LAN PERIPHERALS

TRANSMISSION MEDIA
Data is transmitted over copper wires, fiber optic cable, radio
and microwaves. The term 'media' is used to generically refer to the
physical connectors, wires or devices used to plug things together.

Basic Communications Media Types

• Copper
o Unshielded Twisted Pair (3,5,5e,6,7)
o Shielded Twisted Pair
o Coaxial Cable (Thinnet, Thicknet)
o Heliax
• Fiber Optic
o Single-mode
o Multi-mode

COPPER

Coaxial Cable

. Coaxial cable consists of a copper wire core surrounded by a

plastic cladding sheathed in a wire mesh. Coaxial cable comes in two
sizes which are called thinnet and thicknet.

Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)

If you use two pairs of wires to enable two communications
circuits, one for transmit, and one for receive and If you twist the
wires of each pair, you can place them much closer together.
There are several grades of coaxial cable with category ratings.
There are Category 3 (<10 Mbps), Category 5 (10 Mbps),
Category 5e (10/100 Mbps) and Category 6 (100/1000 Mbps)
versions of unshielded twisted pair.

Fiber Optic

Single Mode
 Single mode fiber refers to the fact that only a single
wavelength (one color of light) is transmitted over the
physical medium. Typically, single mode fiber is true doped
fiberglass fibers wrapped in a plastic cladding. Single mode
typically has much longer reach, but a larger bend radius
than multi-mode.

Dispersion Shifted

Non-Dispersion Shifted

Non-Zero Dispersion-Shifted

Multi-Mode

Multi-mode fiber can carry multiple wavelengths, is

made of special clear plastic materials and has a much
smaller bend radius than single mode fiber. Multi-mode does
not have as long a reach as single mode fiber.

Step Index

Graded-Index

MEDIA ACCESS UNIT (MAU)

A MAU is a repeater device used to connect Token Ring devices
into a physical star topology. There are two types of MAUs, active and
passive. Active MAUs are electrically powered from a separate source
and passive MAUs run on the power from the network connections.

Transceivers are also referred to as Medium Access Units

(MAUs). They are used to connect nodes to the various Ethernet
media. Most computers and network interface cards contain a built-in
10BASE-T or 10BASE2 transceiver which allows them to be connected
directly to Ethernet without the need for an external transceiver.

Many Ethernet devices provide an attachment unit interface

(AUI) connector to allow the user to connect to any type of medium via
an external transceiver. The AUI connector consists of a 15-pin D-shell
type connector, female on the computer side, male on the transceiver
side.

For Fast Ethernet networks, a new interface called the MII (Media
Independent Interface) was developed to offer a flexible way to
support 100 Mbps connections. The MII is a popular way to connect
100BASE-FX links to copper-based Fast Ethernet devices.

HUBS
Hubs are repeater devices designed to replicate a signal on one
port and replicating it on all other ports. This works very well for small
network segments where there are only a few devices. However, in
highly populated Ethernet networks, this can create a collision domain
which experiences a collision rate that is so high, no data can be
transmitted.

Hubs/repeaters are used to connect together two or more

segments of any type of medium. In larger designs, signal quality
begins to deteriorate as segments exceed their maximum length.

Hubs provide the signal amplification required to allow a

segment to be extended a greater distance. A hub repeats any
incoming signal to all ports. Hubs are necessary in star topologies
such as 10BASE-T. A multi-port twisted pair hub allows several point-
to-point segments to be joined into one network. One end of the point-
to-point link is attached to the hub and the other is attached to the
computer. If the hub is attached to a backbone, then all computers at
the end of the twisted pair segments can communicate with all the
hosts on the backbone.

BRIDGES

Bridges connect two LAN segments of similar or dissimilar types,

such as Ethernet and Token Ring. This allows two Ethernet segments
to behave like a single Ethernet allowing any pair of computers on the
extended Ethernet to communicate. Bridges are transparent therefore
computers don’t know whether a bridge separates them.

Bridges map the Ethernet addresses of the nodes residing on

each network segment and allow only necessary traffic to pass
through the bridge. When a packet is received by the bridge, the
bridge determines the destination and source segments. If the
segments are the same, the packet is dropped or also referred to as
“filtered"; if the segments are different, then the packet is "forwarded"
to the correct segment. Additionally, bridges do not forward bad or
misaligned packets.
 Bridges are also called "store-and-forward" devices because
they look at the whole Ethernet packet before making filtering or
forwarding decisions. Filtering packets and regenerating forwarded
packets enables bridging technology to split a network into separate
collision domains. Bridges are able to isolate network problems; if
interference occurs on one of two segments, the bridge will receive
and discard an invalid frame keeping the problem from affecting the
other segment. This allows for greater distances and more repeaters
to be used in the total network design.

SWITCHES
LAN switches link multiple networks together and have two
basic architectures: cut-through and store-and-forward. In the past,
cut-through switches were faster because they examined the packet
destination address only before forwarding it on to its destination
segment. A store-and-forward switch works like a bridge in a way that
it accepts and analyzes the entire packet before forwarding it to its
destination.

Historically, store-and-forward took more time to examine the

entire packet, although one benefit was that it allowed the switch to
catch certain packet errors and keep them from propagating through
the network. Today, the speed of store-and-forward switches has
caught up with cut-through switches so the difference between the
two is minimal. Also, there are a large number of hybrid switches
available that mix both cut-through and store-and-forward
architectures.

Both cut-through and store-and-forward switches separate a

network into collision domains, allowing network design rules to be
extended. Each of the segments attached to an Ethernet switch has a
full 10 Mbps of bandwidth shared by fewer users, which results in
better performance (as opposed to hubs that only allow bandwidth
sharing from a single Ethernet). Newer switches today offer high-
speed links, either Fast Ethernet, Gigabit Ethernet, 10 Gigabit Ethernet
or ATM. These are used to link switches together or give added
bandwidth to high-traffic servers. A network composed of a number of
switches linked together via uplinks is termed a "collapsed backbone"
network.

Switches occupy the same place in the network as hubs. Unlike

hubs, switches examine each packet and process it accordingly rather
than simply repeating the signal to all ports. Switches map the
Ethernet addresses of the nodes residing on each network segment
and then allow only the necessary traffic to pass through the switch.
When a packet is received by the switch, the switch examines the
destination and source hardware addresses and compares them to a
table of network segments and addresses. If the segments are the
same, the packet is dropped or "filtered"; if the segments are
different, then the packet is "forwarded" to the proper segment.
Additionally, switches prevent bad or misaligned packets from
spreading by not forwarding them.

ROUTERS
A router is specialized computer device connected to more than
one network. It runs software that allows it to move data from one
network to another. Routers operate at the network layer (OSI layer 3).
The primary function of a router is to connect networks together and
keep certain kinds of broadcast traffic under control. There are several
companies that make routers: Cisco, Juniper, Nortel (Bay Networks),
Redback, Lucent, 3Com, and HP just to name a few.

Routers perform the following functions:

o Restrict network broadcasts to the local LAN

o Act as the default gateway.
o Move data between networks
o Learn and advertise loop free paths between sub-
networks.

A router is a device that forwards data packets along networks,

and determines which way to send each data packet based on its
current understanding of the state of its connected networks. Routers
are typically connected to at least two networks, commonly two LANs
or WANs or a LAN and its Internet Service Provider’s (ISPs) network.
Routers are located at gateways, the places where two or more
networks connect.

Routers filter out network traffic by specific protocol rather than

by packet address. Routers also divide networks logically instead of
physically. An IP router can divide a network into various subnets so
that only traffic destined for particular IP addresses can pass between
segments. Network speed often decreases due to this type of
intelligent forwarding. Such filtering takes more time than that
exercised in a switch or bridge, which only looks at the Ethernet
address. However, in more complex networks, overall efficiency is
improved by using routers.

MODEMS
A modem is an communication device which allows your computer to
communicate with other computers over a communications link. The modem's job is
to convert your data into the format used on the communications connection and
the remote modem converts that transmission back into data. Examples of modems
include a standard fax/phone modem, a cable modem or a DSL modem or even a
satellite modem. All modems perform what is called modulation to encode your
data into the line signal and demodulation to decode it from the line signal. The
term MODEM is short for Modulator/Demodulator.

Modems come in many shapes and sizes but can be generally broken down
into two categories, internal and external. As the names imply, an internal modem
goes inside your computer into either an ISA or PCI slot. External modems are
attached to the computer through some other connection but are physically outside
the computer case.

Modems perform modulation of the analog signal they put out, and
demodulation of the signal they receive. They do this by mixing two signals in a
digital signal processor and transmitting the analog result to the phone system as
the electrical equivalent of sound. Here is a list of the protocols. The Bell protocols
were developed by Bell Telephone prior to the government's breakup of that
monopoly. The CCITT is an international standards body, which changed it's name
later to the ITU (International Telecommunications Union).

MODULATI
SPEED IN USE
ON
Bell 103 300 bps Dead
Bell 212A 600 bps Dead
CCITT V.21 900 bps Rare
ITU V.22 1,200 bps Rare
ITU V.29 9,600 Uncommon
ITU V.32 14,400 Uncommon
28,800
ITU V.32bis Yes
downlink/uplink
33,600 downlink
ITU V.34 Yes
28,800 uplink
ITU V.90,
56k downlink*
K56flex & Yes
~28,800 Uplink
x2
56k downlink*
ITU V.92 Yes
33k Uplink
NETWORK INTERFACE CARDS
Network Interface Cards, commonly referred to as NICs, are used
to connect a PC to a network. The NIC provides a physical connection
between the networking cable and the computer's internal bus.
Different computers have different bus architectures. PCI bus slots are
most commonly found on 486/Pentium PCs and ISA expansion slots
are commonly found on 386 and older PCs. NICs come in three basic
varieties: 8-bit, 16-bit, and 32-bit. The larger the number of bits that
can be transferred to the NIC, the faster the NIC can transfer data to
the network cable. Most NICs are designed for a particular type of
network, protocol, and medium, though some can serve multiple
networks.

Many NIC adapters comply with plug-and-play specifications. On

these systems, NICs are automatically configured without user
intervention, while on non-plug-and-play systems, configuration is
done manually through a set-up program and/or DIP switches.

Cards are available to support almost all networking standards.

Fast Ethernet NICs are often 10/100 capable, and will automatically set
to the appropriate speed. Gigabit Ethernet NICs are 10/100/1000
capable with auto negotiation depending on the user’s Ethernet
speed. Full duplex networking is another option where a dedicated
connection to a switch allows a NIC to operate at twice the speed.
DEVICE SERVERS
A device server is “a specialized network-based hardware
device designed to perform a single or specialized set of functions
with client access independent of any operating system or proprietary
protocol.”

Device servers allow independence from proprietary protocols

and the ability to meet a number of different functions. The RAID
controller application discussed above is just one of many applications
where device servers can be used to put any device or "machine" on
the network.

PCs have been used to network serial devices with some

success. This, however, required the product with the serial port to
have software able to run on the PC, and then have that application
software allow the PC's networking software to access the application.
This task equaled the problems of putting Ethernet on the serial
device itself so it wasn’t a satisfactory solution.

To be successful, a device server must provide a simple solution

for networking a device and allow access to that device as if it were
locally available through its serial port. Additionally, the device server
should provide for the multitude of connection possibilities that a
device may require on both the serial and network sides of a
connection. Should the device be connected all the time to a specific
host or PC? Are there multiple hosts or network devices that may want
or need to connect to the newly-networked serial device? Are there
specific requirements for an application which requires the serial
device to reject a connection from the network under certain
circumstances? The bottom line is a server must have both the
flexibility to service a multitude of application requirements and be
able to meet all the demands of those applications.

Device servers are currently used in a wide variety of

environments in which machinery, instruments, sensors and other
discrete devices generate data that was previously inaccessible
through enterprise networks. They are also used for security systems,
point-of-sale applications, network management and many other
applications where network access to a device is required.
As device servers become more widely adopted and implemented into
specialized applications, we can expect to see variations in size,
mounting capabilities and enclosures. Device servers are also
available as embedded devices, capable of providing instant
networking support for developers of future products where
connectivity will be required.

Print servers, terminal servers, remote access servers and

network time servers are examples of device servers which are
specialized for particular functions. Each of these types of servers has
unique configuration attributes in hardware or software that help them
to perform best in their particular arena.

EXAMPLES

• External Device Servers

External device servers are stand-alone serial-to-

wireless (802.11b) or serial-to-Ethernet device servers that can put
just about any device with serial connectivity on the network in a
matter of minutes so it can be managed remotely.

External device servers provide the ability to remotely

control, monitor, diagnose and troubleshoot equipment over a
network or the Internet. By opting for a powerful external
device with full network and web capabilities, companies are
able to preserve their present equipment investments.

Wireless (WiBox®): Providing a whole new level of flexibility

and mobility, these devices allow users to connect devices that are
inaccessible via cabling. Users can also add intelligence to their
businesses by putting mobile devices, such as medical instruments or
warehouse equipment, on networks.

Security (SecureBox® SDS1100 and SDS2100): Ideal for

protecting data such as business transactions, customer information,
financial records, etc., these devices provide enhanced security for
networked devices.

Commercial (UDS-10, UDS100, UDS200, MSS4, MSS100,

MSS485-T and CoBox-FL): These devices enable users to network-
enable their existing equipment (such as POS devices, AV equipment,
medical instruments, etc.) simply and cost-effectively, without the
need for special software.

Industrial (UDS-10-IAP, UDS100-IAP, CoBox-FL-IAP, XPress-DR

and XPress-DR-IAP): For heavy-duty factory applications, Lantronix
offers a full complement of industrial-strength external device servers
designed for use with manufacturing, assembly and factory
automation equipment. All models support Modbus industrial
protocols.

• Embedded Device Servers

Embedded device servers integrate all the required hardware

and software into a single embedded device. They use a device’s
serial port to web-enable or network-enable products quickly and
easily without the complexities of extensive hardware and software
integration. Embedded device servers are typically plug-and-play
solutions that operate independently of a PC and usually include a
wireless or Ethernet connection, operating system, an embedded web
server, a full TCP/IP protocol stack, and some sort of encryption for
secure communications.

• Module (XPort® and WiPort™): These devices allow users

tonetwork-enable just about any electronic device with
Ethernet and/or wireless connectivity.

• Board-Level (Micro, Micro100, MSSLite, Mini, UDS-10B and

UDS100B): Users can integrate networking capabilities onto
the circuit boards of equipment like factory machinery,
security systems and medical devices.

• Single-Chip Solutions (DSTni-LX, DSTni-EX): These

powerful, system-on-chip solutions help users address
networking issues early in the design cycle to support the
most popular embedded networking technologies.

• Terminal Servers

Terminal servers are used to enable terminals to transmit data to

and from host computers across LANs, without requiring each terminal
to have its own direct connection. And while the terminal server's
existence is still justified by convenience and cost considerations, its
inherent intelligence provides many more advantages. Among these is
enhanced remote monitoring and control. Terminal servers that
support protocols like SNMP make networks easier to manage.
Devices that are attached to a network through a server can be
shared between terminals and hosts at both the local site and
throughout the network. A single terminal may be connected to
several hosts at the same time (in multiple concurrent sessions), and
can switch between them. Terminal servers are also used to network
devices that have only serial outputs. A connection between serial
ports on different servers is opened, allowing data to move between
the two devices.

• Print Servers

Print servers enable printers to be shared by other users on the

network. Supporting either parallel and/or serial interfaces, a print
server accepts print jobs from any person on the network using
supported protocols and manages those jobs on each appropriate
printer.

The earliest print servers were external devices, which

supported printing via parallel or serial ports on the device. Typically,
only one or two protocols were supported. The latest generations of
print servers support multiple protocols, have multiple parallel and
serial connection options and, in some cases, are small enough to fit
directly on the parallel port of the printer itself. Some printers have
embedded or internal print servers. This design has an integral
communication benefit between printer and print server, but lacks
flexibility if the printer has physical problems.

Print servers generally do not contain a large amount of

memory; printers simply store information in a queue. When the
desired printer becomes available, they allow the host to transmit the
data to the appropriate printer port on the server. The print server
can then simply queue and print each job in the order in which print
requests are received, regardless of protocol used or the size of the
job.

• Console Servers

Console servers provide the flexibility of both standard and

emergency remote access via attachment to the network or to a
modem. Remote console management serves as a valuable tool to
help maximize system uptime and system operating costs.

Secured console servers provide familiar tools to leverage the

console or emergency management port built into most serial devices,
including servers, switches, routers, telecom equipment - anything in
a rack - even if the network is down. They also supply complete in-
band and out-of-band local and remote management for the data
center with tools such as telnet and SSH that help manage the
performance and availability of critical business information systems.

KEYBOARDS
A keyboard is a long flat device that has 102, 104 or more keys on it that is
designed to allow a user to type data and feed it into the computer.

Keyboards are attached to either the PS2 port or the USB port on your
computer. Keyboards draw electrical power from the computer, detect your
keystrokes and transmit the keystrokes back to the computer.

(a)Types of Keyboards
WINDOWS KEYBOARDS
Windows keyboards aren't all that special. You DO NOT need a
Windows keyboard to work with a Windows computer. The Windows
keyboard contains one special key that opens up the context menu in
Windows. Most computer stores that sell keyboards call Windows
keyboards 'standard keyboards', so like it or not, you often get a
Windows keyboard whether you want it or not.
MAC KEYBOARDS
Yes, MacIntosh computers DO use a special keyboard. The Mac
computer has the following special keys: 'Open Apple', 'Closed
Apple', 'cmd', 'Option' and 'Alt' which are not found on other
keyboards. Yes, other keyboards will work, but the keys won't be
marked correctly and you may have to guess which key is which.
MULTIMEDIA KEYBOARDS
Multimedia is a term used to describe anything that combines audio,
video and/or graphics. Multi-media keyboards often have a
Pause/Play and volume buttons on them for controlling audio and
video players configured on the computer. These keyboards don't
work with all multimedia applications and you have to install special
drivers just to get these keyboards to work. If you can't figure out
how to change the volume on Windows media player or in WinAmp,
you're probably going to have a hard time getting your spiffy new
multimedia keyboard to work (since you must install the driver and
installing drives is far more difficult than changing the volume
setting).

WIRELESS KEYBOARDS
These are keyboards that do not use a physical wire to communicate
with the computer. A small object is connected to the keyboard port
(PS2 or USB port) and that small device communicates with the
keyboard using a radio frequency. Problems with this technology:
radio interfereance--someone else might be using the same
keyboard you are or using a device that uses the same radio
 frequencies. Second problem--a standard keyboard draws electricity
from the computer through the port it is connected to. Wireless
keyboards aren't plugged into the computer so they can't draw
power. Therefore, all wireless keyboards (and mice) use batteries.
When the batteries go dead, the keyboard goes dead and you can't
use your computer.

MOUSE
The computer mouse is a display-selection device used to 'point and click' on
various things on your computer. The graphical user interface (GUI) often uses a
graphical pointer to indicate the currently pointed-to location on the computer's
display. The computer mouse is the conception of Douglas Engelbart, head of the
self-founded Augmentation Research Center of Stanford University's Research
Institute. Englebart designed and sketched out the concept for a mouse, performed
studies on effictive interface devices (with ARPA research dollars) and Bill English
built it. Not Apple, Not Xerox. It was the Advanced Research Projects
Administration that brought you this cute little point-and-click thingy we are all so
attached to. That's right, the United States Government funded the development of
the mouse.

Internally, a standard mouse consists of a roller ball a guide wheel and two
sensor wheels. When the mouse is moved, the roller ball moves the sensor wheels.
The sensor wheels detect this movement, calculate the ammount and send data to
the computer to indicate how much and in which direction the digital pointer on the
screen should move.

Types of Mice
• STANDARD MOUSE
This type of mouse comes in a two button and three button design.
The two button mouse has a left mouse button and a right mouse
button.
• WHEEL MICE
Wheel mice have a rolling wheel between the two mouse buttons.
Most graphical user interfaces (GUI) have scroll bars for areas where
the content of the window exceeds the size of the display device.
• OPTICAL MICE
This s a mouse that uses an optical sensor instead of a rolling ball.
The advertised advantage is accuracy, but the real advantage is a
clean mouse that never gets dirty as roller-based mice are prone to
do.
• GAME MICE
These are special mice that the mouse manufacturers claim are more
accurate and which respond faster. These mice often have buttons
that can be programmed to perform special functions within a game.
• WIRELESS MICE
These mice use a radio frequency or infrared transmitter to
communicate with a 'base station' that is connected to the computer.
• WIRELESS OPTICAL MICE
 This is a mouse that combines the features of an optical and a
wireless mouse.

COMPUTER SOFTWARE
Software is a sets of instructions telling the computer how to process store
and retreive data. Software is divided into two broad categories, Operating Systems
and Applications.

OPERATING SYSTEMS
Operating Systems run the computer and provide us with an interface with
which to issue commands to the computer system. There are many varieties of
operating systems. The differences between them stem from the hardware they
were originally designed to run on and who engineers and manufactures the
software.

IBM Produced a number of operating systems including OS/360 for

mainframes and OS/2 for desktop and personal computers. To sell their Personal
Computers (PC's), IBM contracted with Microsoft to install a variation of "Quick and
Dirty DOS" on all IBM PC's sold. This "Quick and Dirty DOS" became Microsoft DOS.

Microsoft is the most well know manufacturer of operating systems today.

Microsoft got their lead by making an exclusive deal with IBM in 1981 to include
their variation of "Quick and Dirty DOS" operating system on every "IBM Personal
Computer" microcomputer sold. Ever since that time, the vast majority of Intel-
processor based computers have shipped with Microsoft operating systems on
them. The most recent version is Microsoft Windows XP.

Types of Operating Systems

Operating systems can be divided into two broad categories. Those that are
designed to run on workstations, PC's and microcomputers and those designed to
run on massive computers often referred to as 'big iron', or mainframes. This
section currently focuses on those operating systems that run on workstations and
smaller, non-mainframe servers.

(a) Mainframe Operating Systems

• IBM System 370, 380, 390
• AIX (IBM Unix)
• VMS (VAX)
 • DEC Operating System

(b)Computer Operating Systems

UNIX

• BSD
• HP-UX
• Solaris
• Tru64

LINUX

• Red Hat
• Suse
• Slackware
• YellowDog (Linux on MacIntosh)
• OS2/Warp

Microsoft Operating Systems

• MS-DOS (command-line)
• Windows 3.1
• Windows 95
• WIndows ME
• Windows NT
• Windows 2000
• Windows XP

Apple Operating Systems

• Mac OS 7
• Mac OS 8
• Mac OS 9
• Mac OS X

COMPUTER DEVICE DRIVERS

Device drivers are small pieces of software that provide the operating system
with easier access to the hardware. Drivers are installed for every device on the
computer. Some devices such as disk drives, the processor and the chipset on the
motherboard are shipped with the operating system (the operating system wouldn't
be able to get up and running without them). Other drivers must be installed after
installing a new device. The manufacturer of the device will provide drivers if the
operating system does not support the device. Drivers for any given device will
differ by operating system and version. This means that a video card manufacturer
may not make a driver for the particular operating system you are using. This is
especially the case when you have an old operating system and a brand new piece
of hardware. Drivers are free, come with the hardware and usually can be
downloaded from the manufacturer's website as well. If your game crashes
whenever it switches in and out of the game, you probably need to update your
video drivers. If your computer's sound goes berzerk and then it crashes, you might
need to update the sound drivers.

Driver problems are more likely to be an issue on Windows based computers

instead of MacIntosh computers. This is NOT because Windows computers are 'more
complicated', it's because there are more CHOICES with Windows computers. There
are many times more devices available to be installed on Windows-compatible
computers. Microsoft also assumes you are smart enough to handle drivers yourself.