1.

Introduction

Control is more than information processing; it implies direct interaction with the physical world. Control systems include sensors and actuators, the critical pieces needed to ensure that our automation systems can help us manage our activities and environments in desired ways. By extracting information from the physical world, sensors provide inputs to control and automation systems. We may label our times the Information Age, but it would be a mistake to believe that advances in automation and control are solely a matter of more complex software, Web-enabled applications, and other developments in information technology. In particular, progress in control depends critically on advances in our capabilities for measuring and determining relevant aspects of the state of physical systems. Technologists tasked with automation and control of systems of ever-increasing levels of complexity, whether as designers, operators, or managers, or in other capacities, thus need to be familiar with sensor technology. The increasing sophistication of sensors and sensing systems, the considerations driving this sophistication, new sensors and uses of sensors in control systems, the increasing reliability of sensors, and the like are topics whose relevance today is not limited to sensor application specialist. Our objective in this chapter is to discuss sensors from these points of view. Our focus is on the role of sensors in control systems and the trends and outstanding needs therein. Since excellent reviews of recent sensor developments and current applications already exist, we give some selected examples of new sensor developments, without any claims at comprehensiveness. Rather, our goal is to point out the benefits of increased sensor sophistication as well as key approaches and areas where more understanding is needed. 2. Sensor Fundamentals We can define sensor as a device that converts a physical stimulus or input into a readable output, which today would preferably be electronic, but which can also be communicated via other means, such as visual and acoustic. As perhaps the simplest example, consider the sensor on a keyboard switch actuator which provides a signal when the associated key is pressed. The keyboard switch sensor has several desirable features. It is inexpensive, it has a high signal-to-noise ratio (its on/off impedance ratio),

it is compact, and it has low power consumption. Its reliability and ability to operate over a wide range of environmental conditions are also exemplary. Unlike most sensors, a keyboard switch sensor lacks an analog input range, and its output is binary. Temperature, pressure, and flow sensors are more typical examples. In these cases, the output is not a binary quantity but a value that is sensitive to a range of those physical conditions. Figure 1 shows an example of a state-of-the-art sensor, in this case, a mass flow sensor. As evidenced by this example, many advanced sensors today are microscopic, microstructure devices that leverage the economies of scale and the fabrication technologies of semiconductor manufacturing.

Figure 1. Sensor Block Diagram 3. The Role of Sensor in Control System The role of a sensor in a simple automation system is depicted in Figure 2. The detection and measurement of some physical effect provides information to the control system regarding a related property of the system under control, which we are interested in regulating to within some set point range. The controller outputs a command to an actuator (a valve, for example) to correct for measured deviations from the set point, and the control loop is thereby closed.

Because of the simplicity of the control system example of Figure 2, it represents a fair number of practical control systems. In especially simple systems, a distinct controller may not be immediately evident. For example, the Honeywell Round thermostat contains a bimetal strip as an analog sensing mechanism that responds to temperature, and the switch attached to it serves as the actuator. This integration of sensor and actuator turns a furnace or other space conditioning device on or off, depending on whether the room temperature is within the set-point differential. In general, however, the trend is to incorporate more, not less, information processing with the sensor. The increasing complexity of sensors is in part a consequence of this trend. In many cases, the information processing is being incorporated within the sensor device, blurring the distinction between transducer and processor, and between sensor and instrument.

Figure2. Example of a Simple Control System III. Characteristics to choose and use a sensor in control system 1. Accuracy

Accuracy is a very important characteristic of a sensor which really means inaccuracy. Inaccuracy is measured as a highest deviation of a value represented by the sensor from the ideal or true value at its input. The true value is attributed to the object of measurement and accepted as having a specified uncertainty.

Figure II.1 Transfer function (A) and accuracy limits (B) Figure II.1A shows an ideal transfer function. In real world, any sensor performs with some kind of imperfection. Because of material variations, workmanship, design errors, manufacturing tolerances and other limitations, it is possible to have a large family of real transfer functions, even when sensors are tested under identical conditions. However, all runs of the real transfer functions must fall within the limits of a specified accuracy. The permissive limits differ from the ideal transfer function line by . The real functions deviate from the ideal by , where .

The accuracy rating includes a combined effect of part-to-part variations, a hysteresis, a dead band, calibration, and repeatability errors. The specified accuracy limits generally are used in the worst-case analysis to determine the worst possible performance of the system. Figure II.1B shows that may more closely follow the real transfer function, meaning better tolerances of the sensors accuracy. This can be accomplished by a multiple-point calibration. Thus, the specified accuracy limits are established not around the theoretical (ideal) transfer function, but around the calibration curve, which is determined during the actual calibration procedure. Then, the permissive limits become narrower, as they do not embrace part-to-part variations between the sensors and are geared specifically to the calibrated unit. Clearly, this method allows more accurate sensing; however, in some applications, it may be prohibitive because of a higher cost. The inaccuracy rating may be represented in a number of forms: Directly in terms of measured value () In percent of input span (full scale) In terms of output signal 2. Environmental condition - usually has limits for temperature/ humidity Storage conditions are non-operating environmental limits to which a sensor may be subjected during a specified period without permanently altering its performance under normal operating conditions. Usually, storage conditions include the highest and the lowest storage temperatures and maximum relative humidity at these temperatures. The word non-condensing may be added to the relative humidity number. Depending on the sensors nature, some specific limitation for the storage may need to be considered (e.g., maximum pressure, presence of some gases or contaminating fumes, etc.). Temperature factors are very important for sensor performance; they must be known and taken into account. The operating temperature range is the span of ambient temperatures given by their upper and lower extremes (e.g., 20C to +100C) within which the sensor maintains its specified accuracy. Many sensors change with temperature and their transfer functions may shift significantly. Special compensating elements are often incorporated either directly into the sensor or into signal conditioning circuits, to compensate for temperature errors. The simplest way of specifying tolerances of thermal effects is provided by the error-band concept, which is simply the error band that is applicable over the operating temperature band. A temperature band may be divided into

sections, whereas the error band is separately specified for each section. For example, a sensor may be specified to have an accuracy of 1% in the range from 0C to 50C, 2% from 20C to 0C and from +50C to 100C, and 3% beyond these ranges within operating limits specified from 40C to +150C. Temperatures will also affect dynamic characteristics, particularly when they employ viscous damping. A relatively fast temperature change may cause the sensor to generate a spurious output signal. For instance, a dual pyroelectric sensor in a motion detector is insensitive to slowly varying ambient temperature. However, when the temperature changes quickly, the sensor will generate an electric current that may be recognized by a processing circuit as a valid response to a stimulus, thus causing a false positive detection. 3. Range (full scale) - Measurement limit of sensor A dynamic range of stimuli which may be converted by a sensor is called a span or an input full scale (FS). It represents the highest possible input value that can be applied to the sensor without causing an unacceptably large inaccuracy. For the sensors with a very broad and nonlinear response characteristic, a dynamic range of the input stimuli is often expressed in decibels, which is a logarithmic measure of ratios of either power or force (voltage). It should be emphasized that decibels do not measure absolute values, but a ratio of values only. A decibel scale represents signal magnitudes by much smaller numbers, which, in many cases, is far more convenient. Being a nonlinear scale, it may represent low-level signals with high resolution while compressing the high-level numbers. In other words, the logarithmic scale for small objects works as a microscope, and for the large objects, it works as a telescope 4. Calibration - Essential for most of the measuring devices as the readings changes

with time If the sensors manufacturers tolerances and tolerances of the interface (signal conditioning) circuit are broader than the required system accuracy, a calibration is required. For example, we need to measure temperature with an accuracy 0.5C. However, an available sensor is rated as having an accuracy of 1C. Does it mean that

the sensor can not be used? No, it can, but that particular sensor needs to be calibrated that is, its individual transfer function needs to be found during calibration. Calibration means the determination of specific variables that describe the overall transfer function. Overall mean of the entire circuit, including the sensor, the interface circuit, and the A/D converter. The mathematical model of the transfer function should be known before calibration

Figure II.2 Calibration error To calibrate sensors, it is essential to have and properly maintain precision and accurate physical standards of the appropriate stimuli. For example, to calibrate contact temperature sensors, either a temperature-controlled water bath or a dry-well cavity is required. To calibrate the infrared sensors, a blackbody cavity would be needed. To calibrate a hygrometer, a series of saturated salt solutions are required to sustain a constant relative humidity in a closed container, and so on. It should be clearly understood that the sensing system accuracy is directly attached to the accuracy of the

calibrator. An uncertainty of the calibrating standard must be included in the statement on the overall uncertainty 5. 6. 7. Resolution - Smallest increment detected by the sensor Cost Repeatability - The reading that varies is repeatedly measured under the same

environment

Figure II.3 The repeatability error A repeatability (reproducibility) error is caused by the inability of a sensor to represent the same value under identical conditions. It is expressed as the maximum difference between output readings as determined by two calibrating cycles (figure II.3), unless otherwise specified. It is usually represented as % of FS:

r =

100%

Possible sources of the repeatability error may be thermal noise, buildup charge, material plasticity. V. Sensor Enabled Visions for the Future VI. Conclusion