Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
Prepared by Group 1
RICERCA
2 Research process
18
• Steps in the process of research
• Problem discovery 19
• Problem definition 19
19
• Research objectives
• Developing hypothesis for a particular 20
problem
• Research design 21
21
• Research method 22
• Data collection – sources and tools
23
• Sampling methods 23
• Use of scales in research
24
• Data processing 24
• Data analysis 25
• Research report
Chapter 2 - Research Process
1. RESEARCH FUNDAMENTALS
MEANING OF RESEARCH
Research in common parlance refers to a search for knowledge. One can also define
research as a scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific
topic. In fact, research is an art of scientific investigation. The Advanced Learner’s
Dictionary of Current English lays down the meaning of research as a careful
investigation or inquiry specially through search for new facts in any branch of
knowledge. Redman and Mory define research as a “systematized effort to gain new
knowledge.” Some people consider research as a movement from the known to the
unknown. It is actually a voyage of discovery. We all possess the vital instinct of
inquisitiveness for, when the unknown confronts us, we wonder and our
inquisitiveness makes us probe and attain full and fuller understanding of the
unknown. This inquisitiveness is the mother of all knowledge and the method, which
man employs for obtaining the knowledge of whatever the unknown, can be termed
as research.
OBJECTIVE OF RESEARCH
Research can either be applied (or action) research or fundamental (or basic or
pure) research. Applied research aims at finding a solution for an immediate
problem facing a society or an industrial/business organization, whereas
fundamental research is mainly concerned with generalizations and with the
formulation of a theory. “Gathering knowledge for knowledge’s sake is termed as
pure or ‘basic’ research”. Research concerning some natural phenomenon or relating
to pure mathematics are examples of fundamental. Similarly, research studies,
concerning human behavior carried on with a view to make generalizations about
human behavior, are also examples of fundamental research, but research aimed at
certain conclusions (say, a solution) facing a concrete social or business problem is
an example of applied research. Research to identify social, economic or political
trends that may affect a particular solution or the copy research (research to find out
whether certain communications will be read and understood) or the marketing
research or evaluation research are examples of applied research. Thus, the central
aim of applied research is to discover a solution for some pressing practical problem,
whereas basic research is directed towards finding information that has a broad base
of application and thus, adds to the already existing organized body of scientific
knowledge.
Database
Database have no value if the insights they contain cannot be retrieved. A decision
support system not only allows the manager to interact directly with the database to
retrieve what is wanted, it also provides a modeling function to help make sense of
what has been retrieved.
The information system serves to emphasize that marketing research should not
exist in isolation as a single effort to obtain information. Rather, it should be part of a
systematic and continuous effort by the organization to improve the decision-making
process.
A typical marketing manager regularly receives some or all of the following data:
factory shipments or orders; consumer panel data; scanner data; demographic data;
and internal cost and budget data.
Managers don’t want data. They want, and need, decision-relevant information in
accessible and preferably graphical form for
(1) Routine comparison of current performance against past trends on each of the
key measures of effectiveness
(2) Periodic exception reports to assess which sales territories or accounts have not
matched previous tears’ purchases and
(3) Special analyses to evaluate the sales impact of particular marketing programs
and to predict what would happen if changes were made. In addition, different
divisions would like to be linked to enable product managers, sales planners,
market researchers, financial analysts and production schedules to share
information.
The purpose of a marketing decision support system (MDSS) is to combine
marketing data from diverse sources into a single database which line managers can
enter interactively to quickly identify problems and obtain standards, periodic reports,
as well as answers to analytical questions.
Chapter 2 - Research Process
Characteristics of a MDSS
Manager
Modeling Display
Analysis Database
Manager
1. Database
2. Reports and displays
3. Analysis capabilities
4. Models
ADVANTAGES OF MR
For decision makers, faced with the decisions and doubts described above, what
should be the benefits of having research conducted? The most universal and
usually most vital is this: reduction of uncertainty. If research findings contribute any
relevant knowledge of what exists, that the decision maker was ignorant of, or if it
provides new clues to what is likely in the future, they should enable a more accurate
conclusive decision to be reached.
Chapter 2 - Research Process
Uncertainty can not be wholly eliminated with relevant research, but it may be
markedly reduced.
Research also may be of benefit in ways ordinarily thought of as uncertainty
reduction:
(1) Problems may come to light that otherwise would be not be known until they
became very serious or even insoluble
(2) Objectives may come under reevaluation when evidence indicates that
(a) they may be too high to be feasible under expected conditions or
(b) they should be higher due to overlooked opportunity
(3) Better alternatives may be revealed or their conception stimulated
(4) Marketing research may be useful as evidence in legal matters.
We would call attention to other benefits, such as the psychological one of making
the decision-maker feel more confident and willing to be decisive. Prejudice against
new ideas may be overcome by evidence from the market place. Sociologically,
research can keep the executives attuned to changing consumer needs and wants
and to the impacts of consumerism. Less laudable are political motives for marketing
research, like the executives who wants it to confirm some preconceived ideas and
overcome rivals in the organization (but would suppress if they fail to confirm).
LIMITATIONS TO MR
need for generating the confidence that the information/data obtained from a
business unit will not be misused.
4. Research studies overlapping one another are undertaken quite often for want of
adequate information. This results in duplication and fritters away resources. This
problem can be solved by proper compilation and revision, at regular intervals, of
a list of subjects on which and the places where the research problems in various
disciplines of applied science which are of immediate concern to the industries.
5. There does not exist a code of conduct for researchers and inter-university and
inter-departmental rivalries are also quite common. Hence, there is need for
developing a code of conduct for researchers which, if adhered sincerely, can win
over this problem.
6. Many researchers in our country also face the difficulty of adequate and timely
secretarial assistance, including computerial assistance. This causes
unnecessary delays in the completion of research studies. All possible efforts be
made in this direction so that efficient secretarial assistance is made available to
researchers and that too well in time. University Grants Commission must play a
dynamic role in solving this difficulty.
7. Library management and functioning is not satisfactory at many places and much
of the time and energy of researchers are spent in tracing out the books, journals,
reports, etc., rather than in tracing out relevant material from them.
8. There is also the problem that many of our libraries are not able to get copies of
old and new Acts/Rules, reports and other government publications in time. This
problem is felt more in libraries, which are away in places from Delhi and/or the
state capitals. Thus, efforts should be made for regular and speedy supply of all
governmental publications to reach our libraries.
I. New-product research
New product development is critical to the life of most organizations as they adapt to
their changing environment. Since, by definition, new products contain unfamiliar
aspects for the organization, there will be uncertainty associated with new products.
New product can be divided into four stages
Concept Generation
Need Identification
Concept Identification
Chapter 2 - Research Process
1. Concept generation
3. Test marketing
Test marketing allows the researcher to test the impact of the total
marketing program, with all its interdependencies, in a market context as
opposed to the artificial, context associated with the concept and product
tests that have been discussed.
Test marketing has two primary functions.
• The first is to gain information and experience with the marketing program before
making a total commitment to it.
• The second is to predict the program’s outcome when it is applied to the total
market.
There are really two types of test markets:
1. Sell-in test markets are cities in which the product is sold just as it would be in a
national launch. In particular, the product has to gain distribution space.
2. Controlled-distribution scanner markets are cities for which distribution is
prearranged and the purchase of a panel of customers are monitored using
scanner data.
Really new product normally take a long time (sometimes 15 to 20 years) from
conception to national introduction. Really new products (RNPs) are those that:
• Create or expand a new category, thereby making cross-category competition the
key (e.g., fruit teas versus soft drinks)
Chapter 2 - Research Process
• Are new to customers, for whom substantial learning is often required (i.e., what it
can be used for, what it competes with, why it is useful).
• Raise broad issues such as appropriate channels of distribution and
organizational responsibility.
• Create (sometimes) a need for infrastructure, software and add-ons.
Research may be used to evaluate alternatives price approaches for new products
before launch or for proposed changes in products already on the market.
There are two general approaches to pricing research.
1. The first is the well-established Gabor and Grainger method. In this method,
different prices for a product are presented to respondents (often by using test-
priced, with the corresponding number of affirmative purchase intentions is
produced.
2. In a second approach, respondents are shown different sets of brands in the
same product category, at different prices and are asked which they would buy.
This multibrand-choice method allows respondents to take into account
competitions’ brands as they normally would outside such a test. S such, this
technique represents a form of simulation of the point of sale.
Decisions regarding price ranges for new product have to be made early in the
development stage. A product concept cannot be tested fully, for example, without
indicating its price, so when the product is ready to be introduced, a decision must
be made about its specific price. Decisions on price changes-should we change the
price, and, if so, in which way and by how much? – will then need to be made over
the product’s life cycle.
Either of two pricing strategies can be followed.
1. Skimming strategy.
The skimming strategy is based on the concept of pricing the product at the point at
which profits will be the greatest until market conditions change or supply costs
dictate a price change. Under this strategy, the optimal price is the one that results in
the greatest positive difference between total revenues and total costs.
2. Share-penetration strategy
Penetration strategy is a strategy based on the concept that average unit production
costs continue to go down as cumulative output increases. Potential profits in the
early stages of the product life cycle are sacrificed in the expectation that higher
volumes in later periods will generate sufficiently greater profits to result in overall
profit for the product over its life.
Traditionally, the distribution decisions in marketing strategy involve the number and
location of salepersons, retail outlets, warehouses and the size of discount to be
Chapter 2 - Research Process
It focuses on the decision that are commonly made when designing a promotion
strategy. The decision for the promotion part of a marketing strategy can be divided
in to (1) Advertising and (2) Sales promotion. Sales promotion affects the company in
the short term, whereas advertising decisions have long-term effects. Companies
spend more time and resources on advertising research than on sales promotion
research because of the greater risk and uncertainty in advertising research.
1. Advertising research
a) Advertisement recognition
b) Recall of the commercial and its contents
c) The measure of commercial persuasion and the impact on purchase behavior.
• Purchase behavior
- Coupon stimulating purchasing
- Split-cables tests. Information Resources Inc’s (IRI) BehaviorScan is one of
several spilt-cable testing operations. BehaviorScan monitors the purchases of
panel members as well as in-store information such s special prices, features and
displays.
• Tracking studies
Chapter 2 - Research Process
When a campaign is running, its impact often is monitored via a tracking study
Periodic sampling of the target audience provide a time trend of measures of
interest. The purpose is to evaluate and reassess the advertising campaign, and
perhaps also to understand why it is or is not working. Among the measures that
often are traced are advertisement awareness, awareness of elements of the
advertisement, brand awareness, beliefs about brand attributes, brand image,
occasions of use, and brand preference. Of particular interest is knowing how the
campaign is affecting the brand, as opposed to how the advertisement is
communicating the message.
• Diagnostics testing
A whole category of advertising research methods is designed primarily not to test
the impact of a total ad but rather to help creative people understand how the parts
of the ad contribute to its impact. Which are weak and how do they interact? Most of
these approaches can be applied to mock-ups of proposed ads as well as finished
ads.
• Copy test validity
This test refers to the ability to predict advertising response.
• Budget decision
Arriving at analytical, research-based judgments as to the optimal advertising budget
is surprisingly difficult. However, there are research inputs that can be helpful.
Tracking studies that show advertising is either surpassing or failing to reach
communication objectives can suggest that the budget should be either reduced or
increased.
• Media research
In evaluating a particular media alternative, it is necessary to know how many
advertising exposures it will deliver and what will be the characteristics of the
audience. A first cut of the vehicle’s value is the cost per thousand (circulation), the
advertisement insertion cost divided by the size of the audience.
There are three major types of sales promotion: consumer promotion, retailer
promotion and trade promotions.
In general, the consumer promotion, manufactures offer of all sales promotion
activities. In consumer promotion, manufacturers offer promotions promotions
directly to consumers, whereas retail promotions involve promotions by retailers to
consumers. Trade promotions involve manufacturers offering promotions to retailers
or other trade entities. Trade entities can also promote to each other. For example ,a
distributor can offer a steep temporary price cut to retailers in order to sell excess
inventory. We call trade promotions, since the recipient of the promotion is a
marketing intermediary.
Sometimes several manufacturers or several retailers combine in one promotion.
These are called cooperative promotions or promotion partnerships.
Chapter 2 - Research Process
Manufacture
Trade
Trade promotions
1. Competitive Advantage.
The notion that achieving superior performance requires a business to gain and hold
an advantage competitors is central to contemporary strategic thinking. Businesses
seeking advantage are exhorted to develop distinctive competencies at the lowest
delivered cost or to achieve differentiation through superior value. The assessing
competitive advantage can be done in number of ways. The methods can be broadly
classified as market-based and process-based assessment. Market-based
assessment is direct comparison with a few target competitors, whereas process-
based assessment is a comparison of the methods employed.
2. Brand Equity.
Brand equity is defined as a set of assets and liabilities linked to a brand that add to
or subtract from the value of a product or service to a company and/ or its
customers. The assets or liabilities that underlie brand equity must be linked to the
name and/or symbol of the brand. The assets and liabilities on which brand equity is
based will differ from context to context. However, they can be usefully grouped into
five categories:
a) Brand loyalty
b) Name awareness
c) Perceived quality
d) Brand association In addition to perceived quality
e) Other proprietary brand assets: patents, trademarks, channel relationships etc.
Chapter 2 - Research Process
BRAND EQUITY
Perceived quality Name
Symbol
Provides Value to firm by
enhancing
• Efficiency and
Brand effectivesness
Association • Brand loyalty
• Prices/margins
• Brand extension
• Trade leverage
Other
proprietary
3. Customer satisfaction.
The measurement of customer satisfaction and its link to product/ service attributes
is the vehicle for developing a market-driven quality approach. This approach
requires a sequential research design that uses the results from each research
phase to build and enhance the value of subsequent efforts. During this process, it is
imperative to study customers who were lost, to determine why they left. This issue
must be addressed early in the system design. The steps involved in customer
satisfaction is
a) Define goals and how information will be used
b) Discover what is really important to customers and employees
c) Measure critical needs
d) Act on the information
e) Measure performance over time
f) Issues in questionnaire design and scaling in satisfaction research
Chapter 2 - Research Process
TQM is a process of managing complex changes in the organization with the aim of
improving quality.
The power of measurements is clearly visible in applications of quality function
deployment (QFD), a japanese import used to make product design better reflect
customer requirements. In QFD, a multifunctional team measures and analyzes in
great detail both customers attitudes and product attributes. Marketing research
plays a crucial role at this stage of the process. Then the team creates a visual mtrix
in order to find ways to modify product attributes (engineering characteristics) so as
to improve the product on the customer-based measures of product performance.
Along the way, the team must develop a series of measures of several different
types.
1. Database marketing
A database is a customer list to which has been added information about the
characteristics and the transactions of these customers. Business use it to cultivate
customers – as they seek new customers.
Need
A database provides the means for research to support decisions. It enables profiling
of customers by searching for prospects who are similar to existing customers. It
provides the means for implementation of profitable programs of repeat business
and cross-selling. It assist in marketing planning and forecasting. Further a database
can:
• Match products or services to customers’ wants and needs
• Help select new lists or use new media that fit the profile of existing customers.
• Maximize personalization of all offers to each customer.
• Provide for ongoing interaction with customers and prospects.
• Pinpoint ideal timing and frequently for promotions
• Measure response and be accountable for results
• Help create the offers most likely to elicit responses from customers
• Help achieve a unique selling proposition (USP), targeted to appeal to your
customers.
• Integrate direct-response communication with other forms of advertising
• Demonstrate that customers are valuable asstes.
Types of database
Chapter 2 - Research Process
1. Active customers
2. Inactive customers
3. Inquiries
a) Customers are easier to retain than acquire. The first reason is that it takes five
times the energy and budget to get new customer as it does to keep an existing
one. Also, a disproportionately small number of your customers generate a very
large proportion of your income.
b) Determine their “Lifetime Value”. Building a lasting relationship becomes the
obvious way to a prosperous and profitable future.
c) Developing relationships with customers. Understanding your customers’ tastes
and preferences on an individual basis is the foundation for relationship
marketing. Relationship marketing combines elements of general advertising,
sales promotion, public relations and direct marketing to create more effective
and more effective ways of reaching consumers. It centers on developing a
continuous relationship with consumers across a family of related products and
services.
2. Relationship marketing
RESEARCH PROCESS
STEPS IN THE PROCESS OF
ESTIMATE RESEARCH
THE VALUE
OF DO NOT
INFORMATION CONDUCT MR
Is benefit > cost?
1. PROBLEM DISCOVERY
2. PROBLEM DEFINITION
The first step in any marketing research project is to define the problem. In defining
the problem, the researcher should take into account the purpose of the study, the
relevant background information, what information is needed, and how it will be used
in decision making. Problem definition involves discussion with the decision-makers,
interviews with industry experts, analysis of secondary data, and, perhaps, some
Chapter 2 - Research Process
qualitative research, such as focus groups. Once the problem has been precisely
defined, the research can be designed and conducted properly.
3. RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
Source
• Theory
• Management
experience
• Exploratory
Research
Objective
4. RESEARCH DESIGN
The research problem having been formulated in clear terms, the researcher will be
required to prepare a research design, i.e. he will have to state the conceptual
structure within which research would be conducted. The preparation of such a
design facilitates research to be as efficient as possible yielding maximal information.
But how all these can be achieved depends mainly on the research purpose.
Research purposes may be grouped into four categories, viz.,
(i) Exploration
(ii) Description
(iii) Diagnosis
(iv) Experimentation
A flexible research design, which provides opportunity for considering many different
aspects of a problem, is considered appropriate if the purpose of the research study
is that of exploration. But when the purpose happens to be an accurate description of
a situation or of an association between variables, the suitable design will be one
that minimizes bias and maximizes the reliability of the data collected and analyzed.
There are several research designs, such as, experimental and non-experimental
hypothesis testing. Experimental designs can be either informal designs (such as
before-and-after without control, after-only with control before-and-after with control)
or formal designs (such as completely randomized design, randomized block design,
Latin square design, simple and complex factorial designs), out of which the
researchers must select one for his own project.
The preparation of the research design, appropriate for a particular research
problem, involves usually the consideration of the following:
(i) the means of obtaining the information
(ii) the availability and skills of the researcher and his staff (if any)
(iii) explanation of the way in which selected means of obtaining information will
be organized and the reasoning leading to the selection
(iv) the time availability for research and
(v) the cost factor relating to research, i.e. the finance available for the purpose.
Chapter 2 - Research Process
5. RESEARCH METHOD
In dealing with any real life problem it is often found that data at hand
are inadequate, and hence, it becomes necessary to collect data which
differ considerably in context of money costs, time and other resources
at the disposal of the researcher.
Primary data can be collected either through experiment or through survey. If the
researcher conducts an experiment, he observes some quantitative measurements,
or the data, with the help of which he examines the truth contained in his hypothesis.
But in the case of a survey, data can be collected by any one or more of the following
ways:
(i) By observation: This method implies the collection of information by way of
investigator’s own observation, without interviewing the respondents. The
information obtained relates to what is currently happening and is not
complicated by either the past behavior or future intentions or attitudes of
respondents. This method is no doubt an expensive method and the
information provided by this method is also very limited. As such this method
is not suitable in inquiries where large samples are concerned.
(ii) Through personal interviews: The investigator follows a rigid procedure and
seeks answers to a set of pre-conceived questions through personal
interviews. This method of collecting data is usually carried out in a structured
way where output depends upon the ability of the interviewer to a large extent.
(iii) Through telephone interviews: This method of collecting information involves
contacting the respondents on telephone itself. This is not a very widely used
method but it plays an important role in industrial surveys in developed
regions, particularly, when the survey has to be accomplished in a very limited
time.
(iv) By mailing of questionnaires: The researcher and the respondents do not
come in contact with each other if this method of survey is adopted.
Questionnaires are mailed to the respondents with a request to return after
completing the same. It is the most extensively used method in various
economic and business surveys. Before applying this method, usually a Pilot
Study for testing the questionnaire is conducted which reveals the weakness,
if any, of the questionnaire. Questionnaire to be used must be prepared very
carefully so that it may prove to be effective in collecting the relevant
information.
(v) Through schedules: Under this method the enumerators are appointed and
given training. They are provided with schedules containing relevant
questions. Data are collected by filling up the schedules by enumerators on
the basis of replies given by respondents. Much depends upon the capability
of enumerators so far as this method is concerned. Some occasional field
checks on the work of the enumerators may ensure sincere work.
The researcher should select one of these methods of collecting the data taking into
consideration the nature of investigation, objective and scope of the inquiry, financial
resources, available time and the desired degree of accuracy. Though he should put
attention to all these factors but much depends upon the ability and experience of
the researcher.
Chapter 2 - Research Process
6. DATA COLLECTION
The research design has a wide variety of methods to consider either singly or in
combination. They can be grouped first according to whether they use secondary or
primary sources of data.
• Secondary data are already available, because they were collected for some
purpose other than solving the present problem.
• Primary data are collected especially to address a specific research objective. A
variety of methods, ranging from qualitative research to surveys to experiments,
may be employed.
7. SAMPLING METHODS
There are different types of sampling designs based on two factors viz., the
representation basis and the element selection technique. On the representation
basis the sample may be probability sampling or it may be non-probability sampling.
Probability sampling is based on the concept of random selection, whereas non-
probability sampling is ‘non-random’ sampling. On element selection basis, the
sampling is non-random sampling. On element selection basis, the sample may be
either unrestricted or restricted. When each sample element is drawn individually
from the population at large, then the sample so drawn is known as ‘unrestricted
sample’, whereas all other forms of sampling are covered under the term ‘restricted
sampling’. The following chart exhibits the sample designs
Representation basis
Element selection
technique Probability sampling Non-probability
sampling
1. Probability sampling
a. Simple random sampling.
b. Systematic random sampling.
c. Stratified random sampling
d. Cluster sampling
e. Multi stage sampling
2. Non-probability sampling
a. Judgment sampling
b. Quota sampling
c. Convenience sampling
In research when the concepts to be measured are complex and abstract and we
don not possess the standardize measured tools. Alternatively, we can say that while
measuring attitude and opinions, we face the problem of their valid measurement. A
researcher may face similar problem. To avoid this problem the scaling technique is
used. Different types of scaling methods are:
1. Rating scales
a. The graphic rating scale
b. The itemized rating scale
2. Ranking scales
a. Method of paired comparison
b. Method of rank order
3. Arbitrary scale
4. Differential scale (Thrustone-type scale)
5. Summated scales (Likert scale)
9. DATA PROCESSING
5. Summarizing. The various subtotals and totals are brought together and
summarized in tables that will exhibit the data in an informative manner.
6. Computations. When computers are employed, various calculations May be
performed with the data during the tabulation operations. When other methods
are utilized, the computations are performed as separate stages subsequent to
the preparation of tables.
7. Control. Means for making proper checks of the accuracy of the data processing
are practically essential. This includes examination of the coding and, if machines
are used, the card punching and programs. Also, a base total of the number of
questionnaire or other data forms being processed should be determined before
the processing begins, thereby providing a total with which to verify whether each
data breakdown, or analysis, totals to exactly this base figure.
After the data have been collected, the researcher turns to the task of analyzing
them. The analysis of data requires a number of closely related operations such as
establishment of categories, the application of these categories to raw data through
coding, tabulation and then drawing statistical inferences. The unwieldy data should
necessarily be condensed into as few manageable groups and tables for further
analysis. Thus, researcher should classify the raw data into some purposeful and
usable categories. Coding operation is usually done at this stage through which the
categories of data are transformed into symbols that may be tabulated and counted.
Editing is the procedure that improves the quality of the data for coding. With coding
the stage is ready for tabulation. Tabulation is a part of the technical procedure
wherein the classified data are put in the form of tables. The mechanical devices can
be made use of at this juncture. Computers tabulate a great deal of data, especially
in large inquiries. Computers not only save time but also make it possible to study
large number of variables affecting a problem simultaneously.
Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report of what has been done by him.
Writing of report must done with great care keeping in view the following:
(1) The layout of the report should be as follows:
(i) the preliminary pages.
(ii) the main text and
(iii) the end matter
In its preliminary pages the report should carry title and date followed by
acknowledgments and foreword. Then there should be a table of contents followed
by a list of tables and list of graphs and charts, if any, given in the report.
The main text of the report should have the following parts:
(a) Introduction: It should contain a clear statement of the objective of the research
and an explanation of the methodology adopted in accomplishing the research.
The scope of the study along with various limitations should as well as stated in
this part.
(b) Summary of findings: After introduction there would appear a statement of
findings and recommendations in non-technical language. If the findings are
extensive, they should be summarized.
(c) Main report: The main body of the report should be presented in logical sequence
and broken-down into readily identifiable sections.
(d) Conclusions: Towards the end of the main text, researcher should again put down
the results of his research clearly and precisely. In fact, it is the final summing up.
At the end of the report, appendices should be enlisted in respect of all technical
data. Bibliography, i.e., list of books, journals, reports etc., consulted, should also be
given in the end. Index should also be given specially in a published research report.
(2) Report should be written in a concise and objective style in simple language
avoiding vague expressions such as ‘it seems,’ ‘ there may be’, and the like.
(3) Charts and illustrations in the main report should be used only if they present the
information more clearly and forcibly.
(4) Calculated ‘confidence limits’ must be mentioned and the various constrains
experienced in conducting research operations may as well be stated.