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New Technologies In Hydrogen

Fuels
Non Conventional Sources of Energy

NEW TECHNOLOGIES IN HYDROGEN FUELS

MOHD. SARVAR RASHEED & MOHD AMEER AHMED

Mechanical Engineering 4/4

Deccan C ollege of Engineering and Technology

Dar-Us-Salam, Hyderabad - 500 001, A.P, India

rasheed_sarwar@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT

Hydrogen is an unconventional source of energy, which can be used as an energy source. It can
be produced from domestic and primary energy sources like coal, natural gas and fossil fuels,
nuclear and renewable energy. A major application of Hydrogen is in the transportation systems
with significantly reduced or near zero emissions. It is apt to say Hydrogen as energy carrier or
battery. Its production requires a Hydrogen source and an energy source to separate the gas.
There are three stages for storage and distribution-compression, liquefaction and chemical
combination. Its production is also economical. Recent advances have lead to the replacement of
oil with Hydrogen as a fuel for transportation. This can be achieved by using hybrids that are
vehicles equipped with both internal combustion engines and electric motors for cars and lorries to
reduce the oil used and extend its useful life, while using pure electric vehicles such as trams and
trains for mass transport. Such hybrid vehicles are presented. Hydrogen can fuel ultra-clean
internal combustion engines, which would reduce auto emissions by more than 99 percent. If
Hydrogen is used to power fuel-cell vehicles, it will do so with more than twice the efficiency of
today's gasoline engines. No harmful air emissions are released. The byproducts of fuel-cells are
pure water and some heat. Hydrogen fuel cells could also be used in providing electricity for
homes, offices, shopping centers, and other buildings. It also minimizes greenhouse effect and
pollution as carbon is not emitted. Proponents of Hydrogen point to long term environmental gains.
This is shown in the paper. In conclusion, this paper describes the complete generation and
working of Hydrogen as a fuel in automobiles.

INTRODUCTION

Energy research has made huge strides over the past three decades, both in improving the
efficient use of traditional fuels and in developing and deploying next generation technologies that
could eventually transform the energy sector. One can see various kinds of energy in daily life.
There are basically two sources of energy conventional and unconventional. Because of some
constraints in the availability and efficiency of conventional sources, the demand for
unconventional sources of energy is increasing.

Hydrogen fuel is emerging as a powerful source for unconventional energy or renewable energy.
Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe. This energy carrier can make a nation
self-sufficient. This papers explains

• Production of Hydrogen.

2. Storage and distribution which involves three stages-compression, liquefaction and chemical
combination stages.

• Demerits of conventional fuels.

• Hydrogen in fuel-cell in internal combustion engines.

• Statistics showing performance of Hydrogen fuels.

• A few examples.

• C onclusion.

PRODUCTION OF HYDROGEN

Hydrogen can be produced from domestic and primary energy sources like coal, natural gas and
also from fossil fuels, nuclear and renewable energy. The production of Hydrogen requires
Hydrogen source and an energy source to separate the gas. A variety of process technologies can
be used, including chemical, biological, electrolytic, photolytic and thermo chemical. Each
technology is in a different stage of development, and each offers unique opportunities, benefits
and challenges. Local availability of feedstock, maturity of technology, market applications and
demand, policy issues and costs will influence the choice and timing of the various options for
Hydrogen production.

It is also the byproduct of many chemical reactions. Its production is economical and
environmental friend] y.

FROM COAL

Partial oxidation of coal is an emerging technology for the production of electric power and
Hydrogen. This is called carbon sequestration. Partial oxidation or gasification combines coal,
oxygen and steam to produce synthesis gas that is cleaned of impurities like sulfur or mercury. To
produce Hydrogen, this synthesis gas is further processed using mature water-gas shift reactor
technology to increase Hydrogen and convert carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide. Hydrogen is
then separated. To reduce costs, novel and advanced technology must be developed in all phases
of the gasification through Hydrogen separation phases. C arbon dioxide produced in the Hydrogen
production process is separated and would be removed utilizing storage technology. A typical
reaction for the generation of Hydrogen from carbon is shown in equation (1.1) where carbon is
converted to carbon monoxide and Hydrogen. This reaction is endothermic and the C O is further
converted to C 02 and H2 through the water-gas shift reaction (1.3). This process is commercially
mature, but is more complex compared to production of Hydrogen from natural gas. The cost of
Hydrogen is also higher. As coal is abundantly available in many parts of the world, it is used as
an energy source.

C (s) + H20 + heat Õ C O + H2 (1.1)

FROM NATURAL GAS

Hydrogen can concurrently be produced from natural gas from three different chemical processes:

• Steam reforming (SMR-Steam methane reforming)

• Partial oxidation (POX)

• Auto-thermal reforming (ATR)

Steam reforming involves the endothermic conversion of methane and water vapor to hydrogen
and carbon monoxide (1.2). The heat is often supplied from combustion of some of the methane
feed-gas. The product gas contains approximately 12% C O, which can be further converted to C 02
and H2 through the water gas shift reaction (1.3).

C H4 + H20 + heat Õ C O + 3H2 (1. 2)

C O + H20 Õ C O2 + H2 + heat (1.3)

Partial oxidation of natural gas is the process where Hydrogen is produced through a partial
combustion of methane with oxygen gas to carbon monoxide and Hydrogen (1.4).

In this process heat is produced (exothermic) and a more compact design is possible since there is
no need for external heating of the reactor. The C O produced is further converted to HZ as
described in equation (1.3)

C H4 + ½ O 2 Õ C O + 2H2 + heat (1.4)

Auto-thermal reforming is a combination of both steam reforming (1.2) and partial oxidation (1.4).
The total reaction is exothermic, producing heat. The outlet temperature from the reactor is in the
range 950 to 1100 °C , and the gas pressure can be as high as 100 bar. The C O produced is
converted to H2 as described previously (1.3). The need to purify the gases adds significantly to
plant costs and reduces the total efficiency.

HYDROGEN PRODUCTION FROM OTHER FOSSIL FUELS

Large-scale, industrial Hydrogen production from fossil energy sources can be considered a
commercial technology for industrial purposes. Hydrogen production at a large scale has the
potential for relatively low unit costs, although the Hydrogen production cost from natural gas in
medium sized plants maybe reduced towards' the cost of large-scale production. The carbon
produced has to be decarbonized. In the future, Hydrogen production from high temperature
processes based renewable energy and waste heat can also be an option for enhancing the
sustainability and removing the need for capture and storage of C 02.

Hydrogen is commercially produced primarily by steam reforming of fossil fuels.

STORAGE AND DISTRIBUTION

Unlike electricity, Hydrogen can be stored for long periods of time and distributed over long
distances without significant losses. Today, Hydrogen is stored as a liquid or compressed gas, and
distributed by truck, rail, and (to a limited extent) pipeline. In the future, it could be stored in
chemical and metal hydrides and carbon nanostructure materials, and distributed via a vast
network of pipelines. In the meantime, current technologies can be adapted to store and distribute
Hydrogen to the emerging transportation and stationary markets for Hydrogen.

STORAGE

There are five Hydrogen storage approaches: low-temperature Hydrogen storage; high-pressure
composite tanks; pressurized cryotanks; novel carbon structures as storage media; and reversible
catalyst-assisted chemical and metal hydrides.

Solid-state storage may offer increased safety for onboard storage of Hydrogen, since tank
punctures or ruptures would not result in large energy releases. These systems also require less
volume than pressurized or liquid systems. Hydrogen is stored as a liquid at 20K in insulated
Dewars or as a compressed gas. Metal Hydrides are used in limited stationary applications where
weight is not a critical factor and where waste heat is available at the appropriate temperature for
Hydrogen release.

A low permeability membrane liner for pressurized storage systems is needed to further improve
storage volumes and reduce container weight. C ompression energy requirements at high storage
pressures are significant. Improved Hydrogen compressors are needed. Improved liquefaction
equipment' that uses less energy to liquefy Hydrogen compared to conventional processes (where
30%-35% of the energy contained in the Hydrogen is required) could provide additional storage
options for stationary applications.

In the recent progress, high-pressure composite storage tanks have been developed through the
combined efforts of industry, national labs, and universities. These tanks have been tested and
certified, and are being used in prototype Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles. A novel thermal Hydrogen
compressor is being developed, where this compressor operates in conjunction with advanced
Hydrogen production technologies and improves the efficiency and economics of the compression
and Hydrogen utilization process. The thermal compressor is an absorption-based system that
uses the properties of reversible metal Hydride alloys to silently and cleanly compress Hydrogen;
Hydrogen is absorbed into an alloy bed at ambient temperature; and, subsequently is released at
elevated pressure when the bed is heated with hot water. C ompression energy can be supplied by
waste heat or solar hot water.

DISTRIBUTION

Distribution concepts include evaluation of existing natural gas pipelines for material compatibility,
utilization of the existing delivering infrastructure to provide Hydrogen to emerging markets, and
improved auxiliary equipment (compressors, liquefaction equipment, valves, and gauges).
Whenever large quantities of gas are needed, the economical solution lies in the installation of a
tank and evaporator system. The Hydrogen is delivered in liquefied and refrigerated form by road
tanker and then pumped into the customer's heat-insulated tank with the vehicle's pump. A heat
exchanger downstream of the tank evaporates the liquefied gas, which then flows through a
pipeline to the user. If Hydrogen is stored as a gas, it requires more tank volume than do liquid
fuels for the same amount of mileage': Stored as a liquid, Hydrogen requires cryogenic systems to
keep it cold.

Implementing distributed fuel processors in close proximity to fuel cell energy conversion devices
enables the initial introduction of Hydrogen as a more efficient source of fuel. This approach
enables siting Hydrogen generators in energy or environmentally constrained markets

Where the economic factors may be more favorable. These systems are smaller and more socially
acceptable, enabling increases in energy efficiency and significant reduction in emissions
compared to the conventional fuels.

DEMERITS OF CONVENTIONAL FUELS

• The conventional fuels like fossil fuels, natural gas are costly and their availability is limited to
certain places of the world.

• Fossil fuels like diesel, petrol, and natural gas have to be imported from other countries to meet
the nation's demands.

• Such fossil fuels are costly and are not economically feasible.

• Automobiles running on conventional fuels emit harmful gases like carbon monoxide, carbon
dioxide which cause pollution. They also have adverse effects on the atmosphere in the form of
green-house effect, depletion of ozone layer, acid rain, etc. Some sulfides are also emitted.

• Using these fuels some amount of energy is rejected or wasted.

• C oal usage results in ash and smoke which causes pollution.

HYDROGEN AS FUEL-CELL

What is fuel cell? How Hydrogen is used in fuel cell?

Figure 1

A fuel cell is an electrochemical device similar to a battery as shown in figure 1, but differing from
the latter in that it is designed for continuous replenishment of the reactants consumed; i.e. it
produces electricity from an external fuel supply of hydrogen and oxygen as opposed to the
limited internal energy storage capacity of a battery. Additionally, the electrodes within a battery
react and change as a battery is charged or discharged, whereas a fuel cell's electrodes are
catalytic and relatively stable.

Typical reactants used in a fuel cell are hydrogen on the anode side and oxygen on the cathode
side (a hydrogen cell). Typically in fuel cells, reactants flow in and reaction products flow out, and
continuous long-term operation is feasible virtually as long as these flows are maintained.

Fuel cells are often considered to be very attractive in modern applications for their high efficiency
and ideally emission-free use, in contrast to currently more common fuels such as methane or
natural gas that generate carbon dioxide. The only by-product of a fuel cell operating on pure
hydrogen is water vapor. There is concern, however, about the energy-consuming process of
manufacturing the hydrogen. Manufacturing hydrogen requires a hydrogen carrier (typically fossil
fuels, though water is an alternative), as well as electricity, which is widely generated by
conventional fuels (fossil fuel or nuclear power). While alternative energy sources like wind and
solar power could also be used, they are presently prohibitively expensive. In this regard,
hydrogen fuel technology itself cannot be said to reduce fossil fuel dependence. Although the long-
term goal is to utilize renewable sources of hydrogen, using widely available fossil fuels as a
source for Hydrogen will allow the Hydrogen economy to be established while renewable resources
are developed. Implementing distributed fuel processors in close proximity to fuel cell \ energy
conversion devices enables the initial introduction of Hydrogen as a more efficient source of fuel.

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

The internal combustion engine is a heat engine in which combustion occurs in a confined space
called a combustion chamber. C ombustion of a fuel creates high temperature and pressure gases,
which are permitted to expand. The expanding gases are used to directly move a piston, turbine
blades, rotors, or the engine itself thus doing useful work. Internal combustion engines can be
powered by a fuel that can be combined with an oxidizer in the chamber.

Internal combustion engines are most commonly used for mobile propulsion systems. When very
high power is required, such as jet aircraft, helicopters and large ships, they appear mostly in the
form of gas turbines. They are also used for electric generators and by industry.

For low power mobile and many non-mobile applications an electric motor is a competitive
alternative. Electric motors may also become competitive for most mobile applications. However
the high cost and weight and poor energy density of batteries and lack of affordable onboard
electric generators such as fuel cells has largely restricted their use to specialist applications.

All internal combustion engines depend on the exothermic chemical process of combustion: the
reaction of a fuel, typically with air, although other oxidizers such as nitrous oxide maybe
employed. The most common fuels in use today are made up of hydrocarbons and are derived
from petroleum like diesel, gasoline and liquified petroleum gas.

Research shows that Hydrogen can replace such fuels. With the introduction of Hydrogen fuel cell
technology, the use of internal combustion engines flay be phased out. The volumetric efficiency of
Hydrogen is roughly five times lower than petro1. This is why Hydrogen must be compressed if
there is to be a useful amount of energy.

All internal combustion engines must have a means of ignition to promote combustion and an
electrical or a compression heating ignition system. Electrical ignition systems generally rely on a
lead-acid battery and an induction coil to provide a high voltage electrical spark to ignite the air-
fuel mix in the engine's cylinders. C ompression heating ignition systems (Diesel Engines and
HC C I) rely on heat created in the air by compression in the engines cylinders to ignite the fuel.
Hydrogen cars generally use the Hydrogen in one of the two methods: combustion or fuel cell
conversion. In combustion, the "Hydrogen" is burned in engines in traditionally the same method--
as traditional gasoline cars. In fuel-cell conversion, the Hydrogen is turned into electricity through
fuel cells which term powers electric motors. With either method, the only by product is water.

Some Hydrogen cars use the common internal combustion engine, usually fueled with gasoline or
diesel liquids, can be converted to run on gaseous Hydrogen. The most efficient use of Hydrogen
involves the use of fuel cells and electric motors instead of a traditional engine. Hydrogen reacts
with oxygen inside the fuel cells, which produces electricity to power the motors.

Hydrogen internal combustion engine cars are different from Hydrogen fuel cell cars. The
Hydrogen internal combustion car is a slightly modified version of the traditional gasoline internal
combustion engine car. These cars burn Hydrogen directly, with no other fuels and produce water
vapor exhaust. The problem with these cars is the Hydrogen fuel that can be stored in a normal
size tank is used up rapidly.

An existing conventional car can be converted to run on Hydrogen, or a mixture of Hydrogen and
other gases. Since Hydrogen can burn in a very wide range of air/fuel mixtures, a small amount of
Hydrogen can also be used to ignite various liquid fuels in existing internal combustion engines
under extremely lean burning conditions. In 2005, an Israeli company claimed it succeeded in
conquering most of the problems related to producing Hydrogen internal combustion engine by
using a device called a Metal-Steam combustor that separate Hydrogen out of heated water. A tip
of a Magnesium or Aluminium coil is inserted into the Metal-Steam combustor together with water
where it is heated to very high temperatures. The metal atoms bond with Oxygen from the water,
creating metal oxide. As a result, the Hydrogen molecules become free, and are sent into the
engine alongside the steam. The solid waste product in the process, in the form of metal oxide, will
later be collected in the fuel station and recycled for further use.

HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLES

Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs) are those that combine the heat engine and the fuel tank of a
conventional vehicle with the battery and electric motor of an electric vehicle. The upshot of this
combination is twice the fuel economy of conventional vehicles. It also enhances greater range
(the distance covered without refueling) and rapid refueling, with the significant benefits of electric
vehicles (Electric vehicles run only on battery power) such as lower emissions.

C urrently, only two types of hybrid vehicles exist, parallel hybrids and series hybrids. In a series
hybrid concept, there are two drive systems, electric and mechanical heat, which can be separated
or coupled in a single Kinematics chain. When the electric drive is used, energy is obtained from a
set of batteries which is partly recharged when traveling under mechanical drive and by using
braking energy. In a parallel hybrid, electricity is drawn from a diesel generator set with an
optimized constant turning system and power which allows the vehicle to travel at low speeds.
Additional power needed for acceleration and start-off is provided by a set of batteries which are
recharged while braking and when the vehicle is stationary.

Series HEV Parallel HEV

To overcome the shortcomings of battery technology, Hybrid power systems were introduced.
Advantages of HEVs over conventional vehicles are

• Regenerative braking - reclaiming portion of energy otherwise lost due to breaking by acquiring
the properties of a generator.

• Fuel efficiency is greatly increased - Hybrids consume less fuel than conventional fuels,

• Emissions are greatly reduced - This results in better environmental preservation.

• HEVs can reduce the dependency on fossil fuels because they can run on alternate fuels,

STATISTICS SHOWING PERFORMANCE OF HYROGEN FUEL

C omparing both these fuels, it is proved that Hydrogen fuels are far more superior than
conventional fuels. These results show the performance and cost efficiency of Hydrogen Fuels.

A FEW EXAMPLES

HONDA'S NEW FCX VEHICLE WITH HOME HYDROGEN REFUELING

The first Hydrogen refueling station was opened in Reykjavik, Iceland on April 2003. This station
serves three buses that are in service in the public transport net of Reykjavik. The station
produces the Hydrogen it needs by itself, with an electrolysing unit, and d o es not need refilling all
that enters is electricity and water.

There are numerous prototype or production cars and buses based on fuel cell technology being
researched or manufactured. Research is ongoing at companies like BMW, Hyundai, and Nissan,
among many others. There are fuel cell-powered buses currently active or in production, such a
fleet of Thor buses with UTC Power fuel cells in C alifornia, operated by Sun line Transit Agency.

HYDROGEN POSTMAN'S BIKE

Some Automobile are

• BMW - 7 series (auxiliary power), based on UTC Power fuel cell technology.

• Ford Focus FC V - a Hydrogen fuel cell modification of the Ford Focus

• Honda is experimenting with a variety of alternate fuels and fuel cell with experimental vehicles
based on the Honda EV Plus

• Mazda - RX-8, with a dual-fuel (hydrogen or gasoline) rotary - engine

A few bus companies conducting Hydrogen fuel cell research are

• DaimlerC hrysler, based on Ballard fuel cell technology.

• Thor Industries (the largest maker of buses in the U.S.), based on UTC Power fuel cell
technology

CONCLUSIONS

The principal hope for Hydrogen is that it will be a replacement for oil as a fuel for transportation.
As far, as motor transport is concerned, while we have relatively cheap fossil fuels, like coal and
natural gas, the best option would be to use Hybrids (vehicles equipped with both internal
combustion engines and electric motors) for cars and lorries to reduce the oil used and extend its
useful life, while using pure electric vehicles such as trams and trains for mass transport.

Hence it can be concluded that Hydrogen is not only a fuel such as oil, coal or electricity; it is also
an energy carrier, rather like a battery.

REFERENCES

BOOKS

1. Joseph J. Romm-The Hype About Hydrogen: Fact & Fiction in the Race to Save the C limate 2004

2. Julian Darley High Noon for Natural Gas: The New Energy C risis 2004

3. Howard Hayden-The Solar Fraud: Why Solar Energy Won't Run the World

4. Times Magazine: The International Magazine of Electric Vehicles (EVs), Hybrid Electric Vehicles
(HEVs), Fuel C ells, Batteries, Alternative Fuels, Electric C ar.

C reated by Department of C SE

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