Active Tectonics South India

International Journal of Remote Sensing
Vol. 27, No. 20, 20 October 2006, 4397–4431
Review Article
Remote sensing and active tectonics of South India
S. M. RAMASAMY*
Centre for Remote Sensing, School of Geosciences, Bharathidasan University,
Tiruchirappalli – 620023, Tamil Nadu, India
(Received 30 June 2004; in final form 29 November 2005 )
The Indian Peninsula in general and its southern part in particular has been
thought to be a stable shield area and hence inert to younger earth movements and
seismicities. However, in addition to fast relapsing seismicities, the studies carried
out by earlier workers during the past three decades indicate possible pulsatory
tectonism, at least since the Jurassics. The present study is a newer attempt to
identify, analyse, and spatially amalgamate a large number of anomalies visibly
displayed by the tectonic, fluvial, coastal, and hydrological systems in remote
sensing and ground based datasets/observations, and to finally paint a fair picture
on the active tectonic scenario of South India. The study reveals that the
phenomena, viz. extensive soil erosion, reservoir siltation, sediment dump into the
ocean, preferential migration of rivers, restricted marine regression, shrinkage of
back waters, withdrawal of creeks, fall of groundwater table, etc., indicate two E–
W trending ongoing tectonic (Cymatogenic) archings along Mangalore–Chennai
in the north and Cochin–Ramanathapuram in the south. Intervening these two
arches, a cymatogenic deep along Ponnani–Palghat–Manamelkudi exhibiting
phenomena opposite to the above is observed. In addition, the characteristic
tectonic, geomorphic, and hydrological anomalies observed in 1B satellite FCC
data, as well as in the field, indicate N–S trending extensional, NE–SW sinistral,
and NW–SE dextral strike slip faults. These anomalies and the tectonic features
deduced thereupon, indicate that the southern part of the Indian Peninsula is
tectonically active due to the northerly to north–northeasterly directed compres-
sive force related to post collision tectonics. This active tectonic model visualized
for South India gives a further clue that the whole Indian plate is whirling like a
worm with alternate E–W arching and deepening, along with block and transform
faulting from Cape Comorin in the south to the Himalayas in the north.
1. Introduction
The Indian Peninsular Shield in general and its southern part in particular has always
been thought of as being inert to younger earth movements and related seismicities/
earthquakes. For this reason, geoscientists have not shown much interest in studying
the Neo-active-seismotectonics of the southern part of the Indian Peninsula, mostly
restricting themselves to the western (Kutch) and central (Son-Narmada) parts of
India (Auden 1949, West 1962, Choubey 1970, Biswas and Deshpande 1973,
Kailasam 1975, Ghosh 1976, Pal and Bhimashankaran 1976, Crawford 1978, Dessai
and Peshwa 1978, Sharma 1978, Guha and Padale 1981, Kaila et al. 1981, 1985, Murty
and Mishra 1981, Powar 1981, 1993, Bhagwandas and Patel 1984, Bakliwal and
*Email: smrsamy@gmail.com, cersbard@yahoo.co.in

International Journal of Remote Sensing
ISSN 0143-1161 print/ISSN 1366-5901 online # 2006 Taylor & Francis
http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
DOI: 10.1080/01431160500502603
4398 S. M. Ramasamy
Ramasamy 1987, Merh 1987, Ravishankar 1987, Amalkar 1988, Ramasamy et al.
1991, Gupta 1992, Sareen et al. 1993, Ramasamy 1995a, 1998, and many others).
Though the Southern Indian Peninsular Shield has not been studied in great detail
with regards to faults, especially concerning their tectonic alertness, since 1960, a
number of workers have observed in various parts possible repetitive tectonism since
the Jurassics. Some significant observations are: possible Post-Jurassic tectonic
movements along the Palghat graben (Arogyasamy 1963); varying signatures of
Neotectonism of the Mysore plateau (Radhakrishna 1966); possible repetitive Post-
Jurassic tectonic movements in South India (Vaidyanadhan 1967); a positive
relation between Neotectonism and petroleum occurrences in South India (Ermenko
1968); active tectonic graben along the Salem–Attur valley (Srinivasan 1974); a
striking coincidence of historical seismicity data with NE–SW and ENE–WSW
lineaments/faults/lithological boundaries of South India (Vemban et al. 1977);
tectonic wedging and related drainage reversals in the Dharmapuri region
(Suryanarayana and Prabhakar Rao 1981); possible Neotectonism and the related
clockwise rotational migration of Palar in the Chennai region (Rao 1989); Holocene
transform faults of ENE–WSW orientation along the Kerala coast (Nair and
Subramainan 1989); N–S trending cymatogenic arching and related rejuvenation of
the Cauvery river (Radhakrishna 1992); signatures favouring intra plate deformation
in South India (Subrahmanya 1996); dynamic mobile belts in South India (Chetty
1996); multi various evidences favouring Late Quaternary/Holocene earth movements
in South India (Valdiya 1997, 1998, 2001, Valdiya et al. 2000); and signatures on active
tectonic movements in parts of the Western Ghats (Gunnell and Fleitout 2000), etc.
In recent years, the author of this paper and his co-workers (Ramasamy et al. 1987,
Ramasamy 1991, Ramasamy and Balaji 1993) have carried out interpretation of
satellite images and recorded evidence of possible Neo-active tectonics in parts of
South India, with possible land arching in the Chennai and Ramanathapuram areas.
Subsequently, Subrahmanya (1994) and Ramasamy and Balaji (1995) also observed
evidence of possible regional cymatogenic arching along the Mangalore–Chennai
region. Stimulated by the above preliminary observations, the author has taken up
detailed studies to identify and interpret various tectonic, riverine, and coastal
geomorphic anomalies from satellite based remote sensing data and hydrological
anomalies from field based datasets and, further, to spatially integrate this
information to build up a comprehensive picture of Neo-active tectonics for South
India. This would provide vital baseline data in the context of the fast relapsing
seismicities in the region (figure 1). These various anomalies are conspicuous in density
sliced (in which different spectral ranges were assigned different colours individually in
all four bands) and False Colour Composite outputs (in which Band 2 with 0.52–
0.60 mm, Band 3 with 0.63–0.69 mm, and Band 4 with 0.79–0.90 mm were respectively
exposed under blue, green, and red filters and a combined single image was generated)
of IRS 1B data. This paper presents observations on the various anomalies above and
the resultant model visualized on the active tectonics of South India.
2. Remote sensing and field signatures of topographic highs/lows

2.1 Northern and southern sectors
2.1.1 Topographic profile (figure 1). A N–S trending topographic profile (A–A1)
was drawn between the west of Chennai in the north and Ramanathapuram in the
Remote sensing and active tectonics of South India 4399
Figure 1. Topographic profile.
south. The said profile indicates a larger amplitude topographic high (topo-high)
along Mangalore–Chennai in the north (1, figure 1), a topographic low (topo-low)
along the Palghat Gap (Ponnani–Palghat–Manamelkudi) in the central south (3,
figure 1), and a low amplitude topographic high along Cochin–Ramanathapuram
(2, figure 1) in the south. But the topographic profiles drawn in an E–W direction
along Mangalore–Chennai (B–B1) and Ponnani–Palghat–Manamelkudi (C–C1)
show a smooth flat top with steep to moderate slopes at both coastal ends.
2.1.2 Fracture swarms (figure 2). The regional interpretation was carried out to
map the lineaments of the study area using 1:1 million, as well as enlarged formats of
IRS 1B satellite FCC images. The same indicates polymodally oriented lineament
systems (figure 2(a)) in general, but with conspicuous fracture swarms in particular
in an ENE–WSW direction along the Mangalore–Chennai topo-high (3, figure 2(b)),
between Bangalore and Chennai, to a breadth of nearly 60–80 km. It can be seen
that these fractures are intruded by swarms of dolerite dykes.
4400 S. M. Ramasamy
(a)
(b) (c)
Figure 2. Lineaments and fracture swarms of topographic highs. Key Map showing the
Mangalore–Chennai topographic high (1), the Cochin–Ramanathapuram topographic high
(2) and E–W fracture swarms of South India (3 and 4). (a) Lineament map of South India
showing polymodally oriented lineaments. (b) IRS 1B image showing ENE–WSW fracture
swarms (3) in between the Bangalore and Chennai region along the northern topographic
high (1). (c) Sketch showing E–W fracture swarms (4) of Varushanad region along the
southern topographic high (2).
Similarly, along the southern Cochin–Ramanathapuram topo-high, E–W

trending fracture swarms are interpreted in the Varushanad hill ranges of the
Western Ghats to a breadth of 30–40 km (4, figure 2(c)).
2.1.3 River rejuvenation – soil erosion – reservoir siltation (figure 3). The state of
Tamil Nadu has a wide, low, easterly sloping plain, whereas the slope is steep in the
(c)
(b)
(a)
(d)
(e)
(f)
Figure 3. River rejuvenation – soil erosion – reservoir siltation. Key Map showing the
Mangalore–Chennai topographic high (1), the Cochin–Ramanathapuram topographic high
(2) and zones of vertical cutting and sheet erosion by rivers (3 – green dots along the axes of
the topographic highs). (a) Topographic highs as water divides. (b) IRS 1B density sliced
image showing soil erosion (4, red colour) in the Chittur–Tiruttani region (in between
Bangalore and Chennai) of the northern topographic high (1). (c) IRS 1B image showing
silted water bodies (5) in the Chennai region at the eastern end of the northern topographic
high (1). (d) IRS 1B density sliced image showing soil erosion (6, red colour) in the Vaippar
region of the southern topographic high (2). (e) IRS 1B image showing silted water bodies (7)
in the Tiruppuvanam region of the southern topographic high (2). (f) Sketch showing the
distribution of silted water bodies (8) in Tamil Nadu along the eastern ends of the northern (1)
and southern (2) topographic highs.
area west of the Western Ghats in the states of Kerala and Karnataka. Obviously,
the east flowing rivers have longer and well-developed fluvial histories when
compared to the west flowing rivers, but the overall drainage architecture shows
conspicuous water divides along these two Mangalore–Chennai and Cochin–
Ramanathapuram topo-highs with drainages of the northern and southern slopes
respectively flowing northerly and southerly (figure 3(a)). In addition, along these
4402 S. M. Ramasamy
topo-highs, the drainages show appreciable gullying, headward, and also sheet
erosions (3, Key Map, figure 3).
Further, the digitally processed, density sliced IRS band 2 (0.52–0.59 mm) datasets
indicate extensive gully and sheet erosions between Bangalore and Chennai along
the Mangalore–Chennai topo-high (4, figure 3(b)) and, in contrast, the chains of
water bodies found at the eastern end of the topo-high in the Chennai area are
heavily silted. Such silted water bodies could be precisely detected and mapped in
IRS FCC data from the deep red colour of the luxuriant vegetation growth,
which shows higher reflectance in the IR band due to its chlorophyll content
(5, figure 3(c)). Such phenomenon of intensive erosion in the topo-high and the
siltation in the downward water bodies shows that the soil so removed from the
topo-high is dumped in the water bodies.
Again, the similar phenomenon of heavy soil erosion in the Vaigai–Vaippar
system (6, figure 3(d)) of the southern Cochin–Ramanathapuram topo-high and the
extensive siltation in the thousands of water bodies, visibly seen again in red in IRS
FCC (7, figure 3(e)) at the eastern end of the topo-high, indicates that the soil so
removed from the topo-high is deposited in the water bodies located at its eastern
end. In fact, in the state of Tamil Nadu, there are over 34,000 water bodies and
reservoirs, of which more than 10,000 water bodies are located in the coastal
segments of these two topo-highs (8, figure 3( f )). While only these water bodies of
the topo-high region are heavily silted (8, figure 3( f )), the remaining water bodies
spread over other parts of Tamil Nadu are comparatively less silted or not at all
silted.
2.1.4 Sediment dumping into the ocean (figure 4). The blue and green bands of the
electro-magnetic spectrum have the credibility to display the concentration of
suspended sediments in water (Lillesand 1989, Gupta 1991). Taking this as a clue,
the entire coastal zone from Chennai to Ramanathapuram was analysed using
density sliced outputs of such blue–green bands (Bands 1 and 2) of IRS 1B data
(0.45–0.52 and 0.52–0.59 mm). The same indicates the heavy concentration and
dispersion of suspended sediments in and off the river mouths in the sea around the
Chennai region (3, figure 4(a)) and the Ramanathapuram region (4, figure 4(b)),
irrespective of seasons of the satellite data.
In fact, rivers such as the Araniyar, Adyar, and Cooum, which drain the
Mangalore–Chennai topo-high and meet the sea on the Chennai coast are
ephemeral, and the Vaigai and Vaippar rivers, which drain the southern Cochin–
Ramanathapuram topo-high and confluence the sea in the Ramanathapuram
region, are also temporary rivers. But the concentration of suspended sediments at
the mouth of these rivers/streams indicates that these heavily dump the sediments
into the sea, when compared to the other major easterly flowing rivers like the
Ponnaiyar and Cauvery of Tamil Nadu. This shows that the soil, which is
aggressively eroded from these two topo-highs, is being deposited in the thousands
of water bodies in the coastal region and the remaining soil is being dumped into the
sea.
2.1.5 Preferential river migration (figure 5). The IRS 1B FCC images display well-
developed old drainage courses/palaeochannels in the Palar river, which currently
flows easterly and meets the sea in the area south of the northern Mangalore–
Chennai topo-high. These bundles of palaeochannels are seen as linear, curvilinear,
contorted, ribbon-like, and loop-like vegetation bands with a dark grey tone in
(b) (a)
Figure 4. Sediment dumping into the ocean. Key Map showing the Mangalore–Chennai
topographic high (1), the Cochin–Ramanathapuram topographic high (2) and zones of
sediment dumping (3, 4) into the ocean along these highs. (a) IRS 1B density sliced image
showing sediment dump and dispersal (3) off the Chennai coast. (b) IRS 1B density sliced
image showing sediment dump and dispersal (4) off the Ramanathapuram coast.
black-and-white images and a deep red colour in FCC images, again due to the
chlorophyll content of the vegetation growing along these palaeochannels (3,
figure 5(a)). This major palaeochannel system branches off from the Palar river at
Walajapet and ends up as palaeo deltas in the north and south of Chennai. The
occurrence of palaeochannels only to the north of the present course of the Palar
river indicates that river has preferentially migrated towards the south.
Vaidyanadhan (1971) has observed that the palaeochannels found in the
Walajapet–Chennai tract are the remains of the mighty river Cauvery, which once
flowed along Hogenekkal–Chennai, and hence refers to it as the ‘Proto Cauvery’.
Ramasamy et al. (1992) also observed that the Cauvery river has flowed in the
Hogenekkal–Chennai tract from 500,000 years to 3000 years BP (Before Present).
But Narasimhan (1990) has recorded it as the old course of the Palar river and called
it the ‘Proto Palar’. However, the said old course is referred to as Proto Palar in this
present discussion, as the same is visibly branching off from the Palar river, and
moreover, its southerly migration is more significant in the context of the present
study, whether it is the Proto Cauvery or the Proto Palar. The Pennar river, found a
little north of the Mangalore–Chennai topo-high, exhibits a wide floodplain to its
south, suggesting its tendency of northerly migration.
4404 S. M. Ramasamy
(b) (a)
Figure 5. Preferential river migration. Key Map showing the Mangalore–Chennai topo-
graphic high (1), the Cochin–Ramanathapuram topographic high (2) and arrows indicating
the direction of river migration. (a) IRS 1B FCC image showing the old course (3) and the
present course (4) of the Palar river. (b) IRS 1B FCC image showing the old courses (5) and
the present course (6) of the Vaigai river.
Again, the Vaigai river, flowing east southeasterly in the area north of the
southern topo-high, has its old courses (5, figure 5(b)) only to the south of its present
course (6, figure 5(b)). This again indicates that the Vaigai has preferentially
migrated towards the north. These observations suggest that in the northern
Mangalore–Chennai topo-high, while the Pennar river shows northerly migration,
the Palar river indicates southerly migration. Similarly, this is also the case with the
Vagai river. That is, these rivers show preferential migration away from the axes of
both topo-highs.
2.1.6 Fluvio–marine interface zone anomalies (figure 6). As stated earlier, because
of the low easterly slope of the study area, the rivers have laid well-developed deltas
all along the east coast of Tamil Nadu in between Chennai in the north and
Ramanathapuram in the south (Key Map, figure 6). Ramasamy (1991) has classified
these deltas into lobate, arcuate, cuspate, digitate, and estuarine deltas on the basis
of detailed interpretation of satellite images.
Amongst these multivariate deltas, the Proto Palar delta in the Chennai region
(3, figure 6(a)) and the Vaigai delta in the Ramanathapuram region (6, figure 6(b)),
found respectively at the eastern ends of the Mangalore–Chennai and the
(b) (a)
Figure 6. Fluvio marine interface zone anomalies. Key Map showing the Mangalore–
Chennai topographic high (1), the Cochin–Ramanathapuram topographic high (2) and deltas
along the topographic highs. (a) IRS 1B FCC image showing the Proto Palar delta (3). (b) IRS
1B FCC image showing multi stage deltas in the Vaigai river – stage I at Madurai (4), stage II
at Tiruppuvanam (5), and stage III from Paramakkudi onwards (6).
Cochin–Ramanathapuram topo-highs, are conspicuous lobate deltas with thou-

sands of crescent-shaped, concentrically-arranged lobes and interlobal depressions.
These depressions have only become surface water bodies later on.
In fact, the Vaigai river shows lobate deltas in three stages, with stage I near
Madurai, stage II near Tiruppuvanam, and stage III from Paramakkudi onwards (4,
5, 6, figure 6(b)), which are located respectively 150, 100, and 50 km west of the
present day Ramanathapuram shoreline. These continental deltas occurring in
different stages coincide with well-defined magnetic lows, indicating that these
depressions acted as basins for sediment accumulation (Ramasamy 1991), whereas
the deltas formed by the other rivers, such as the Palar, Ponnaiyar, Cauvery, and
Tambraparani, are arcuate, cuspate, digitate, and estuarine in their morphologies.
2.1.7 Coastal zone anomalies.
A. Shapes of shorelines and beach ridges (figure 7). The shape of the shorelines in
the Southern part of the Indian Peninsula under discussion are very unique,
with conspicuous convexities in Mangalore and Cochin on the west coast and
Chennai and Ramanathapuram on the east coast. These convexities coincide
4406 S. M. Ramasamy
(c)
(a)
(b)
Figure 7. Shapes of the coast and pattern of marine regression. Key Map showing the
Mangalore–Chennai topographic high (1) and the Cochin–Ramanathapuram topographic
high (2), with conspicuous convexities along these coasts. (a) IRS 1B FCC image showing
beach ridges (3) at the eastern end of the northern topographic high in the Chennai area.
(b) IRS 1B FCC image showing beach ridges (4) at the eastern end of the southern
topographic high in Ramanathapuram (5) and arrows indicating the littoral currents. (c) IRS
1B FCC image showing beach ridges (6) at the western end of the southern topographic high
in the Cochin area.
with either end of the Mangalore–Chennai and Cochin–Ramanathapuram

topo-highs (Key Map, figure7).
A. In addition, the beach ridges, comprising oxidized old beach sands, are
developed to a greater breadth only on these convex coasts. That is, these
beach ridges are found up to 3–4 km west of the present day shoreline in the
Chennai region (3, figure 7(a)), 25–30 km west of the present shoreline in the
Ramanathapuram region (4, figure 7(b)), up to 25–30 km east of the present
coast in the Cochin area (6, figure 7(c)), and 3–4 km east of the present coast
in the Mangalore region.
B. Shrinkage and defunct backwaters and estuaries (figure 8). In the east coast of
Tamil Nadu, a number of backwaters and estuaries are found. The analysis of
the topographic sheet of 1915 AD and the IRS satellite data of 1991 AD
(figure 8(a)) shows that the Pulicat lake located to the north of Chennai has
shrunk significantly during the past 70–80 years.
B. Similarly, the Covalam creek, which is a major estuary found south of
Chennai, again to the eastern end of the Mangalore–Chennai topo-high,
shows considerable reduction in its length by about 30–35% during the past
60–70 years, as seen from the above multi dated datasets. These dried-up
parts of the creek are seen now as dry mudflats and salt pans (5, figure 8(b)).
(a)
(c) (b)
Figure 8. Shrinkage and defunct backwaters/estuaries. Key Map showing the Mangalore–
Chennai topographic high (1) and the Cochin–Ramanathapuram topographic high (2).
(a) IRS IB FCC image showing the old (3) and present (4) limits of Pulicat lake in the Chennai
region. (b) IRS IB FCC image showing salt pans and dried-up mudflats of the defunct
Covalam creek (5) in the Chennai region. (c) IRS IB FCC image showing defunct backwaters
(6) on the Ramanathapuram–Tuticorin coast.
4408 S. M. Ramasamy
B. Similarly, a number of small backwaters are observed along the

Ramanathapuram–Tuticorin coast. These also show different stages of
becoming defunct, with totally dried-up backwaters a short away from the
shore (a, figure 8(c)) and partially dried-up ones close to the shore (b,
figure 8(c)), as evidently seen from the salt resistant vegetation in the former
backwaters and salt flats, salt pans, mudflats, and water in the later
backwaters (6, figure 8(c)). Thus, the backwaters and estuaries/creeks found
along the eastern proximities of these two topo-highs in the Chennai and
Ramanathapuram regions either have become totally defunct or are in the
process of drying up. But at the same time, the backwaters found in other
parts of the Tamil Nadu coast (e.g. the Pondicherry region) do not show any
such changes. Again, the Vembanad lake located along the western end of the
Cochin–Ramanathapuram topo-high in the Cochin area also shows similar
shrinkage.
C. Promontories and offshore bars (figure 9). Detailed interpretation of the
satellite data reveals the occurrence of promontories along the northern coast
(3, figure 9(a)) and a chain of offshore islands along the southern coast of
Ramanathapuram (4, figure 9(b)) at the eastern end of the Cochin–
Ramanathapuram topo-high.
2.1.8 Groundwater anomalies (figure 10). The groundwater fluctuation data were
analysed for the entire state of Tamil Nadu with the help of mean water levels
(a)
(b)
Figure 9. Promontories and offshore bars. Key Map showing the Mangalore–Chennai
topographic high (1) and the Cochin–Ramanathapuram topographic high (2). (a) IRS 1B
FCC image showing promontories (3) along the northern Ramanathapuram coast. (b) IRS 1B
image showing chains of offshore islands (4) along the southern Ramanathapuram coast.
Figure 10. Pattern of groundwater level variations. Key Map showing the Mangalore–
Chennai topographic high (1), the Cochin–Ramanathapuram topographic high (2) and depth
of groundwater level (3). (a) Pattern of crenulations in groundwater level (1975–1995).
collected for thirty years from the study area. The same indicates that there is a
perceptible fall in regional groundwater level by approximately 4 to 8 mts in the
northen Chennai and southern Ramanathapuram–Varushanad areas (3, Key Map,
figure 10). The zones of such water level fall appear to be elliptical, with their axes of
groundwater deep coinciding with these two topo-highs. The finer resolution
analysis of water levels taken from approximately 50–60 wells in parts of the Palar
basin (falling west of Chennai) during the past 30 years indicates that within such
zones of water level fall, the groundwater levels show crenulations with alternately
arranged E–W trending highs and lows (figure 10(a)).
2.2 South central sector (figure 11)

In contrast, in the south central sector, namely along the Ponnani–Palghat–
Manamelkudi topographic low, the anomalies appear to be converse to the above
two topo-highs. Along this topo-low, the satellite data vividly show two E–W
trending major sub parallel lineaments/faults (4, 5, figure 11(a)) separated by 30–
40 km and extending from Ponnani on the west coast of Kerala to Manamelkudi on
the east coast of Tamil Nadu (3, Key Map, figure 1). As this zone forms a
conspicuous topographic break/low in the Western Ghats, it is widely known as
Palghat Gap. In IRS 1B satellite FCC data, the faults bounding the valley floor of
the Palghat–Pollachi region appear to be intensively loaded with moisture, as
revealed by the reddish tone due to the chlorophyll content of the moisture-
nourished vegetation (6, figure 11(a)). In addition, shallow groundwater conditions
are also observed in the area. The Amaravathi river shows sinuous flow and a wider
floodplain within the fault-bounded land segment (7, figure 11(a)) whereas, as soon
as it crosses the northern fault (4, figure 11(a)), the river becomes thin and does not
have much of a floodplain.
In the eastern end of this topo-low, in contrast to the convexities seen on the
Chennai and Ramanathapuram coasts, the coast here is concave (figure 11(b)). The
Vellar river has its old courses (8, figure 11(b)) only to the south of its present course
4410 S. M. Ramasamy
(b)
(a)
Figure 11. Topographic low/deepening. Key Map showing the Mangalore–Chennai

topographic high (1), the Cochin–Ramanathapuram topographic high (2) and the
Ponnani–Manamelkudi topographic low (3). (a) IRS 1B FCC image showing the northern
bounding fault (4) and the southern bounding fault (5) of the topographic low, the
moisture loaded valley floor (6) and the sinuous flow and wider floodplain (7) of the
Amaravathi river. (b) IRS 1B FCC image showing the eastern end of the topographic low
in the Manamelkudi area bounded by the northern fault (4) controlling the Agniar river
and the southern fault (5) controlling the Vellar river, the old (8) and the present (9)
courses of the Vellar river, water bodies with a thick water column (10), and water bodies
with a shallow water column (11), respectively to the north and south of the southern
bounding fault.
(9, figure 11(b)), suggesting its northerly migration towards the fault-bounded land
segment (figure 11(b)). The flood discharge pattern in the Vellar river is also peculiar
in that, strikingly, it discharges more water to the water bodies located within the
northern fault-bounded land segment (10, figure 11(b)) and less to the southern ones.
(11, figure 11(b)), as seen from the deep blue tone of the former (10) and light blue
tone of the latter water bodies (11, figure 11(b)). Similarly, the coast in the Ponnani
region on the west coast of Kerala also expresses coarse concavity.
3. Remote sensing – field signatures of fracturing/faulting

The satellite data, especially the raw and digitally processed IRS imagery, show a
system of lineaments/faults with prominent N–S, NE–SW, NW–SE and E–W
orientations. Some of the selected lineaments/faults and their visible tectonic
expressions are dealt with here.
3.1 N–S/NNE–SSW lineaments/faults (figures 12 and 13)

Amongst various lineaments, the following five major lineaments have
marked expressions in satellite images and in the field namely, the Stanley
(c)
(d)
(b) (a) (e)
Figure 12. N–S/NNE–SSW lineaments/faults. Key Map showing the Stanley reservoir–
Tevaram (1), Krishnagiri–Cape Comorin (2), Gudiyattam–Cape Comorin (3), Tanjore–
Avadaiyarkoil (4), and Kumbakonam–Muttupet (5) lineaments. (a) IRS 1D image showing
lineament No. 1 in the Stanley reservoir region. (b) Sketch showing expressions of lineament
No. 2. (c) IRS 1B FCC image showing lineament No. 3 amidst the Eastern Ghats of the Salem
region. (d) IRS 1B FCC image showing lineament No. 3 in the Trichy region. (e) IRS 1B FCC
image showing lineaments No. 2 and 3 in the Cape Comorin region.
4412 S. M. Ramasamy
(a) (b)
(d ) (c)
Figure 13. Morpho genetic expressions of lineaments/faults 4 and 5. Key Map showing the
Stanley Reservoir–Tevaram (1), Krishnagiri–Cape Comorin (2), Gudiyattam–Cape Comorin
(3), Tanjore–Avadaiyarkoil (4), and Kumbakonam–Muttupet (5) lineaments. (a) IRS 1B FCC
image showing undissected Mio-Pliocene Sandstone in the west (6), dissected Mio-Pliocene
Sandstone in the centre (7) and delta in the east (8). (b) IRS 1B FCC image showing the old
courses of the Cauvery river (9) in the south and the present course of the Cauvery river in the
north (10). (c) IRS 1B FCC image showing the defunct backwater (11), chains of beach ridges
(12) and the heavily silted Vedaranniyam backwater (13). (d) IRS 1B density sliced image
showing the silt-laden Vedaranniyam backwater (14) and the offshore sandbars (15) encircling
the Vedaranniyam backwater.
reservoir–Tevaram, Krishnagiri–Cape Comorin, Gudiyattam–Cape Comorin,

Tanjore–Avadaiyarkoil, and Kumbakonam–Muttupet lineaments (1–5, Key Map,
figure 12).
The Stanley reservoir–Tevaram lineament (1, Key Map, figure 12), which extends
for 350 km from the Stanley reservoir in the north to Tevaram in the south,
conspicuously deflects the Cauvery river near the Stanley reservoir by approximately
90u (figure 12(a)). In the south, in the Palghat plains, the lineament controls the
Amaravathi river (7, figure 11(a)) and further south, it controls the Suruliar river in
the Kambam Valley (6, figure 14(b)).
(a)
(c) (b)
Figure 14. NE–SW lineaments/faults. Key Map showing the Pondicherry–Kambam fault
system/graben (1) and other NE–SW lineaments/faults (2). (a) IRS 1B FCC image showing
sinistrally shifted Mio-Pliocene sandstone (3) and the wider floodplain of the Vellar river (4)
within the fault system (1). (b) IRS 1B FCC image showing the south western extremity of the
Pondicherry–Kambam fault system (1), defining the Kambam tectonic valley (5) and the
wider floodplain of the Suruliar river (6) within the fault system (1). (c) IRS 1B FCC image
showing sets of NE–SW trending sinistral faults along the West Coast of Kerala and
Karnataka (7).
Nearly 550 km long, the Krishnagiri–Cape Comorin lineament (2, Key Map,
figure 12) expresses chains of morphotectonic anomalies from Krishnagiri in the
north to Cape Comorin in the south. Some of the significant anomalies from north
to south (figure 12(b)) are mud eruption, which occurred during January 1997
(Ramasamy et al. 1998a), drainage reversal along the Thoppur and Vaniyar rivers
(Suryanarayana and Prabhakar Rao 1981), clusters of palaeo scars and landslides in
the Shevroy and Chitteri hills, drainage deflection in the Cauvery river, a wide fault
valley in the Anamalai–Palani hill ranges, drainage deflection in the Tambraparani
river, and conspicuous chopping of the Western Ghats in the Cape Comorin region
(2, figure 12(e)).
The Gudiyattam–Cape Comorin lineament (3, Key Map, figure 12) extends for
530–550 km from Gudiyattam in the north to Cape Comorin in the south in a N–S
4414 S. M. Ramasamy
to NNE–SSW direction. It bisects the northern Javadi hills, the central Chitteri–
Kalrayan hills, and the southern Kollimalai–Pachaimalai hills (figure 12(c)). While
the western Chitteri and Kollimalai hills are marginally dissected, the eastern
Kalrayan and Pachaimalai hills are intensively dissected and gullied and do
have widespread colluvial deposits along their foothills. The shallow water table
to the west and the deeper water table to the east of this lineament in the Salem
valley indicates that the lineament acts as a groundwater barrier in the area
(figure 12(c)). Along the eastern rim of the Kollimalai hills, where this lineament
forms a well-defined fault line escarpment, perennial streams are observed. Further
south, in the Trichy area, this lineament has modified the groundwater flow, and
thus displays a conspicuous darker tone in IRS imagery (3, figure 12(d)). In the
south, in the Cape Comorin region, this lineament, in conjunction with lineament
No. 2, abruptly chops off the Western Ghat hill ranges (3, figure 12(e)). Further
down, the lineament has sinistrally shifted the land segment on the Cape Comorin
coast.
On the contrary, the Tanjore–Avadaiyarkoil and Kumbakonam–Muttupet
lineaments (4, 5, Key Map, figures 13 and 13(a)) are seen to have formed three
distinct morphotectonic zones in the area southeast of Trichy in parts of the
Cauvery delta, with the western Vallam undissected Mio-Pliocene sandstone (6,
figure 13(a)), the central Pattukottai–Mannargudi dissected Mio-Pliocene sand-
stone, exhibiting fragmentation of the sandstone into small buttes (7, figure 13(a)),
and the eastern Cauvery delta (8, figure 13(a)). The Ambuliar and Agniyar system of
rivers also shows extensive rejuvenation in the central fault trapped Sandstone block
(7, figure 13(a)). The Cauvery river, found to the north of these Sandstones, shows
extensive palaeochannels to its south (9, figure 13(b)), whereas the present river is
flowing on the northern edge of the delta (10, figure 13(b)), thus, indicating the
preferential northerly migration of the Cauvery river.
Bundles of beach ridges were interpreted (12, figure 13(c)) to a breadth of
50–55 km in the area southeast of fault No. 5 in the Vedaranniyam region. In
addition, in the area to the east of the Kumbakonam–Muttupet lineament (5,
figure 13(c)), a major defunct backwater (11, figure 13(c)) and the heavily silt-
soaked Vedaranniyam backwater (13, figure 13(c)) are found. The density sliced
blue–green bands of IRS satellite imagery (0.45–0.52 and 0.52–0.59 mm) show
that not only is the Vedaranniyam backwater heavily silted (14, figure 13(d))
but also the offshore bars are vibrantly built, encircling the Vedaranniyam
backwater (15, figure 13(d)). Thus, this coastal sector shows a hierarchy of
morphotectonic anomalies with intensive dissection of the central fault bounded
Pattukottai–Mannargudi Mio-Pliocene Sandstone (7, figure 13(a)), extensive
river rejuvenation in the same Sandstone block, preferential northerly migration
of the Cauvery river (figure 13(b)), occurrence of dried-up backwater (11,
figure 13(c)), bundles of beach ridges of approximately 55 km in breadth (12,
figure 13(c)), extensive siltation of the Vedaranniyam backwater, and vibrant
sandbar building activity in the offshore region of the Vedaranniyam coast, etc. (14,
15, figure 13(d)).
3.2 NE–SW lineaments/faults (figure 14)

A spectrum of NE–SW trending lineaments were interpreted from various raw and
digitally processed IRS datasets in parts of Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and Karnataka.
From these the signatures of two NE–SW trending sub parallel lineaments/fault
system separated by 30–40 km (1, figure 14) and extending from Pondicherry in the
northeast to Kambam valley in the southwest (Key Map, figure 14) are explained
here. From the northeast to the southwest, all along their strike length, these
lineaments exhibit varied morphotectonic anomalies. In the Pondicherry area,
Mio-Pliocene Sandstone is sinistrally dragged for over 5–7 km (3, figure 14(a)) and a
little to the southwest, the Vellar river exhibits a restricted floodplain (4,
figure 14(a)) within these lineaments. Further southwest, in the Trichy area, the
Cauvery river splits into two rivers, namely the Cauvery and the Coleroon and, after
flowing for a distance of nearly 20 km, these rivers show a tendency of rejoining,
thus exhibiting a mega-eyed drainage, with the eye length being about 20 km within
these sub parallel lineaments. Again, further southwest, these sub parallel
lineaments form the well-defined tectonic valley in Kambam (figure 14(b)), and
the Suruliar river has developed a wider floodplain (6, figure 14(b)) within this
tectonic valley. On the contrary, the other spectrum of NE–SW to ENE–WSW
lineaments/faults (2, figure 14) have sinistrally shifted the west coast of Kerala and
Karnataka into an enechelon pattern (7, figure 14(c)).
3.3 NW–SE lineaments/faults (figure 15)

Bundles of NW–SE trending sub parallel lineaments were interpreted in the study
area from the IRS satellite FCC data. Amongst these, lineament No. 1 sharply
controls the Pambar river at its northwestern end (9, figure 15(a)) and lineament
No. 2 controls the flow of the Ponnaiyar river in its matured and old stages.
Lineament No. 3 controls the Ponnaiyar river at its northwestern end, whereas at its
southeastern extension it sharply deflects the Vellar river, delimits the
Jayamkondam Mio-Pliocene Sandstone, and also causes conspicuous compressed
meandering in the otherwise northeasterly flowing Coleroon/Cauvery river (10,
figure 15(b)). Further along the coast, it abruptly cuts off the beach ridges
(figure 15(b)).
Lineament No. 4 sharply deflects the Cauvery river southeasterly for a short
distance of 4 to 5 km towards the Stanley reservoir area, whereas in the central
Trichy plains, this lineament and its sympathetic fractures are seen to dextrally shift
the crystalline rocks to an enechelon pattern (11, figure 15(c)). Further southeast in
the coastal sector, these strikingly control the Agniyar–Ambuliar system of
drainages with deep gullying along them (12, figure 15(c)).
Lineament No. 5 extends west of Bangalore in the northwest and up to the east
coast of Tamil Nadu in the southeast. At many places, it deflects the Cauvery river
(13, 14, figure 15(d)).
Lineament No. 6 and the associated sub parallel fractures exhibit clear fault line
escarpments and are further seen to have dextrally dragged and shattered the
Precambrian quartzites of Nagamalai–Pudukottai and further into an enechelon
pattern and further (15, figure 15(e)). Lineaments No. 7 and 8 respectively control
the Vaippar and Tambraparani rivers.
4. Active tectonics of South India and discussions

Signatures so observed in the form of multivariate structural, geomorphological,
and hydrological anomalies, both in satellite images as well as in the field, in
different parts of South India, were assembled together to produce a holistic cartoon
of the active tectonics of South India.
4416 S. M. Ramasamy
(a)
(d ) (b)
(e)
(c)
Figure 15. NW–SE lineaments/faults. Key Map showing NW–SE lineaments/faults (1–8).
(a) IRS 1B FCC image showing lineament No. 1 controlling the Pambar river (9). (b) IRS 1B
FCC image showing lineament No. 3 causing the ‘Z’-shaped anomalous compressed flow of
the Coleroon river (10). (c) IRS 1B FCC image showing lineament No. 4 and other related
lineaments causing dextral shift of Precambrian rocks (11) in the Trichy region and drainage
control in the Mio-Pliocene Sandstone (12) of the Mannargudi region. (d) IRS 1B FCC image
showing lineament No. 5 causing the sharp deflection in the Cauvery river (13) near Mysore
and near erode (14). (e) IRS 1B FCC image showing the sub parallel fractures of lineament
No. 6 showing a system of dextral slip of beds in the Nagamalai–Pudukottai hills (15).
4.1 Cymatogenic arching

The topographic profile drawn in a N–S direction shows two distinct topo-
graphic highs, one along Mangalore–Chennai in the north and the other along
Cochin–Ramanathapuram in the south, with in between complimentary deep along
Ponnani–Manamelkudi in the south centre (figure 1).
The northern Mangalore–Chennai topo-high is conspicuously marked by swarms

of ENE–WSW to E–W fracture swarms along its crest, with a prolific intrusion of
dykes in the Bangalore–Chennai area (Key Map, figures 2 and 2(b)). The tectonics
of the area has been studied by Grady (1971), Sugavanam et al. (1977), Katz (1978),
Drury (1984), Ahmed et al. (1986), Ramachandran (1987), Srinivasan (1992), and
many others. While there were no major arguments on the above E–W fracture
swarms by the above workers, Ramasamy et al. (1999), in their remote sensing-
based Precambrian tectonic model of South India, observed that the E–W fracture
swarms of the Bangalore–Chennai region do not fit in with Precambrian orogeny.
Whereas, Chakrapani Naidu and Jayakumar (1979) have doubted the Post Tertiary
origin of these dykes filling these fracture swarms. While Ghosh (1976) attributed
the E–W to ENE–WSW fracture swarms of the Saurashtra Peninsula (Western
India) to the E–W aligned Amerli cymatogenic arch of Post Trappean age,
Sychanthavong (1985) and Ramasamy (1995a) have also advocated that these
fracture swarms of the Saurashtra Peninsula are related to Post Trappean
cymatogenic arching connected to the collision of the Indian Plate with the
Eurasian Plate. So, owing to the striking similarities between the Amerli
cymatogenic arch and the Mangalore–Chennai topo-high, with similar dyke-filled
fracture swarms at the crest of the latter too, it can be surmised that the Mangalore–
Chennai topo-high may also be a reflection of tectonic arching. Ramasamy et al.
(1987, 1995), Ramasamy (1989), and Subrahmanya (1994, 1996) have also doubted
possible cymatogenic arching in the Mangalore–Chennai region. Similarly, the
fracture swarms that have been interpreted in the present study in the Varushanad
hills coincide with sub parallel E–W fractures observed in the area by Kumanan
(1998) (figure 2(c)). This, together with a further fall along the Cochin–
Ramanathapuram topo-high, indicate that this southern topo-high must also be a
similar cymatogenic arch.
The northern Mangalore–Chennai and the southern Cochin–Ramanathapuram
topo-highs form conspicuous water divides (figure 3(a)). Subrahmanya (1994)
has also observed similar water divide between Mulki (near Mangalore) and
Chennai. In addition, the present study shows that the drainages cause extensive
gullying and sheet erosion along these two topo-highs, and the soil so removed
(figure 3(b), 3(d )) is dumped into the thousands of water bodies/deltaic lakes
(figure 3(c), 3(e)) found in the eastern ends of these topo-highs in the Chennai and
Ramanathapuram coastal sectors. In fact, out of nearly 30,000 water bodies, only
the water bodies located in the Chennai and Ramanathapuram regions are heavily
silted (figure 3( f )). Further, the analysis of IRS band 1 and 2 data shows heavy
sediment discharge into the ocean by the ephemeral streams draining these topo-
highs in the Chennai and Ramanathapuram regions (figure 4), whereas the major
rivers do not. While restricted gullying was attributed in general to land upliftment
(Thornbury 1985), the gullying in the Western Ghats of Kerala and Karnataka
(Radhakrishna 1993), and in the Bangalore region (Valdiya 1998) were explained to
be the effect of Holocene upliftment. Hence, such chains of anomalies, viz. gullying
and sheet erosion in these topo-highs, restricted siltation of water bodies located in
the coastal zones of these highs, and the heavy sediment discharges selectively by the
streams draining these two topo-highs, lead to the conclusion that these sequential
phenomena are due to ongoing arching along these two topo- highs.
The IRS satellite datasets show the northerly migration of the Pennar river, the
southerly migration of the Palar river in the Chennai region, and the northerly shift
4418 S. M. Ramasamy
of the Vaigai river in the Ramanathapuram region. These rivers drain along the
axes/slopes of these two topo-highs and migrate away from the axes/crests of the
highs (figure 5). Similar preferential migrations of the rivers tutored by tectonic
arching/upliftment were observed in different parts of India by many (Chamberlin
1894, Yashpal et al. 1980, Amalkar 1988, Bakliwal and Grover 1988, Ramasamy et
al. 1991, Rajawat et al. 2003, Gupta et al. 2004). Hence, such preferential migration
of the Pennar, Palar, and Vaigai rivers can be taken as convincing evidence of the
ongoing arching/upliftment in the Chennai and Ramanathapuram regions.
Subrahmanya (1994, 1996) and Gangadhara Bhat (1995) also noted similar
preferential shifting of streams in the Mulki area near Mangalore but doubted it
was caused by land upliftment.
While most of the easterly flowing rivers of Tamil Nadu have developed arcuate,
cuspate, digitate, and estuarine deltas, only the Proto Palar and Vaigai rivers have
developed distinct lobate deltas with thousands of crescent-shaped, concentrically-
arranged lobes and interlobal depressions (Ramasamy 1991). Davis and Richard
(1987) observed that such lobate deltas indicate the phenomenon of land emergence.
While Babu (1975) has profounded continuous land emergence model for the lobes
of the Krishna delta of AndraPradesh, Ramasamy (1991) has explained the lobate
deltas of Tamil Nadu by the phenomenon of continuous land emergence and its
induced withdrawal of the sea and development of lobe after lobe. In this context,
the coincidence of such unique lobate deltas of Proto Palar at the eastern end of the
Chennai topo-high (figure 6(a)) and the Vaigai lobate delta in the eastern proximity
of the Ramanathapuram topo-high (figure 6(b)) may hence indicate land emergence/
land arching.
The coast of South India shows typical convexities at either end of these topo-
highs at Mangalore and Cochin on the west coast and Chennai and
Ramanathapuram on the east coast (Key Map, figure 7). In addition, the beach
ridges are wider only along the convex coasts of Mangalore, Cochin (figure 7(c)),
Chennai (figure 7(a)) and Ramanathapuram (figure 7(b)), all indicating selective
marine regression along convex coasts only, whereas in other parts of both the east
and west coasts, no such well-developed beach ridges are found. While such bundles
of wider beach ridges were also observed by Gangadhara Bhat (1995) in the
Mangalore area, emerged coral beds of 5000–2000 years BP (Before Present) were
observed in the Ramanathapuram–Rameswaram region by Stroddart and Pillai
(1972). Hence, such convex shapes and the restricted marine regressions lead to the
conclusion that these convexities must be the structural culminations of ongoing
arching, and that such arching might have only selectively pushed the sea away.
However, the cuspate features with nosing effect of the Ramanathapuram coast
(figure 7(b)) may be due to divergent littoral currents that were operative in the area
during the last 3500 or so years (Ramasamy 2003), and this would have later
sharpened the convex Ramanathapuram coast.
Again, the selective shrinkage of the Pulicat backwater (figure 8(a)), the
withdrawal of the Covalam creek (figure 8(b)), both along the Chennai coast, and
the observation that the sea level fell by about 1.5 to 3.22 mm per year based on tide
gauge measurements taken at Mangalore coast by Subrahmanya (1994) all show
that the Chennai and Mangalore coasts, which respectively form the eastern and
western ends of the Mangalore–Chennai topo-high, are emerging coasts. In the same
way, the shrinkage of the Vembanad lake on the Cochin coast (figure 7(c)) and the
different stages of the defunct backwaters on the Ramanathapuram coast
(figure 8(c)), which again respectively form the western and eastern ends of the
Cochin and Ramanathapuram topo-high, also signify emerging coasts.
The occurrence of promontories (figure 9(a)), as well as a chain of offshore islands
(figure 9(b)) on the Ramanathapuram coast, again suggest the emerging nature of
this coast. However, the absence of such features along the Chennai coast is
attributed to the openness of the coast and its direct exposure to littoral currents.
The conspicuous fall in water level and the coincidence of the axes of such deep
groundwater with the axes of these two topo-highs (Key Map, figure 10) again
suggest probable ongoing land emergence along these topo-highs.
Thus, the multivariate geomorphic anomalies, viz. the E–W fracture swarms,
water divides, soil erosion – reservoir siltation – sediment dumping into the ocean,
preferential migration of rivers away from the topo-highs, convex coasts along with
restricted marine regression, restricted withdrawal and drying of backwaters and
creeks, fall in groundwater, etc., observed only along these two topo-highs, clearly
indicate that the Mangalore–Chennai and Cochin–Ramanathapuram topo-highs
are the reflection of ongoing E–W tectonic/cymatogenic arching.
Further, phenomena such as the drifting of the Cauvery river from the
Hogenekkal–Walajapet–Chennai tract to the Hogenekkal–Trichy tract
(Ramasamy et al. 1992) during 3000–2300 years BP, the southerly migration of
the present-day Palar river around 1100 years BP (Ramasamy et al. 1992), the
interpretation of the palaeo sea during 5060 years BP 3–4 km west of Chennai
(Ramasamy 2004), the palaeo sea at 3–5 km west of the present shoreline on the
Ramanathapuram coast around 3500 years BP (Ramasamy 2003), and the recently
measured tide gauge data indicating a fall in sea level (1.5 to 3.22 mm per year) on
the Mangalore coast (Subrahmanya 1994), etc., all indicate that land arching is
taking place even now along these topo-highs.
4.2 Cymatogenic deepening

While the above two topo-highs/arches show extensive gullying, sheet erosion, and
preferential migration of rivers away from the axes of the topographic highs, convex
coasts with restricted marine regression, withdrawal of creeks and shrinkage of
backwaters, fall in groundwater level, etc., the Ponnani–Palghat–Manamelkudi
topographic low exhibits converse anomalies, viz. a youthful stage floodplain
and acute sinuosity in the Amaravati river (7, figure 11(a)), preferential migration
of the Vellar river (8, figure 11(b)) towards the axis of the topographic low, a
well-defined concave coast at Manamelkudi (figure 11(b)), the absence of
beach ridges and increased tidal activity, along with the growth of mangroves
during the past 50–60 years on the Manamelkudi coast (figure 11(b)), the rise of
groundwater levels evidenced by high moisture-nourished vegetal cover (6,
figure 11(a)), etc. All these converse anomalies suggest ongoing land subsidence
along this topo-low.
Acute sinuous flow and floodplains in youthful stage, preferential migration of
rivers towards the axes of land subsidence, etched shorelines, and shorelines of tidal
activities, etc., have been demonstrated to be the indicators of land subsidence in
many parts of India, as well as around the world. The youthful stage floodplains on
the tributaries of the Cauvery river in the Thalaicauvery region (southwest of
Bangalore) were explained to be the effect of tectonic subsidence (Radhakrishna
1992). Similarly, the preferential migration of the Ganges and Yamuna rivers
4420 S. M. Ramasamy
towards each other in the area east of Delhi was observed to be due to ongoing
grabening in between the Yamuna and Ganges rivers (Ramasamy et al. 1991).
Further, phenomena such as Post-Jurassic tectonic movements and tectonic
breaks along the Palghat Gap of the Western Ghats (Arogyasamy 1963), possible
tectonic subsidence along the Palghat Gap and its extension up to the Laccadives
and Maldives along the 9u channel (Jacob and Narayanaswami 1954), geophysical
anomalies indicating possible graben along the Palghat region (Qureshy 1964),
occurrence of a series of peripheral faults in South India and the emergence of the
northern Nilgiris and the southern Palani–Anamalai hills, with complementary
subsidence in the intervening Palghat Gap (Gubin 1969) and evidence of tectonic
subsidence along the Palghat Gap (Rao 1977), etc., also corroborate well with the
present geomorphic anomalies. Hence, all such anomalies found along this topo-
low, converse to the above two topo-highs/arches, suggest ongoing cymatogenic
deepening along the Ponnani–Palghat–Manamelkudi topo-low.
While the anomalies favouring such arching and deepening are well seen in parts
of Tamil Nadu, this is not so in parts of the west coast of Kerala and Karnataka.
This is because of the high relief of the Western Ghats and the steep westerly
gradient of the terrain, which disabled the rivers to have their systematic fluvial/
fluvio marine histories. Further, as the west coast is also straight and directly facing
littoral currents, no coastal landforms are well developed. Even so, some significant
anomalies, such as convexities, shrinkage of backwaters, and restricted marine
regression are also well documented along the west coast.
4.3 Extensional block faulting

This study has brought out three sets of lineaments/faults with N–S, NE–SW, and
NW–SE orientations, and amongst which the chains of anomalies suggest
extensional/block faulting morphology to the N–S lineament systems.
The Stanley reservoir–Tevaram lineament and the associated sub parallel
lineaments (1, Key Map, figure 12) show a major deflection in the Cauvery river
(1, figure 12(a)) near the Hogenekkal/Stanley Reservoir area. While Vaidyanadhan
(1971) attributed the southerly deflection and flow of the Cauvery river from its
earlier northeasterly Hogenekkal–Chennai flow to probable tectonic movements,
Ramasamy et al. (1992), on the basis of various dating of the Cauvery river’s
sediments, observed that the otherwise northeasterly flowing river (Hognekkal–
Chennai track) took a right-angled southerly turn and entered the Trichy–Tanjore
plains somewhere around 2300 years ago due to the opening up of the N–S fault
near the Stanley reservoir area (1, Key Map, figure 12). Again, Raiverman (1969)
observed that a major N–S lineament played a vital role in bringing the Cauvery
river towards the Trichy–Tanjore plains. These observations indicate alert tectonism
along the Stanley reservoir–Tevaram lineament/fault.
Lineament/fault No. 2, namely the Krishnagiri–Cape Comorin lineament, shows
varied geomorphic anomalies (figure 12(b)) indicating alert tectonism in the form of
mud eruption, drainage reversals, palaeo scars, the tectonic valley in the Anamalai
hills, etc. (Ramasamy et al. 1998a). Suryanarayana and Prabakara Rao (1981) have
observed drainage reversals along the Thoppur and Vaniyar rivers and attributed
this to tectonic wedging along the lineament zone.
Similarly, the multivariate morphotectonic anomalies vividly exhibited by
the Gudiyattam–Cape Comorin lineament (3, Key Map, figure 12), viz. deep
cutting of the Eastern Ghat hill ranges from the Javadi hills in the north to the
Kollimalai–Pachaimalai hills in the south (3, figure 12(c)), intense dissection,

extensive erosion and vast colluvial fill spread in the foothills of the eastern Kalrayan
and Pachaimalai hills, only when compared to their western counterparts, namely the
Chitteri–Kollimalai hills (3, figure 12(c)), its role as a groundwater barrier in the Salem
valley, the trapping of the groundwater flow along this lineament in the Trichy region
(3, figure 12(d)), and the abrupt chopping off of the Western Ghat hill ranges and the
sinistral shift of the coastal beds in the Cape Comorin area (3, figure 12(e)), etc., all
indicate the active tectonism of this lineament/fault. In addition, the geomorphic
disharmony, viz. extensive dissection, gullying, erosion, and colluvial fills in the
eastern Kalrayan and Pachaimalai hills and comparatively less such tectonic and
geomorphic features in their western counterparts, namely the Chitteri–Kollimalai
hills (figure 12(c)), which are occurring to the west of this lineament, suggest probable
block faulting along the Gudiyattam–Cape Comorin lineament. On the contrary, the
chopping off of the Western Ghat hills, along with sinistral shifting of the coastal beds
in the Cape Comorin area (figure 12(e)), suggest that this lineament/fault has both
vertical and transverse movements.
The Tanjore–Avadaiyarkoil and Kumbakonam–Muttupet lineaments/faults (4
and 5, Key Map, figures 12 and 13) exhibit intensive dissection, gullying, and
fragmentation of the central fault trapped Mio-Pliocene Sandstone of the
Pattukottai–Mannargudi area (7, figure 13(a)), in contrast to its western counterpart
(6, figure 13(a)), indicates the upliftment of the central fault entrapped Sandstone.
The well-defined preferential northerly migration of the Cauvery river (figure 13(b))
located to the north of such fault trapped Sandstone block is a further confirmation
of the upliftment of the fault trapped Pattukottai–Mannargudi Sandstone block.
Ramasamy et al. (1992), on the basis of archaeological, radiocarbon, and other
dating of the palaeochannels, observed that such northerly migration of the Cauvery
river in the deltaic region has occurred during the time span of 2100–750 years BP.
Further, Ramasamy et al. (1998b), on the basis of radiocarbon dating, estimated
that the beach ridges observed to a breadth of nearly 55 km to the east of the
Pattukottai–Mannargudi Mio-Pliocene Sandstone block (12, figure 13(c)) might
have been built during the past 5000 years or so, at the rate of 11 m per year, and
attributed such land progradation to the upliftment of the central fault trapped Mio-
Pliocene Sandstone. Again, from the extensive siltation of the Vedaranniyam
backwater (14, figure 13(d)) and the vibrant offshore bar-building activity encircling
the Vedaranniyam backwater, Ramasamy and Ravikumar (2002) observed that the
central Pattukottai–Mannargudi Mio-Pliocene Sandstone block is even now
undergoing upliftment. Further, the swelling up of the Vedaranniyam backwater
in between 1930 and 1993 AD was attributed to the N–S faults observed in satellite
imagery of 1993 AD and the resultant inflow of seawater into the backwater
through these N–S faults (Ramasamy and Ramesh 1999). Ramesh (1999) has
further recorded anomalous centrifugal flow of groundwater in the central fault
trapped Pattukottai–Mannargudi Sandstone block. All these clearly indicate that
the upliftment of the Mio-Pliocene Sandstone is even now taking place along these
two Tanjore–Avadaiyarkoil and Kumbakonam–Muttupet lineaments/block faults
(figure 13).
Radhakrishna (1992) observed that the Cauvery river has phenomenally
rejuvenated in the Sivasamudram area, south of Bangalore (figure 1), because of a
series of N–S faults that have uplifted the Bilgirirangan hill ranges in recent years. In
fact, these N–S faults fall west of the presently interpreted faults No. 1, 2 and 3.
4422 S. M. Ramasamy
Valdiya (1998) also observed a series of N–S/NNE–SSW trending Holocene block

faults along with dextral and sinistral movements in the Bangalore peneplain, which
have uplifted the peneplain by as much as 300–400 m in many places. Ramakrishnan
(1988) earlier documented a N–S fault to the west of the Closepet granite in the
Bangalore/Mysore (Karnataka) region and he felt that the same has aided the recent
upliftment of the Closepet granite. Singh and Venkatesh Raghavan (1989) observed
that the earthquake occurred on 2nd September, 1998, 30 km due north of the
Trivandram falls, in close proximity to the NNE–SSW lineament. Valdiya et al.
(2000) observed Neotectonic reactivation along the N–S faults in parts of the
Hemavati basin (west of Bangalore, Karnataka), causing the ponding of the rivers/
streams during 14,000–1300 years BP. All the above clearly corroborate and confirm
the active tectonics/block faulting and dextral and sinistral movements along the N–
S faults interpreted in the study area.
4.4 NE–SW wrench faults

The present interpretation of satellite data has brought out a spectrum of NE–SW
trending lineaments/faults (figure 14). Amongst these, the varied anomalies shown
by the two major sub parallel lineaments from Pondicherry in the northeast to the
Kambam valley in the southwest (1, Key Map, figure 14), viz. sinistral dislocation of
Mio-Pliocene Sandstone in the Pondicherry area (3, figure 14(a)), restricted
floodplain in the Vellar river (4, figure 14(a)), eyed drainage in the Trichy area,
well-defined tectonic valley in Kambam, along with youthful stage floodplain in the
Suruliar river, suggest ongoing land subsidence along these two sub parallel
lineaments, in addition to sinistral movements. While Ramasamy and Karthikeyan
(1998) made observations favouring possible Holocene grabening along these
lineaments, Ramasamy and Kumanan (2000) doubted possible land subsidence in
between these two sub parallel lineaments on the basis of the eyed drainage
Trichy area. In addition, there are a number of NE–SW trending spectrum of faults
which show sinistral strike slip movements, and some of these faults have
also sinistrally shifted the coastal beds into an enechelon pattern all along the
Kerala and Karnataka coasts (7, figure 14(c)). Ramasamy (1995b) observed that
some of the NE–SW trending lineaments of Andrapradesh and Tamil Nadu take a
swing in a west southwesterly direction and cause sinistral shifts along the west
coast, extend right up to the Laccadives and Maldives, sinistrally shifting these coral
islands too. These all indicate that the NE–SW spectrum of lineaments interpreted in
the study area are predominantly active sinistral faults with grabening at a number
of places.
Grady (1971), Ray (1977), and Katz (1978) explained that these NE–SW faults in
general are Precambrian dextral faults. But, in addition to the present observations
and the earlier observations of Ramasamy (1995b), Prabhakar Rao et al. (1985) and
Nair (1987) also observed that the Kerala coast is punctuated by a spectrum of
ENE–WSW trending sinistral faults, which act as an opening to lagoons, caused
submerged coastal Platforms, control the river systems, and also shifted the beach
ridges. Valdiya (2001) observed that the NNW–SSE trending Western Ghats
escarpments have been cut into a system of enechelon escarpments by the ENE–
WSW Holocene faults. Ramasamy and Ramesh (1999) observed that a river island
and the water spread area in the Coleroon river, east of Trichy, seem to have
changed from a rectangular shape to a trapezohedron shape between 1930 AD and
1993 AD, and demonstrated this to be due to sinistral movement of the NE–SW
trending Coleroon lineament/fault. All these observations thus confirm the present
interpretation that the NE–SW lineaments/faults of the study area are active.
4.5 NW–SE wrench faults

In the present study, a set of NW–SE lineaments/faults were interpreted (figure 15)
that predominantly control many river systems. In addition to controlling and
deflecting the drainages, these lineaments/faults seem to have also conspicuously
dragged even the drainages with a ‘Z’ shape (10, figure 15(b)), truncate the beach
ridges (figure 15(b)), and appear to dextrally shift the Precambrian gneissic rocks
(11, figure 15(c)) and the quartzites (15, figure 15(e)) into an enechelon pattern, thus
providing definite information indicating recent dextral strike slip movements along
these faults.
Vemban et al. (1977) observed that most of the rivers in Tamil Nadu, viz. the
Palar, Ponnaiyar, Cauvery (in parts), and the Vaigai, are controlled by deep faults,
exhibiting dextral strike slip geometry. Agarwal and Mitra (1991) also identified that
the NW–SE trending faults are young and control the hydrocarbon mobilization in
the Cauvery basin. Offshore geophysical anomalies are also found to favour NW–
SE trending structural weak zones in the Udipi region (Subramaniyan 1987). All
these are very confirmatory evidences for the dextral strike slip movements of NW–
SE trending lineaments/faults interpreted in the present study.
4.6 Post collision tectonics

Thus, the present study has lead to the supposition that the Mangalore–Chennai
and Cochin–Ramanathapuram topo-highs are cymatogenic arches with comple-
mentary ongoing cymatogenic deepening along Ponnani–Palghat–Manamelkudi.
The lineaments/faults interpreted in the present study fall into three major azimuthal
groups, with the N–S group showing evidences for extensional faulting, the NE–SW
group expressing signatures of ongoing sinistral strike slip movements, and the NW–
SE trending faults displaying signatures of dextral strike slip movements both in the
Precambrian crystalline rocks and the younger Mio-Pliocene–Quaternary coastal
beds. The disposition of the cymatogenic arches/deeps and the geometry of these
faults indicate that the greatest principal stress can be visualized in a N–S direction
(Anderson 1951), and the said stress/force may be related to the drifting of the
Indian Plate northerly/north northeasterly. Under this stress geometry, the NE–SW
sinistral faults become Left Lateral Wrench faults, the NW–SE dextral faults
become Right Lateral Wrench faults of the Pleistocene–Holocene period (figure 16).
As the N–S lineaments show clear manifestations of block faulting in Javadi,
Shevroy–Chitteri–Kalrayan, and the Kollimalai–Pachaimalai hills, and also in the
Mio-Pliocene sandstone of the Pattukottai–Mannargudi area and parallel to the
greatest principal stress, this system may be referable to extensional failures. Again,
as the E–W fracture swarms are orthogonal to the greatest principal stress and
further confined to the arches, these could be of Pleistocene–Holocene release
fractures. The GIS-based 3D visualization of gravity data (figure 17) shows E–W
alternate highs and lows, N–S and NE–SW gravity anomalies, while the E–W
anomalies are matching with such arches and deeps, and the other ones coincide
with the N–S and NE–SW faults. However, the NW– SE faults are not reflected in
gravity data. Ramasamy (1995b) observed that the NE–SW sinistral faults are more
active in South India due to the additional increment of such Post Collision sinistral
4424 S. M. Ramasamy
Figure 16. Pleistocene tectonic scenario of South India.
faults by the rising Carlsberg ridge in the Arabian Sea. Hence, this may be the
reason for more geophysical responses of the NE–SW group of lineaments/faults.
Singh et al. (1996) identified NNE–SSW and NW–SE trending prominent sinistral
and dextral lineaments from the drainage anomalies in the Indo-Gangetic plains,
and similarly established that these must be the wrench faults related to the
northerly oriented stress connected to post collision tectonics.
Thus, the present study reveals that the study area is whirling like a worm with
alternatively arranged two arches and an intervening deep and related extensional/
block faults and wrench faults. The various riverine, coastal, and hydrological
Figure 17. Bouger gravity anomaly of South India.
anomalies clearly show that Southern India is tectonically very active. In addition to
the conspicuous fall in groundwater level in the cymatogenic arches and shallowness
of the cymatogenic deep (Key Map, figure 10), the analysis of finer resolution
groundwater data (figure 10(a)) shows crenulations in water levels with E–W
groundwater ridges and valleys, which may be the reflection of the still prevalent/
ongoing northerly directed compressive force related to the post collision
phenomenon. This active tectonic model also gains support from various other
workers. Vaidyanadhan (1967) observed that the southern part of the Indian
Peninsula has witnessed pulsatory tectonic upheavals since Post Jurassics. The
horsting in Nilgiris and grabening in Salem–Attur and Palghat were pointed out by
Qureshy (1964), Gubin (1969), and Rao (1977). Subramaniyan (1987), on the basis
of an offshore geophysical survey, identified the structural grains with E–W, N–S,
NE–SW, and NW–SE directions in the Mangalore region. Reddy et al. (1988)
brought out a system of E–W trending alternate aero magnetic highs and lows and
doubted for possible crustal movements. Valdiya (1989) observed that the cratonic
crust of the Indian shield is periodically relaxing its stress through crustal
movements. Ranadhir Mukhopadhyay and Khadge (1992) established a major
ENE–WSW trending depression in the Indian Ocean, far south of Cape Comorin
along latitude 9–15u south. This depression is flanked with summits and sea mounts
to its north and hills and peaks to its south. It was observed that these arches and
4426 S. M. Ramasamy
deeps were traversed orthogonally by NNW–SSE oriented Late Cretaceous

fractures as per them. Ramasamy (1999) established yet another cymatogenic arch
in the Calicut region with ENE–WSW orientation on the basis of various tectonic
and geomorphic anomalies in the Western Ghats. He also observed folding and
swinging of the NNW–SSE trending F2 Precambrian fold axis and attributed the
same to the northerly-directed Post Collision compression. However, as far as the
ages of these arches, deeps, and faults are concerned, they could be Post Mio-
Pliocene/Quaternary as they show clear faulting in Mio-Pliocene Sandstone. The
expression of these faults with similar morphology in the Precambrian rocks
indicates the reactivation of the old faults or the exclusive formation of new faults in
the Post Mio-Pliocene period.
Such active tectonics with arches, deeps, and faults has direct bearing on intra
plate seismicities in this region, as evidently seen from the coincidence of over 200
seismicity data of more than 3M along these arches, deeps, and faults (figure 16). As
this active tectonic cartoon has been built from fluvial and coastal geomorphic
anomalies, and also hydrological anomalies, it follows that such active tectonics has
control over the riverine, coastal, and hydrological ecosystems. Hence, this not only
warrants detailed studies in the context of seismicities but also in understanding the
environmental systems.
Acknowledgements
The author is grateful to the Seismology Division, Department of Science and
Technology, Government of India, New Delhi, which has granted the research
project ‘SEISTA’ (Seismo Tectonics of Tamil Nadu), and to the Department of
Space, Government of India, which has funded the research project ‘CRUSDE’
(Crustal Deformation Studies of South India), both of which have helped the author
in the study. Shri. J. Saravanavel, Scientist, is acknowledged for his assistance and
Dr C. J. Kumanan, Lecturer, Centre for Remote Sensing for checking the
manuscript.
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Active Tectonics South India

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Active Tectonics South India

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International Journal of Remote Sensing

Vol. 27, No. 20, 20 October 2006, 4397–4431

Remote sensing and active tectonics of South India

(Received 30 June 2004; in final form 29 November 2005 )

*Email: smrsamy@gmail.com, cersbard@yahoo.co.in

2. Remote sensing and field signatures of topographic highs/lows

Figure 1. Topographic profile.

Similarly, along the southern Cochin–Ramanathapuram topo-high, E–W

Cochin–Ramanathapuram topo-highs, are conspicuous lobate deltas with thou-

with either end of the Mangalore–Chennai and Cochin–Ramanathapuram

B. Similarly, a number of small backwaters are observed along the

2.2 South central sector (figure 11)

Figure 11. Topographic low/deepening. Key Map showing the Mangalore–Chennai

3. Remote sensing – field signatures of fracturing/faulting

3.1 N–S/NNE–SSW lineaments/faults (figures 12 and 13)

(b) (a) (e)

reservoir–Tevaram, Krishnagiri–Cape Comorin, Gudiyattam–Cape Comorin,

3.2 NE–SW lineaments/faults (figure 14)

3.3 NW–SE lineaments/faults (figure 15)

4. Active tectonics of South India and discussions

4.1 Cymatogenic arching

The northern Mangalore–Chennai topo-high is conspicuously marked by swarms

4.2 Cymatogenic deepening

4.3 Extensional block faulting

Kollimalai–Pachaimalai hills in the south (3, figure 12(c)), intense dissection,

Valdiya (1998) also observed a series of N–S/NNE–SSW trending Holocene block

4.4 NE–SW wrench faults

4.5 NW–SE wrench faults

4.6 Post collision tectonics

Figure 16. Pleistocene tectonic scenario of South India.

Figure 17. Bouger gravity anomaly of South India.

deeps were traversed orthogonally by NNW–SSE oriented Late Cretaceous

RAMACHANDRAN, T.V., 1987, Integrated study of Landsat, Aeromagnetic and Bouguer

SUBRAMANIYAN, V., 1987, Offshore extension of structural elements at Udipi confirmation

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