Meter & Style

By

Joel Phillip Van Dersarl

Preface To The Impromptu First Edition

In my first posts on meter and style I covered, with some

flaw, the basics of versification. Now, here, I propose to handle
the issue once again. And in doing so, hope to recap not only for
the reader but for myself as well. Hence, the following is a
series of notes; I have written, rewritten, and throw away in the
hope of making them more coherent. However, there may be points
when they are not. For the aforementioned flaw... I apologize.
Nevertheless, I feel the interested reader will find this of some
significance.

Chapter One
Notes on Metrics

When learning the craft of verse, one must begin with three
definitions. The first is the word rhythm, and it may be defined
as “the flow of sounds in written or spoken language.”* The other
two definitions, prosody and meter, are used in understanding that
flow of sounds. Prosody may be defined as “the art or science of
versification; specifically (a) The systematic study of metrical
structure, including varieties of poetic feet and meter, rhymes
and rhyming patterns, types of stanzas, strophes, and fixed forms.
(b) A particular system or theory of versification or of metrical
compositions. e.g. Horace’s Prosody.
For the purposes of this book, a few principal symbols for
representing prosody need demonstrated. They are, Ictus or
accent;( ‘ ) secondary accent; ( | ) a division between feet.
Thus,

‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘

The dot | is show | ing stress; | the dash | is show |

‘
ing feet. |

To return to our definitions, meter may be thus defined as

“Systematically arranged and measured rhythm in verse; specifically
(a) The property of a verse that is divided up into feet or syllabic
groups. (b) The pattern of a verse marked by the prevailing foot
and the number of feet.
For memory recap the three terms discussed above:
1. Rhythm
2. Prosody
3. Meter

Before discussing the use of meter, we must over come one

other word: scansion, and here I will resort to the dictionary.
To-”scan: (of verse) to conform to the rules of meter*,
specifically (a) to go through verse foot by foot distinguishing
the metrical structure.”
1

Any kind of written language, even prose, can be scanned. The

only thing that must be understood and utilized, in order for
prose to be properly scanned, is a slightly different method of
determining accented and unaccented syllables. For this you will
need two symbols. The symbols are u the breve and - the macron.
The u is for denoting unstressed syllables, and the - is for
denoting stressed syllables. (See footnote: breve and macron)
Thus, u - u - u - u - u - u - u -
_____ if you will note the marks above this line of text, it will
scan into seven unstressed syllables, where each is followed by an
accent.

The iamb is a metrical foot that would be shown as u- in

scansion. If you look back at the example in the above paragraph
you will notice that there are seven iambs. These Iambs are only
one kind of metrical foot; of the others there are trochee,
NOTE:
The virgule / is a stroke that is used to indicate a division between
verses, not verse feet.
* Definitions denoted with an asterix have been quoted from Webster's New
Collegiate Dictionary.
dactyl, anapest, spondee, and three more that which sometimes
occur; the phyric; tribrach, and the amphimacer.

* Iamb: when represented in scansion u- is the pattern

of syllables that make up the iambic foot.

* Trochee: when represented in scansion -u is the pattern

of syllables that make up the trochaic foot

* Dactyl: when represented in scansion -uu is the pattern

of syllables that make up the dactilic foot.

* Anapest: when represented in scansion uu-- is the pattern

of syllables that make up the anapestic foot.

* Spondee: when represented in scansion -- is the pattern

of syllables that make up the spondaic foot.

* Phyric: when represented in scansion uu is the pattern

of syllables that make up the phyric foot.

* Tribrack: when represented in scansion uuu is the pattern

of syllables that make up the tribrackic.

* Amphimacer: when represented in scansion uuu is the pattern

of syllables that make up the amphimacer.
2

A few quick explanations, then:

1. Normative Meter: The "meter" of a poem is determined by the type and
number of feet which appear in a single line. A line which consists
of 4 iambs is called "iambic tetrameter"; a line which consists of 3
trochees is called "trochaic trimeter." The most common meter in
English is "iambic pentameter," i.e., 5 iambs. This basic pattern
is called the "normative meter" of a poem.
2. Measure: a collection of metrical feet. i.e., as mono- means one; di-
means two; tri-means three; tetra- means four; hexa- means six; and
so forth it is the measure that becomes longer.

2
The breve and macron are meant to be used as quantitative symbols -- i.e.
They do not denote measure--the quality of metrical verse--therefore, when
represented in metrical verse, units with more that one stressed or unstressed
syllable should be shown as ‘ or |.
Hence,

* Monometer: A line made up of one metrical unit, as in the

phrase ‘ | I left |.’

* Diameter: A line made up of two metrical units, as in the

praise ‘| I left | the store |.

* Trimeter: A line made up of three metrical units, an is the

sentence ‘| we both | had left | the store |.’

* Tetrameter: A line made up of four metrical units, as in

the sentence ‘| we both | had left | the store |
to run |’.

* Pentameter: A line made up of five metrical units, as in

the sentence ‘| we both | had left | the store |
to run | and play |.’

* Hexameter: A line made up of six metrical units, as in

the following ‘| we both | had left | the store |
to run | and play | but mike |.’

* Octometer: A line made up of eight metrical units, as in

the sentence ‘| we both | had left | the store |
to run | and play | but mike |
was sick | of rain |.’

In the above examples the phrases and sentences consist

purely of iambs; the Iamb is by far the most common within English
verse. However, when the measure becomes longer we often find that
it is fairly uncommon. Within normal speech, it is hard to find
more than a few Iambs grouped together. After all, There is
nothing more monotonous or boring than a regular beat carried over
an extended length of time.
Thus Iambic Pentameter, lines of five metrical feet, have
something--for our purposes here--we’ll call substitutions. These
substitutions or variations of rhythmical patterns are what
separates a poet from a versifier. Therefore, when a poet sets a
normative meter in his verses he puts in the mind of the reader a
flow of sounds deliberately designed for effect; an effect that
comes from the following.
 Normative Iambic Pentameter

The Trochee Substitutions:

In the following examples, capital letters represent the substitutions.

A. Substitution in the 1st foot.

‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘
| RAINing | and rain | ing syll | ables, | in Line |

B. Substitution in the 2nd foot.

‘ ‘ ‘ ‘
| as beats | CHANGE in | the flow | of sounds. | And then |

C. Substitution in the 3rd foot.

‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘
| again | the rain | STARTS in | with sounds | in time |

D. Substitution in the 4th foot.

‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘
| and rain | ing syll | ables | FLOW to| the line.|

NOTICE that in the above examples, I have not included a

substitution in the fifth metrical for. The reason being, some
problems occur when substituting a trochee in the last foot. For
instance, If a rhyme were to fall in the last syllable of last
foot, in line D, one would have to rhyme the stressed syllable of
D with the following unstressed syllable of the next line. This
rhyming--out of stress--might throw the reader for a loop, so it
is best if you avoid last foot substitutions of the trochee.
REMEMBER that you can substitute up to half of an iambic
line; But what is important here is that you never substitute more
than half of the feet. If you do, then, the normative meter is
lost.
Here are the other types of substitutions within Iambic normative meter.

A. Trochee substitutions in the 1st & 4th foot.

‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘
| RAINing | and rain | ing they | WENT to | the night |

If example a were to occur in the second life of a verse it would be

fine; however, if it were to occur as the first line, the reader might read
the line as trocaic.

To recapitulate the main points, then:

1. Rhythm is the flow of cadences in written or spoken
language.
2. Prosody is the science or art of versification.
3. Meter is the pattern of a verse.
4. Scansion is: (a) To conform to the rules of meter by going
through verse foot by foot distinguishing the metrical
structure (b) Denoted by u the breve and - the macron. (c)
only attempts to establish a norm--normative meter, for no
poet writes in strictly regular measures.
5. Iambic pentameter is a grouping of five metrical feet.
6. Trochee substitutions may be made in any foot with a line
of verse besides the last.
7. Trochee substitutes of more than one should occur in the
second line of verse.

The Spondee Substitutions:

A. Substitution in the 1st foot.

‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘
| NO MORE | the mul | titude | of words | is locked |
 B. Substitution in the 2nd foot.

‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘
| The whole | EARTH SINGS | the tunes | of days | and ways |

C. Substitution in the 3rd foot.

‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘
| The last | of them | SANG HYMNS | and the | earth cried |

D. Substitution in the 4th foot.

‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘
| With tears | of blues | and grays | FAR DEEP | er still |

E. Substitution in the 5th foot.

‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘
| than all | the seas | and lakes | and their | SAD HUES |

NOTICE how in example A., the word multitude falls within the
line, and how in the previous example it falls differently. ALL
words can fall in any place within a line, but you cannot change
their sound. However, there is a way to drop a syllable from a
word, which we will go into later.

In the forth foot of example C. you may have notice that their are two
soft syllables followed by two long syllables; these syllables are the topic
of this next section.

The Double Iamb Substitutions:

While the double iamb is not considered a substitution, it is

the combination of two different metrical feet to make a new
combination of sounds. This new combination of sounds is formed
from a pyrrhic foot followed by a spondaic foot. The new double
ionic foot is the topic of this section.
 A. Substitution in the 1st Foot

‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘
| AS THE | COLD WIND | and rain | within | the storm | {ing}*

B. Substitution in the 2nd Foot

‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘
| The rain | IN THE | PARK STOPPED | to laugh | at all |

C. Substitution in the 3rd Foot

‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘
| Within | the storm | ING OF | ALL SYLL | ables |

D. Substitution in the 4th Foot

‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘
| The mus | ic waits | to play | AND THE | MUSE SINGS |

We have worked out the basic substitutions; that of the

trochee; that of the spondee; and that of the double iamb. So,
now, we can create a normative metered iambic line that has only
one true iamb. This line I call the singular Iamb.

The singular Iamb lines:

A. The Double Iamb in the 1st/2nd feet:

| In the | cold depths | of morn | bury | thy bones |

B. The Double Iamb in the 2nd/3rd feet:

| And fling | them in | like old | bits of | whole bread |

 C. The double Iamb in the 3rd/ 4th foot:

| throw them | down, down | in the | cold pit | of morn, |

Of coarse, you can flip the trochee and the spondee around, like so. However,
if you are not careful the line can sound jumbled.

D. With the spondee and trochee flipped:

| just don’t | leave them | to the | full moon, | but throw |

E. The double Iamb in the 4th/ 5th feet:

| throw them | sad things | away | to the | morn’s cold. |

The Anapestic Substitution:

(Avoid or use with caution)

The anapest can be substituted in strict iambic pentameter in

any foot besides the first. However, it should be reserved for
altering the meaning of metaphors, words, or phrases. If it is
used too frequently within the line, or if used simply as any
other foot is, the reader might read the line as a different meter
then originally intended. I.e. Us as a modifier.

This is a complicated issue, given what it entails, but here

are two examples. In the first example the anapestic foot is used
simply as any other foot, while in the second it is used to
modify. Can you hear the difference?

A.

‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘
| it's slow | ing fing | URES MOVE ON | but you | feel lost |
The above line may be scanned as:

‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘
| it's slow | ing fing | URES MOVE | ON but | you feel | lost ?|

It is only an example, but poorly placed anapests can have a

very bad sounds; it is best that they are used with some thought,
as is the following, where the word “Brownian” is a reference to
the scientist who described the random motions of molecules.

B.
‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘
/DOWN to/ the BROWN/i an MOVE/ meant of/ PAIL STREAMS/ [3]

Here, in the second example, the anapestic foot relates directly to the
man who discovered the random motion of molecules in liquid state elements.
When the anapest is used like this, the extra syllable leads the mind to an
understanding of the meaning.

Now, there is one more substitution that is considered

acceptable in strict iambic pentameter. The headless Iamb or
acephalous will be our next topic.
The acephalous should be used only after the first line, and
only in the first foot of those lines. Try to avoid using to many of
these, because they can easily be read as trochiac.

The Headless Iamb:

A.

‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘
| ^ LEAP | ing like | a cat | but nev | er land | ing right |

We’ve come to the end of our definitions, at least for now, so I

leave you with the thoughts of Paul Valery... This extension of
the hand, if you will, is offered in the hopes of saying, “your
confusion is not unwarranted.”
 from Remarks on Poetry

“Speech is a complex thing; it is a combination of properties

at once linked in fact and in dependent by nature and fiction. A
discourse may be logical and full of sense, but without rhythm or
measure; it may be agreeable to the ear, and completely absurd or
meaningless; it may be clear and useless, vague and delightful...
But to grasp its strange multiplicity, it is enough to enumerate
all the sciences created to deal with this diversity, each to
exploit one of the elements. One may study a text of phonetics,
semantics, syntax, logic, and rhetoric--not forgetting metrics and
etymology.
Here, then, is the poet at grips with this shifting and
adulterated matter, forced to by turns on the sound and the
meaning, on the musical phrase, and again on various intellectual
conditions such as logic, grammar, the poems subject, figures,
ornaments of all kinds-- not to mention conventional rules.
Consider what an effort is implied in the undertaking to finish
satisfactorily a discourse in which so many requirements must be
miraculously satisfied at the same time!
Here begin the uncertain and painstaking operations of the
literary art.”