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Abstract The groundwater flow system and the flow on the aquifer by causing excessive groundwater abstrac-
velocity in the alluvial fan plain of the Hutuo River, tion and irrigation return.
China, have been studied, with an emphasis on relating
geochemical characteristics and isotopes factors. Seven Résumé Le système d’écoulement de l’eau souterraine et la
stretches of one river, six springs and 31 wells, with vitesse d’écoulement dans le plaine du cône alluvial de la
depths ranging from 0 m (river waters) to 150 m, were Rivière Hutuo, Chine, ont été étudiés en mettant l’accent sur
surveyed. The groundwater has a vertical two-layer les caractéristiques géochimiques et les facteurs isotopiques
structure with a boundary at about 80–100 m depth, correspondants. Sept tronçons d’une rivière, six sources et
yielding an upper and a lower groundwater layer. The 31 puits, ayant des profondeurs allant de 0 m (eau de la
δ18O and δD values range from −10.56 to −7.05‰ and rivière) à 150 m, ont été examinés. L’eau souterraine a une
−81.83 to −59‰, respectively. The groundwater has been structure verticale à deux couches avec une limite à environ
recharged by precipitation, and has not been subjected to 80–100 m de profondeur, formant une couche supérieur
significant evaporation during infiltration into the aquifer d’eau souterraine et une inférieure. Les valeurs de ∂ 18 O et
in the upper layer. Using a tritium model, the groundwater de ∂ D vont de −10.56 à −7.05‰ et de −81.83 à −59‰,
flow in the alluvial fan plain showed horizontal flow respectivement. L’eau souterraine a été réalimentée par les
velocity to be greater than vertical velocity. Groundwater précipitations, et n’a pas été sujette à une évaporation
in the upper layer is characterized by Ca–HCO3 type. significative au cours de l’infiltration dans l’aquifère de la
From the spatial distribution characteristics of the stable couche supérieure. En utilisant modèle tritium, l’écoulement
isotope and chemical composition of the groundwater, de l’eau souterraine dans la plaine du cône alluvial a montré
agricultural irrigation was considered to have an influence une vitesse d’écoulement horizontal supérieure à la vitesse
verticale. L’eau souterraine de la couche supérieure est
caractérisée par un type Ca–HCO3. Du fait des caractéris-
tiques de la distribution spatiale en isotope stable et de la
Received: 15 May 2006 / Accepted: 17 February 2008 composition chimique de l’eau souterraine, l’irrigation
© Springer-Verlag 2008 agricole a été jugée avoir une influence sur l’aquifère en
occasionnant des prélèvements d’eau souterraine et une
restitution provenant de l’agriculture excessifs.
Y. Lu ()) : F. Li
Graduate School of Science and Technology, Resumen Se ha estudiado el sistema de flujo subterráneo y
Chiba University
Chiba 263–8522, Japan la velocidad de flujo en el cono aluvial del Río Hutuo, China,
e-mail: yintaolu2003@yahoo.co.jp enfatizando las características geoquímicas y su relación con
el contenido isotópico. Se relevaron siete tramos del río, seis
C. Tang
Faculty of Horticulture, Chiba University manantiales y 31 pozos, con profundidades que varían desde
Chiba 271–8510, Japan 0 m (agua del río) hasta 150 m. El complejo subterráneo
comprende dos capas con un límite a una profundidad
J. Chen
Zhongshan University aproximada de 80–100 m, constituyendo una capa subterrá-
Guangzhou 510275, China neas superior y una inferior. Los valores de δ18O yδD varían
entre −10.56 a −7.05‰ y −81.83 a −59‰, respectivamente.
X. Song
Institute of Geographic Sciences El agua subterránea se recargó por lluvias, y no ha estado
and Natural Resources Research sujeta a evaporación durante su infiltración en la capa
Beijing 100101, China superior del acuífero. El modelo de flujo subterráneo,
Y. Sakura
utilizando datos de tritio, mostró que la velocidad del flujo
Faculty of Science, Chiba University horizontal es mayor que la vertical. El agua subterránea de la
Chiba 263–8522, Japan capa superior es del tipo Ca–HCO3. Teniendo en cuenta la
Fig. 2 Location of the wells, river water and spring sampling sites in the study area
Fig. 3 Hydrogeologic cross section along transect O–O’ in Fig. 1 (modified from Chen et al. 2005)
Ca2+, Mg2+ were measured by inductively coupled plasma 12.43 years (Unterweger et al. 1980). Atmospheric testing
(ICP) with analytical precision of ±0.01 mg/l; and HCO
3 of nuclear devices between 1952 and 1962 generated a
was measured by titration with analytical precision of tremendous quantity of atmospheric tritium. The final year
±0.02 mg/l. of megaton tests generated a huge peak, which appeared
in precipitation in the spring of 1963. So the curve from
the input function for tritium will have a peak corre-
Stable isotope analysis sponding to that time. Using this peak, one can get the
18
O and deuterium (D) abundances are expressed as ratios mean residence time and infiltration rate of water. In
in delta notation (δ) as per mil differences relative to the Denmark, Andersen and Sevel (1974) have shown that the
standard known as the Vienna Standard Mean Ocean measured tritium profile in groundwater is the reverse of
Water (VSMOW). They are defined as follows: the classic curve for tritium in precipitation.
In general terms, consider that there is a parcel of
Rsp groundwater in a regional aquifer. The composite of
d 18 Oðd DÞ ¼ 1 1000 ð1Þ several years’ precipitation have contributed to ground-
Rst
water through mixing in the unsaturated zone. In this
Where Rsp and Rst are the ratios for D/1H or 18O/16O in the process, tritium content in groundwater will decrease by
sample or standard respectively. δ18O and δD were decay. The tritium concentration in this groundwater
analyzed by a Delta S mass spectrometer with analytical parcel will be a function of its residence time in the
precision of ±0.15 and ±1‰, respectively. recharge environment. The exponential model of tritium
concentration is predicted by
Na+ and K+, the second type is and Ca2+, and the third the upper layer, ion concentration decreased as the well
type is NO3. depth increased. However, nitrate was undetectable in the
The upper layer (0–80 m) is an unconfined layer of fine lower layer. The difference in NO 3 ion distribution
sand and silt, and all ion concentrations varied widely. The between the two layers reflects a change in the influence
concentrations of Cl−, SO2 + +
4 , Na and K decreased as of human activities.
the well depth increased. Likewise, HCO3 and Ca2+ (the In the springs, Cl−, SO2
4 , HCO3 and NO3 ion
second water type) decreased with the well depth in this concentrations were 3.57–44.94 mg/l, 28.7–189.44 mg/l,
layer. The lower layer (100–150 m) is a confined layer of 149.32–252.7 mg/l and 6.09–45.18 mg/l respectively.
sand and gravel; depth 80–100 m is the boundary of the Na+, Ca2+, K+ and Mg2+ ion concentrations were 4.79–
upper and the lower layer. Cl−, SO2 4 , Na+ and K+ ion 27.77 mg/l, 49.9–89.02 mg/l, 1.35–4.57 mg/l and 19.37–
concentrations increased with the well depth, and there 46 mg/l respectively (Table 1). The range of ion
was no significant increase in and Ca2+ ion concentration concentrations was close to the groundwater in the upper
with increasing depth. Groundwater in this lower layer is layer, and springs were recharged by groundwater of the
used because of the decline in the water table. upper layer.
Nitrate is the most common water contaminant index In the river water, Cl−, SO2
4 , HCO3 and NO3 ion
for anthropogenic sources (Freeze and Cherry 1979). In concentrations were 3.57–32.1 mg/l, 66.97–138.73 mg/l,
65.47–195.27 mg/l and 10.44–73.94 mg/l respectively, −80.72 to −59‰ respectively. The δ18O values decreased
and showed the highest NO3 concentration compared with with the well depth, but the change of δD values was not
that in the groundwater. Na+, Ca2+, K+and Mg2+ ion obvious. In the lower layer, the δ18O and δD values
concentrations were 4.94–21.34, 31.94–95.81, 1.37–3.2 ranged from −10.56 to −7.8‰ and from −81.83 to −63‰,
and 12.1–21.79 mg/l respectively (Table 1). Beisha River respectively. The δ18O and δD values decreased with the
flows from west to east in the study area. Na+, Ca2+ and well depth in this layer. Groundwater in the upper layer
all anion concentrations increased along river flow had greater δ18O than that in the lower layer.
direction (Fig. 6). The δ18O and δD values in the river water ranged from
−9.52 to −7.51‰ and −78.57 to −60.49‰ respectively
and showed the lower isotopic values. On the other hand,
Isotopic characteristics of groundwater the δ18O and δD values in the spring ranged from −9.09 to
and surface water −8.8‰ and −81.42 to −58.95‰, respectively (Table 1).
Stable isotopes of water are excellent tracers for recharge
of surface water to groundwater (Craig et al. 2002). 18O
and D are naturally occurring stable isotopes of oxygen Tritium characteristics of groundwater
and hydrogen, respectively (John et al. 2002). Stable and surface water
isotopes show different changes between the upper and Generally, the tritium contents of groundwater from wells
lower groundwater layers (Fig. 7). In the upper layer, the are higher in the upper layer (7.53–38.84 TU) than in the
δ18O and δD values ranged from −9.75 to −7.05‰ and lower layer (less than 11 TU; Table 1). River and spring
Fig. 7 The distribution of δ O and δ D versus the depths of the wells. Dashed lines indicate the variation area
18
water shows the higher tritium contents (greater than been subjected to significant evaporation during infiltra-
17 TU). tion into the aquifer. The intercept is often referred to as
the deuterium-excess (d-excess), defined as d ¼ d D
8d 18 O (Dansgaard 1964). The d-excess is a useful proxy
Discussion for identifying secondary processes influencing the atmo-
spheric vapor content in the evaporation-condensation
The source of groundwater and surface water cycle in nature (Craig 1961; Merlivat and Jouzel 1979).
Because most of the world’s precipitation is derived from The d-excess values of groundwater samples ranged from
evaporation of seawater, the δ18O and δD composition of −10 to 10‰ in the upper layer and from 0 to 10‰ in the
precipitation throughout the world is linearly correlated. lower layer (Fig. 8). It can be considered that the
This relation is known as the global meteoric water line groundwater originates from rainfall with different d-
(GMWL) and expressed as follows (Craig 1961): excess values. On the other hand, based on hydrology and
d D ¼ 8d 18 O þ 10. human activities, the upper flow system has been affected
The δ18O and δD composition of all water samples in by many phenomena such as (1) location of Hutuo River
the study region were plotted to the right of the global in the center of the alluvial fan plain, (2) excess irrigation
meteoric water line (GMWL; Fig. 8). From the relation- water return flow to the aquifer.
ship shown in Fig. 8, all of the points in the upper According to the study of Zhang et al. (2000), a δ18O
groundwater layer were under the GMWL and the linear value of less than −9‰ signifies groundwater older than
relationship is approximately parallel to the GMWL, 10,000 years in the NCP because the climate became
showing that groundwater of study area has been warm 10,000 years ago. Whereas, if the groundwater is
recharged by precipitation and these samples have not younger than 10,000 years, the δ18O value would be
Fig. 11 Tritium distribution in groundwater of a the upper layer and b the lower layer versus east longitude. Dashed lines indicate the
variation area
tritium data. From the model, it can be considered that the tritium concentration. By the exponential model, it can be
vertical velocity of groundwater in the upper layer is less calculated that horizontal flow velocity is faster than
than 1 m/year. vertical velocity. Tritium contents decreased as latitude
In the upper groundwater layer, tritium contents of increase in the lower layer (Fig. 11b). It is considered that
horizontal distribution (along O–O` in Fig. 2) reached a the flow direction of groundwater in the lower layer is
peak at about 114.5° E (Fig. 11a). As mentioned above, an from west to east, so tritium contents decrease with the
exponential model can be educed from the distribution of groundwater flow.
Fig. 13 Piper diagram for the major ions in groundwater (from wells), river water and spring water in the study area
Spatial evolvement characteristics of stable isotopes type is probably related to ion exchange between
and chemical composition groundwater and groundwater that is mainly excess
Because the groundwater level is higher in the mountain- irrigation return. Every time the return water re-percolates
ous areas, groundwater constantly flows into the plain, and through the soil profile, it dissolves more salts, resulting in
the mountainous area plays an important role as a recharge the mixed chemistry as shown in Fig. 14.
region (Nakayama et al. 2006; Fig. 12). In the NCP,
almost all of irrigation water is pumped up from
underground. The excess irrigation water returns to the Protection of the groundwater resource
aquifer by infiltration. Because it infiltrates into the aquifer The NCP is one of the most important agricultural areas in
directly, evaporation and oxygen isotope shift have less China. Groundwater storage and quality are affected by
influence on it. The δ18O values of the groundwater in agricultural irrigation and industrial development. Because
some places (e.g. G19, G23 and G24) were low compared the agricultural irrigation water and some industrial and
with most places in the upper layer (Fig. 12). This implied domestic use water come from aquifers, the groundwater
that the irrigation has an influence on the aquifer. There level has a downward trend and water quality is getting
are a lot of irrigation wells in the alluvial fan plain leading worse. NO 3 concentrations from about 18% of water
to excessive groundwater use as well as irrigation return samples were higher than the water quality standard for
(water returned to the aquifer after use). drinking water sources (NO 3 : 44 mg/l; Ministry of Health
The Piper diagram (Piper 1944) is the most widely of the People’s Republic of China 2006; Table 1). The
used graphical form to express geochemistry results and it authors herein suggest that management of the groundwa-
is quite similar to the diagram proposed by Hill (1940). ter resource includes three points. Firstly, irrigation
The diagram displays the relative concentrations of the management should be carried out under scientific
major cations and anions on two separate trilinear plots direction; good planning of irrigation in dry years is
(Güler et al. 2002). The points of the central diamond are especially important for saving water (Yang et al. 2006).
from the two trilinear plots (Güler et al. 2002). The central Secondly, the management system of industrial and city
diamond-shaped field is used to show overall chemical water use should be optimized; and thirdly, the monitoring
character of the water (Hill 1940; Piper 1944). Figure 13 of wastewater discharge and disposal should be intensified.
is a Piper diagram showing the results of the river, spring
and well samples in the alluvial fan plain. The river and
spring waters were distinctive in their low concentrations Conclusions
of Na+ and Cl− and the type was HCO3–NO3–Ca. Because
of the effect of carbonate rock and metamorphic rock in In this study, water quality, stable isotopes and tritium
the mountains region (Fig. 4), groundwater in the upper were used to determine the groundwater flow path. The
layer was characterized by Ca–HCO3. On the other hand, main findings can be summarized as follows:
groundwater points in the lower layer were broadly
distributed rather than forming distinct clusters. Ground- 1. The δ18O and δD values ranged from −10.56 to
water in the lower layer was classified into two dominant −7.05‰ and −81.83 to −59‰ respectively. The
water types: HCO3–Ca–Mg and HCO3–Na–K. groundwater in the upper layer originates from rainfall
In the discharge area, groundwater was characterized with different d-excess values, and has not been
by Na–HCO3 type (Fig. 14). Formation of this chemical subjected to significant evaporation during infiltration