Analysis of Sound Waves

Occupat i onal Heal t h & Saf et y
Pract i t i oner

Readi ng

ANALYSIS OF SOUND WAVES

January 2009

Contents
OVERVIEW.....................................................................................................................1
SECTION 1: INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................2
SECTION 2: DECIBELS.................................................................................................3
SECTION 3: TYPICAL SOUND PRESSURE LEVELS..................................................6
SECTION 4: RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SOUND INTENSITY LEVEL, SOUND
POWER LEVEL AND SOUND PRESSURE LEVEL.......................................................8
SECTION 5: ADDITION OF DECIBELS ......................................................................10
SECTION 6: SUBTRACTION OF DECIBELS..............................................................12
SECTION 7: FREQUENCY SPECTRUM OF A SOUND.............................................13
SECTION 8: FREQUENCY ANALYSIS.......................................................................15
SECTION 9: FREQUENCY WEIGHTING NETWORKS ..............................................18
APPENDICIES AND REVIEW EXERCISE ANSWERS................................................22
CONCLUSION ..............................................................................................................28
REFERENCES & FURTHER READING.......................................................................28

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READING ANALYSIS OF SOUND WAVES

JANUARY 2009 SAFETYLINE INSTITUTE PAGE 1

OVERVIEW
This reading covers the analysis of sound waves and includes the
decibel scale, how to add and subtract decibels, sound spectra -
octave and one-third octave frequency analysis, and A- and C-
frequency weighting networks.

Obj ect i ves
After reading this information you should be able to explain:

- the decibel scale;
- how to add and subtract decibels;
- the terms sound power level, sound intensity level and sound
pressure level and the relationship between them;
- the relationship between sound pressure, sound intensity and
sound power;
- sound spectra - octave and one-third octave frequency
analysis; and
- A- and C- frequency weighting networks.

Pre-requi si t es
To successfully undertake this reading learners need to:

- have completed the reading on Basic Acoustics;
- have an understanding of algebra (integration and logarithmic
functions); and
- have access to a scientific calculator.

Aut hor
Pamela Gunn
B.Sc.(Hons Physics) University of Western Australia
M.Sc.(Occupational Hygiene) London University


Sect i on 1: INTRODUCTION
In the first reading on Basic Acoustics you learnt about some of the
terms used to describe sound waves. In this reading you will be
introduced to further terms we use in the measurement of the
magnitude of sound waves and their frequency content.

Before you progress to actual measurement and assessment of
noise, you need to understand the decibel scale of measurement
and how to do decibel addition and subtraction.

For those of you not used to calculations, this may look a little
heavy going - but tables have been given to help you work through
the examples. Give the mathematical option a try as, with the aid
of a scientific calculator, you will find this method much quicker
once you get the hang of it.

Frequency analysis is another concept covered in the reading.
This is an important area to understand, as many noise control
measures work to a different extent depending on the frequency
content of the noise.

An explanation of A- and C- frequency weighting networks is
also given, along with exercises so that you can practice both
weighting and decibel addition.

PAGE 2 SAFETYLINE INSTITUTE JANUARY 2009

Sect i on 2: DECIBELS
You have probably all heard of the term decibel (or dB for short)
in connection with sound. We will now see how this relates to the
quantities discussed in the first reading.

2. 1 Large range of sound i nt ensi t i es
The human ear responds to sounds over a very large range of
sound intensities:
the sound intensity of
the threshold of
hearing (the quietest
sound we can hear) is
0.00000000001
watts/m
2
(often written
10
-12
watts/m
2
);

whilst the sound intensity
at the threshold of pain is
about 10 watts/m.

2. 2 Deci bel scal e i s used t o cover t he
range of sound i nt ensi t i es
To handle this large range we make use of a logarithmic ratio
scale called the decibel scale.

In general, a decibel scale for any quantity, q, is defined as:

ref
q
q
q
log 10
L
= dB (Equation 2.1)


Note that the decibel is not an absolute measure but is referenced
to a selected quantity, q
ref
.

Another reason for using this scale is that the ear itself 'hears'
logarithmically and humans judge the relative loudness of two
sounds by the ratio of their intensities, a logarithmic behaviour.

The Bel was named after Alexander Graham Bell (1847-1922), the
Scottish/American inventor of the telephone and worker for the
deaf.

As this unit is rather large it has been divided into ten smaller units
called decibels or dB. (deci = one tenth of).

A brief tutorial refresher on logarithms is available from
www.comdis.wisc.edu/vcd202/Logs.html

When sound intensity is expressed as a decibel it is referred to as
sound intensity level and is given the symbol L
I
.

To convert sound intensity, I, to sound intensity level L
I
the
following relationship is used:

ref
I
I
I
log 10
L
= dB re I
ref
(Equation 2.2)

where I = sound intensity whose level is being specified, in
watts/m
2

and I
ref
= reference intensity = 10
-12
watts/m
2
(the threshold of
hearing)

Sound power, W, can also be expressed in decibels and is then
referred to as the sound power level, L
w
.

ref
W
W
W
log 10
L
= dB re W
ref
(Equation 2.3)

where W = sound power of the source in watts

W
ref
= reference sound power = 10
-12
watts


For sound pressure, p, we use the relationship:

Sound pressure level
2
ref
2
p
p
p
log 10
L
=
=
ref
p
p
log 20 dB re p
ref
(Equation 2.4)

where p = rms sound pressure in Pa

p
ref
= 2 x 10
-5
Pa

(sometimes written as 20 Pa = 20 x 10
-6
Pa, which is the sound
pressure at the threshold of hearing at 1000 Hz)

The sound pressure level at the threshold of hearing is thus:

0 1 log 20
10 2
10 2
log 20
L
5 -
-5
p
= =
= dB

Revi ew exerci se 2. 1
Answers are at the end of this reading.

Using equation 2.4, calculate the sound pressure level of a sound
with a sound pressure of 2 Pa.

Sect i on 3: TYPICAL SOUND PRESSURE LEVELS
To get a feel for decibels, look at the table below which gives values for the
sound pressure levels of common sounds in our environment. Also shown are the
corresponding sound pressures and sound intensities. From these you can see
that the decibel scale gives numbers in a much more manageable range.
Table of Sound Pressure Levels and Corresponding
Sound Pressure and Sound Intensity
Examples
Sound
Pressure
Level dB
Sound
Pressure
Pa
Sound Intensity
watts/m
30m from jet aircraft 140 200 100
Threshold of pain
130
10

120
20 1
Chainsaw
110
0.1
Disco
100
2 0.01
90 0.001
Kerbside of busy road
80
0.2 0.0001

70
0.00001
Conversational speech
60
0.02 0.000001

50
0.0000001

40
0.002 0.00000001
Quiet bedroom at night
30
0.000000001
Background in TV studio 20
0.0002 0.0000000001

10
0.00000000001
Threshold of hearing
0
0.00002 0.000000000001


From the above table you can see that a sound which has a sound
pressure level 10 dB more than another has a sound intensity 10
times as much which, as we saw in the first reading, means that
the sound contains 10 times the energy.

A sound 20 dB more than another, has a sound intensity 100 times
as much and contains 100 times the energy.

A sound which is 3 dB more than another contains twice the
energy.

This is an important concept to remember when we come to
assessing people's noise exposures, for if someone is receiving
noise 3 dB above the exposure standard, they are not merely 'just
above' the standard, but are receiving twice as much potentially
damaging sound to their ears.

A different concept is that of loudness, a psychophysical sensation
caused by sound. Here an increase of 10 dB in sound pressure
level causes the sound to be perceived as twice as loud. A
decrease of 10 dB is perceived as half as loud. So, if you are able
to introduce noise controls which make the sound half as loud, you
have actually reduced the energy getting to the ear by a factor of
10 - a very worthwhile effort.

The deci bel scal e some t ypi cal sound
l evel s


Sect i on 4: RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SOUND
INTENSITY LEVEL, SOUND POWER LEVEL AND
SOUND PRESSURE LEVEL
The relationship between sound intensity level, sound power level
and sound pressure level for a point source in a free field (i.e. one
where there are no reflecting surfaces) can now be considered.

We saw in the first reading that
2
r 4
W
I = was the relationship of
intensity, I, to power, W

(where r = distance from the source).

Changing to levels

) r 4 log( 10
W
W
log 10
I
I
log 10
2
ref ref
=

L
I
= L
w
- 10 log(r
2
) - 10 log (4t )

= L
w
- 20 log r - 11 (Equation 2.5)

For air at 21
o
C, we saw in the first reading that:

I = 0.0024 p
2

So

12
2
ref
I
10
p 0024 . 0
log 10
I
I
log 10
L

= =
~
10
2
10 4
p
log 10

=
2
ref
2
p
p
log 10
= L
p

The sign ~ means approximately equal to. That is, the sound
intensity level and the sound pressure level are approximately
numerically equal.

So using equation 2.5

L
p
~ L
w
- 20 log r - 11 (Equation 2.6)

From this you can see that if the distance from the source (r) is
doubled, the sound pressure level is decreased by (20 log 2),
which is 6 dB - a relationship that was depicted in the first reading.

Answers are at the end of this reading

If the sound power level of a machine is 102 dB what are the
sound pressure levels:

at 2 m.
at 4 m

assuming the source is in a free field?


Sect i on 5: ADDITION OF DECIBELS
Decibels cannot be added directly using ordinary arithmetic. For
example, if a person is exposed to a sound pressure level of
100 dB from one source and 98 dB from another source, the
resultant total sound pressure level is not 198 dB, but 102 dB.

The addition can be carried out by using the following table.

For combining two decibel levels of sounds with
random frequency characteristics
Difference between levels
dB
Amount to be added to
higher level
dB
0 3.0
1 2.5
2 2.1
3 1.8
4 1.5
5 1.2
6 1.0
7 0.8
8 0.6
9 0.5
10 0.4

For the example 100 dB - 98 dB = 2 dB

Therefore add 2.1 dB to the higher level, 100 dB to get 102.1 dB.
When we have finished the calculation we always quote the
answer to the nearest whole decibel, in this case, 102 dB.

You will notice that adding two sounds of equal sound pressure
level gives an increase of 3 dB. Also, if a sound is more than
10 dB less than another, it makes negligible contribution to the
total sound pressure level.


If more than 2 sounds are to be added you need to do it two at a
time.

Example: Add 4 sounds of 90, 91, 86 and 88 dB

First place in numerically increasing order i.e. 86, 88, 90, 91 dB.
Add 86 and 88 dB using the table. This gives 90.1 dB. Now add
90 dB to 90.1 dB. This gives 93.1 dB. Next add 91 to 93.1 dB. This
gives 95.2 dB. Always remember to round to the nearest whole
decibel. So the total is 95 dB.


1. Add together two sounds of 94 dB and 99 dB.
2. Add together 3 sounds of 96, 89 and 92 dB.

If you want to learn how to do the calculations mathematically (with
the aid of your electronic calculator or computer) and how to
average decibels, go to Appendix A of this reading. This is
optional, but you will find this method much quicker when you are
adding more than 2 levels, once you get the hang of it.


Sect i on 6: SUBTRACTION OF DECIBELS

L
total
- L
p1

Amount to be Subtracted
from L
total
to get L
p2

0 greater than 10
1 6.8
2 4.5
3 3.0
4 2.2
5 1.6
6 1.2
7 1.0
8 0.7
9 0.6
10 0.5

Example: If the total sound
pressure level is 96 dB and
source 1

produces 89 dB by itself, the
sound pressure level of source
2 is:
L
p2
= 96 - 1 = 95 dB.

Answers are at the end of this reading

If the sound pressure level at a worker's location is 93 dB with one
machine and the ventilation system operating and it is 87 dB with
the machine switched off and the ventilation still on, what is the
sound pressure level due to the machine by itself?


Sect i on 7: FREQUENCY SPECTRUM OF A SOUND
A sound that consists of a single frequency is called a pure tone.

Nearly all sound sources emit sounds of more than one frequency.

Musical sounds contain a fundamental frequency plus several
harmonics (i.e. sounds with frequencies that are integral multiples
of the fundamental frequency). This combination tends to sound
pleasant to the ear.


Noise produced by most mechanical sources, such as machines,
is made up of many different unrelated frequencies (wide band
noise), and tends to sound unpleasant.

The above graph of the magnitude of the sound pressure level at
each frequency is called the frequency spectrum of the sound.


Sect i on 8: FREQUENCY ANALYSIS
It is often necessary to obtain information about the frequency
spectrum of a sound to design effective noise control and to select
appropriate personal hearing protectors.

8. 1 Oct ave bands
In most cases it is sufficient to measure the sound pressure level
in bands of frequencies, rather than at individual frequencies. The
width of the band usually chosen is the octave band - this is a
band where the upper frequency is twice that of the lower. Each
band is denoted by its centre frequency. Those usually measured
are the Internationally Preferred Frequencies of:

31.5
Hz
63
Hz
125
Hz
250
Hz
500
Hz
1k
Hz
2k
Hz
4k
Hz
8k
Hz
16k
Hz

(k is a short way of writing kilo, which is 1000).
and results are plotted on a graph like this:

This is a typical spectrum of a circular saw cutting aluminium.
(Note that the line is simply a guide to move your eye from one
band to another and does not imply the magnitude at the
frequencies between the centre frequencies.)

The limits of the octave bands are shown in the Table below:

Centre frequency, Hz Limits of band, Hz
31.5 22 - 45
63 45 - 89
125 89 - 177
250 177 - 353
500 353 - 707
1000 707 - 1414
2000 1414 - 2828
4000 2828 - 5657
8000 5657 - 11314
16000 11314 - 22627

Note that the centre frequency is the geometric mean and not the
average of the band limit frequencies.

The lower and upper frequencies in the band can be found from
the centre frequency by:

414 . 1
f
2
f
f
centre centre
lower
= = (Equation 2.9)

and
centre centre upper
f 414 . 1 2 f f = = (Equation 2.10)

8. 2 One-t hi rd oct ave bands
Sometimes we want more detailed information than the octave
band analysis will give. This can be provided by selecting narrower
bands, such as one-third octave bands.

See Appendix B of this reading if you want more information on
one-third octave bands. This is optional.


8. 3 Narrow band anal ysi s
For even more detailed examination, narrow band analysis is
possible. This is used to pick up tonal noises with very narrow
frequency bandwidths that would be missed by octave or one-third
octave band analysis.

Note that in this example of noise from a fan the bandwidths are
only one-eighth of a hertz wide and we are only looking at the
range 70 Hz to 80 Hz.


Sect i on 9: FREQUENCY WEIGHTING NETWORKS
9. 1 A & C wei ght i ng net works
Since the ear does not have an equal response to sounds of
different frequencies we need to take this into account when we
measure sound in relation to its effect on people. This is done by
building into sound measuring equipment an electrical network
which gives less weight to the frequencies to which the ear is less
sensitive. Several different weighting networks have been
developed over the years. The one which has been found to best
describe the damaging effect of noise is the A-weighting
network. This reduces the low frequency response and some of
the high frequencies as shown in the diagram below.

Another weighting, which is useful when measuring peak noise or
when estimating the attenuated noise when personal hearing
protectors are used, is the C-weighting network.

When the A- and C-weighting networks have been used in a
measurement, we denote this by writing the unit dB(A) or dB(C )
respectively. When no weighting network is used we can denote
this by dB or dB(lin).

9. 2 Adj ust ment s at oct ave band
cent re f requenci es
From the weighting curves above, you can see that the following
are the adjustments at octave band centre frequencies:

Octave Band
Centre
Frequencies, Hz

31.5 63 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 8000 16000

A-weighting
adjustment, dB
-39 -26 -16 -9 -3 0 +1 +1 -1 -7
C-weighting
adjustment, dB
-3 -1 0 0 0 0 0 -1 -3 -8

To obtain the overall A- or C-weighted sound pressure levels from
the octave band sound pressure levels, the above adjustments are
made before adding, using one of the decibel addition methods
described earlier.

EXAMPLE
What is the A-weighted sound pressure level in the cab of a diesel
locomotive where the following octave band sound pressure levels
were measured?

Octave Band Centre
Frequencies, Hz

31.5 63 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 8000 16000
Diesel locomotive
octave band levels, dB
104 102 92 90 87 82 80 68 60 57
A-weighting adjustment -39 -26 -16 -9 -3 0 +1 +1 -1 -7
A-weighted octave band
levels, dB(A)
65 76 76 81 84 82 81 69 59 50


Using the mathematical addition method or adding two at a time
using the Table gives an A-weighted sound pressure level of
88.7 dB(A), which we round to the nearest whole decibel giving
89 dB(A).


Question 1
1. What is the C-weighted sound pressure level in the above
case?
2. Is it higher or lower than the A-weighted level?

Question 2
Now try the following addition of octave band levels of noise from a
circular saw:

Octave Band Centre
Frequencies, Hz

31.5 63 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 8000 16000

Circular saw octave band
levels, dB
73 75 77 80 87 85 88 96 92 87

1. What is the A-weighted level?
2. What is the C-weighted level?
3. Which is the higher?


Question 3
Look at the answers to questions 1 and 2 above and the octave
band frequency spectra of the diesel locomotive and the saw and
decide if the following statements are True or False.

1. The C-weighted level of a sound is always greater than the A-
weighted level.
2. If the C-weighted level of a sound is significantly greater than
the A-weighted level, the sound contains high levels of low
frequency components.
3. If the A-weighted level of a sound is greater than the C-
weighted level, the sound contains high levels of components
in the 1000 - 4000 Hz range.

Once you have understood the answers to this exercise you will
have learnt a quick way (i.e. without having to do a full octave
band analysis) of checking where the main frequency components
of a sound lie - which is very important in considering the types of
noise reduction strategies to apply, as we shall see in later
readings.


APPENDICIES AND REVIEW EXERCISE ANSWERS
Appendi x A mat hemat i cal addi t i on and averagi ng
of deci bel s

Addi t i on of deci bel s
The sound pressure levels must first be converted back to p
2
and
then added.

2
ref
2
1
1 p
p
p
log 10
L
= and
2
ref
2
2
2 p
p
p
log 10
L
=

For L
p1
= 100 dB and L
p2
= 98 dB

10 1 p
2
ref
2
1
10 1 10 log anti
10
100
log anti
10
L
log anti
p
p
= = = =

10 2 p
2
ref
2
2
10 63 . 0 8 . 9 log anti
10
98
log anti
10
L
log anti
p
p
= = = =

The total mean-square sound pressure ratio is 1.63 x 10
10
.

The total sound pressure level is:

) total (
Lp
= 10 log (1.63 x 10
10
) = 10 log 1.63 + 10 log 10
10
= 2.1 + 100
= 102.1 dB
= 102 dB to the nearest whole dB.

Note: We did not actually need to find the pressures, but only their
ratios to the reference pressure.

In general, if you want to add any number n of sound pressure
levels (L
p1
, L
p2
to L
pn
) the formula is

L
p
(total) = 10 log (
10
L
log anti ......
10
L
log anti
10
L
log anti
pn 2 p 1 p
+ + + )
(Equation 2.7)

Revi ew Exerci se A1
Add together two sounds of 94 dB and 99 dB

Add together 3 sounds of 96, 89 and 92 dB.

Averagi ng Deci bel s
The average sound pressure level is found using -
L
p
(av) = 10 log
10
L
log anti ......
10
L
log anti
10
L
log anti (
n
1
pn 2 p 1 p
+ + + ) (Equation 2.8)

(i) What is the average sound pressure level of the 4 sounds with
the following sound pressure levels: 82, 90, 88 and 80 dB?

(ii) What (erroneous) answer would you get if you just averaged
the decibel values arithmetically?


Appendi x B One-t hi rd oct ave bands
One-third octave band centre frequencies in the audible range are:
25, 31.5, 40, 50, 63, 80, 100, 125, 160, 200, 250, 315, 400, 500,
630, 800, 1k, 1.25k, 1.6k, 2k, 2.5k, 3.15k, 4k, 5k, 6.3k, 8k, 10k,
12.5k, 16k, 20k Hz.

The lower and upper frequencies of the one-third octave bands are
given by:

122 . 1
f
2
f
f
centre
6 1
centre
lower
= = (Equation 2.11)
f
upper
= f
centre
x 2 = 1.122 x f
centre
(Equation 2.12)

Revi ew Exerci se B1
What are the lower and upper frequencies of the one-third octave
band with a centre frequency of 500 Hz?


Revi ew exerci se answers
2. 1
Using equation 2.4, calculate the sound pressure level of a sound
with a sound pressure of 2 Pa.

Answer
100dB

2. 2
If the sound power level of a machine is 102 dB what are the
sound pressure levels:

at 2m.
at 4m

assuming the source is in a free field.

Answer:
85dB
79dB

2. 3
1. Add together two sounds of 94 dB and 99 dB.
Answer: 100 dB

2. Add together 3 sounds of 96, 89 and 92 dB.
Answer: 98 dB

2. 4
If the sound pressure level at a worker's location is 93 dB with one
machine and the ventilation system operating and it is 87 dB with
the machine switched off and the ventilation still on, what is the
sound pressure level due to the machine by itself?

Answer: 92 dB

2. 5
Question 1
105 dB(C)
Higher

Question 2
99 dB(A)
98 dB(C)
The A-weighted level is higher

Question 3
False
True
True

A1
Add together two sounds of 94 dB and 99 dB.

Answer
100dB

A2
Add together 3 sounds of 96, 89 and 92 dB.

Answer
98dB


A3
(i) What is the average sound pressure level of the 4 sounds with
the following sound pressure levels? 82, 90, 88 and 80 dB?
Answer
87dB

(ii) What (erroneous) answer would you get if you just averaged
the decibel values arithmetically?
Answer
85dB

B1
What are the lower and upper frequencies of the one-third octave
band with a centre frequency of 500 Hz?
Answer
f
lower
= 446 Hz
f
upper
= 561 Hz



CONCLUSION
Now you have completed this reading, you should be familiar with
the terms used to analyse the magnitude of sound waves and their
frequency components.

The decibel scale a logarithmic ratio scale was introduced to
you, along with the terms for the magnitude of a sound (sound
intensity level, L
I
, sound power level, L
W
and sound pressure
level, L
p,
) and their relationships.

Examples of sound pressure levels of everyday sounds were given
for you to become accustomed to the decibel scale.

You have also learnt how to add and subtract decibels, which will
be useful in assessing people's noise exposures to multiple
sources and working out the most cost effective way of reducing
noise exposure in these situations.

The frequency spectrum of a sound has been discussed, followed
by what we mean by frequency analysis into octave bands, one-
third octave bands and narrow bands.

Finally the concept of frequency weighting has been presented,
along with the two weightings most used in occupational noise
measurements the A-weighting and the C-weighting.

Your f eedback
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the time to complete the online Feedback Form at the SafetyLine
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REFERENCES & FURTHER READING
Beranek, L. L, Noise and Vibration Control, Revised Edition,
Institute of Noise Control Engineering, Washington, 1988.

Bies, D.A. and Hansen, C.H., Engineering Noise Control: Theory
and Practice, 3rd Edition, E & FN Spon, London, 2003.

Norton, M. P., Fundamentals of noise and vibration analysis for
engineers, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1989.

01dB, Mediacoustic - Teaching Acoustics by Computer, 01dB,
France 1996. (An interactive CD-ROM)

A brief tutorial refresher on logarithms at the University of
Wisconsin:
www.comdis.wisc.edu/vcd202/Logs.html

Information on Alexander Graham Bell (1847-1922), the
Scottish/American inventor of the telephone and worker for the
deaf:
www.sjsu.edu/depts/Museum/bel.html

On-line calculator for addition of decibels:
www.sengpielaudio.com/calculator-spl.htm

Analysis of Sound Waves

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