010 est.) Population growth rate 1.957% (2010 est.)

SEX RATIO

Compares the number of male members to the number of female members in the population.

S.R. = number of males x 100 number of females

e.g. July 2010 (est.) SR for Philippines
SR = 49,029,927 x 100 48,946,676 = 100.17

Some general statements (for human population only)

There are more males than females in the younger age groups. Mortality rates usually higher among males than females, sex ratio tends to decrease with age. Sex ratio is higher in rural than urban areas.

DEPENDENCY RATIO

Relates the size of the dependent segment of the population to the economically productive segment of the population (applicable for human population)
dependents

Dependency Ratio 0-14 yrs old + 60 yrs and over x 100

15-60 yrs old

productive

DISPERSAL (MIGRATION)

The mass directional movement of large numbers of individuals of a population from one location to another Immigration migration into a population Emigration movement out of a population Net Migration Rate = I E x 100 Total population

Why migrate?
1. Food 2. Space 3. Competition 4. Seasonal changes

Effects of migration
1.

2.
3.

Population Size Age Distribution Genetic Pool

POPULATION GROWTH PARAMETERS

Population Dynamics pertains to the change in population size due to changes in one or all of the four primary population parameters

Immigration (I)

Population
Boundary
Births (B) Deaths (D)

Emigration (E)

Population Growth = (B+I) (D+E)

Population Growth & Dynamics

TWO TERMS

Population Growth refers to the increase or decrease in size, density,or number of individuals in a population through time. Growth = (B-D)+(I-E)

Biotic Potential maximum reproductive power of a population or the ability of the population to reproduce under optimum environmental conditions.

Space, food, and other organisms DO NOT exert limiting effect

Biotic Potential

POPULATION GROWTH PATTERNS

Exponential Growth Pattern

Logistic Growth Pattern

Expressions of the Biotic Potential

A. Intrinsic rate of increase, r

dN/dt = rN
where r = intrinsic rate of increase = innate capacity of increase = Malthusian parameter = mathematical expression of the biotic potential N = existing population size

t = unit of time

The index r is basically the difference between birth and death rates r = b-d dN/dt = (b-d)N = rN

 dN/dt = rN Growth rate is higher when?

1. __growth rate is higher__

e.g.

Popn A No = 100 rA = 0.5 dN/dt = (0.5)(100) = 50 N1 = 150

Popn B No = 100 rB = 0.1 dN/dt = (0.1)(100) = 10 N1 = 110

2. _initial population size is higher_ e.g. Popn A No = 10 rA = 0.5 dN/dt = (10)(0.5) N1 = 5 Popn B No = 1000 rB = 0.5 dN/dt = (1000)(0.5) N1 = 50

Exponential Growth Pattern

Differential Integral Eqn

dN/dt = rN Nt = Noert
where Nt = population size at time t No = initial population size e = base of natural log (2.71828) r = rate of increase t = unit of time the population size at time t (Nt) is equal to the product of the initial population size (No) and the natural log of the product of the intrinsic
rate of increase (r) and the time (t)

Example:

A growing insect population with an initial population size of 100 shows an instantaneous birth rate of 0.65 and death rate of 0.10. Compute for the population size after 10 years. Solution: r = b-d = 0.65 0.10 = 0.55 e = 2.71828

N10 = Noert = (100) (2.71828) (0.55) (10)

= 24,469 Doubling time = how long it takes for the population to double? Nt/No = 2 = e rt

ln2 = rt
t = ln2/r = 0.693/r = 0.693/0.55 = 1.26 years

Concept of doubling time

How long will it take for the population to double in size? Nt/No = e rt ln (2) = rt ln (2) = t r t = 0.693/r (doubling time) Rule of 70! For the human population r = 0.02 = 2% t = 0.693/0.02 = 35 years t = 70/2 = 35

B. Finite Rate of Increase,

= N t+1/Nt 100/50 = 2

N t+1 = Nt
Nt = No t

Factor by which a population increases during a single unit interval (hours, days, months, years) Useful measure of population changes when the growth is seasonal

Biotic Potential in terms of Finite Rate of increase,

If in 2001, there were 500 black bears in the Pasayten Wilderness, and there were 600 in 2002, how many would there be in 2010? First, estimate : If Nt+1 = Nt , then = Nt+1/Nt, or 600/500 = 1.2

In general, with knowledge of the initial N and , one can estimate N at any time in the future by: Nt = N 0 t If N0 = 500, = 1.2, then in 2010 (9 breeding cycles later) N9 = N0 9 = (500)(1.2)9 = 2579 In 2060 (59 breeding seasons), N = 23,478,130 bears!

THE EXPONENTIAL GROWTH PATTERN

invading a new territory previously unoccupied by the species. exploiting a transient, unlimited favorable conditions (presence of abundant resources) Bottom line: no limits!!!

A population growing at its maximum rate grows slowly at first then faster and faster!

Exponential Population Growth

Examples of this?
Think close to home

Often an unnatural occurrence Conditions under which this occurs naturally

Introduced species (eg. janitor fish) Nutritionally enriched environments (algal blooms)

EQUATIONS

dN/dt = rN (differential equation)

Expresses the rate of population change as the product of r and N.

Nt = Noert (integral equation)

Calculates the population size at specific time points during the
course of growth.

As the population increases in size, N is getting bigger and bigger, and the same r value continuously applied would yield ever-greater increases.

J-SHAPED CURVE

Exponential growth of a colonizing population of Scots pine.

Hunting and habitat destruction reduced the whooping crane. Protection and intensive management of this population has led to its dramatic recovery

What happens if there ARE limits? (And eventually there ALWAYS are!)

LOGISTIC POPULATION GROWTH

Environmental limitations logistic growth

11.9

11.11

Higher N leads to lower realized r

<

11.14

Logistic Growth Pattern

As resources are depleted, population growth slows and eventually stops

dN/dt = rN (K-N) K
(Verhulst-Pearl Equation)

Logistic Growth Pattern

Same as differential growth equation BUT, with a new term [1-(N/K)], which is the same as [(K-N)/K]. dN/dt = rN (K-N)
K

Environmental Resistance Equation

without this term population grows very fast at the rate rN

with this term population slows down since (K-N/K) puts a break in the in the normal geometric growth pattern

Logistic Growth Pattern

dN/dt = rN (K-N) (Verhulst Pearl Equation) K K carrying capacity or the maximum population size allowed by the environment (K-N)/K nearness to carrying capacity equation

(1) If N is small in comparison to (K=100) e.g. when N=5 K= 100 dN/dt = 1 x 5 (100 -5) = 5 x 0.95 = 4.75 100 (2) If N is close to (K=100) e.g. when N= 98 K = 100 dN/dt = 1 x 5 (100-98) = 2.5 100 (3) At carrying capacity, when N=K e.g. when N = 100 K= 100 dN/dt = 1 x 100 (100-100) = 0 (ZPG) zero population growth 100

A population following logistic growth grows at slower and slower rate as it nears the carrying capacity S-shaped curve!

Carrying capacity

Environmental limits result in logistic growth

Logistic Growth

No limits

New or changed environment Logistic growth curve

S-shaped curve

Inflection Point

Carrying Capacity
For most populations, four factors interact to set the carrying capacity, K. (1) Availability of raw materials

(2) The availability of energy

(3) The accumulation of waste products and their means of disposal (4) Interactions among organisms

All factors above act together to limit population size and they are collectively called as environmental resistance factors

Examples

1. Grass populations limited by a. availability of nutrients (N2 and Mg) and water b. number of insects feeding on them

c. competition with one another

2. Intraspecific competition within a population as manifested by crowding: causes breakdown in normal social behavior which leads to fewer birth rates and increased death rates a. shrinkage of reproductive organs b. abnormal mating behavior c. decreased litter size d. fewer litters per year e. lack of maternal care f. increased aggression in some rats

REGULATING POPULATION GROWTH

Density Dependent Factors

Factors whose effects intensify as the density of the population increases. Tend to reduce population size by decreasing natality or increasing mortality as population size increases.

e.g. Food availability breeding spaces diseases predation rate competition

Density Dependent Forces

Types? Examples
Within species
Breeding spaces Food Mates Foraging spots Predation Parasitism Pollinators Competition

Between species

In Sum: Biotic factors

Density Independent Factors

Factors whose effects do not vary regardless of population density. Tend to be abiotic components. Do not directly regulate population size. e.g. weather and climate volcanic eruptions storms, fires, hurricanes

Density Independent Forces

Types? Examples
Climate Topography Latitude Altitude Rainfall Sunlight

In Sum: Abiotic factors

Life History Patterns

r and K selection

END OF LECTURE

NEXT MEETING: August 16 Human Populations August 19 Start of Reporting Deadline for Project (poster) for BIOWEEK 2011