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A'~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~I

_s

~~~NEEDS

Fig. 1. Alfred Leete, Lord Kitchener, 'Your Country Needs You', recruitment poster, UK, 1914.

ARTICLES AND ESSAYS 'Your CountryNeeds You': a Case Study in Political Iconography by Carlo Ginzburg
In his last book, Theatres Memory(1994), RaphaelSamuelwrote: of A historiography that was alert to memory'sshadows- those sleeping images which springto life unbidden,and serve as ghostly sentinels of our thought - might give at least as much attention to pictures as to or manuscripts print.The visualprovidesus with our stock figures,our subliminalpoints of reference,our unspokenpoint of address.1 of I am confident thatRaphaelSamuelwouldhaveapproved the topicI have chosen for this lecturein his memory,whichdeals not only with imagesbut amount anotherissue on whichhe spenta considerable also withpatriotism, of intellectualenergy. I am not sure that he would have agreed with my I in to approach. shallreturn thispossibleareaof disagreement my conclusion. 'A poor general,but a wonderfulposter':this comment,attributedto Lady Asquith, has long been associatedwith the memory of Lord Kitchener.2 (Fig. 1). A historicalevaluationof Lord Kitchener'slong militarycareer would be out of place here. What concernsme today is not the reality but, in a most literalsense, the image:the posteritself,seen as both the outcomeand the catalystof a series of intricateprocesseswhichdeserve a closer look. Lord Kitchener,at the time the militarygovernorof Egypt, arrivedin Englandon 23 June 1914.On 28 June FrancisFerdinandof Habsburg,the Austrianarchduke,was murderedin Sarajevo;on 28 July,havingseen its ultimatumto Serbiarejected,Austriainitiatedhostilities.On 3 August,the eve of Great Britain'sdeclarationof war, The Timespublishedan article urgingthe PrimeMinister,Lord Asquith,to yield his position as Secretary of Warto the vacationinggovernorof Egypt: is [Kitchener] at home, and his selection for this onerous and important post wouldmeet withwarmpublicapproval... It is earnestlyto be hoped that ... the Field Marshalwill acceptit, if only for the periodof the war.3 LordKitchener,then sixty-four, indeed a verypopularfigure.Formany was
History Workshop Journal Issue 52 C History Workshop Journal 2001

HistoryWorkshop Journal

in yearsthe presshad been describing romantic,nearlylegendarytermsthe man who had crushedthe Mahdistrebellion at Omdurman, dubbinghim 'the avengerof Gordon'.But G. W. Steevens,the journalistwhose account of the marchto Khartoumhad made Kitchenerfamous,had also stressed the inhumanaspectsof his hero. Kitchenerwas, according Steevens,'The to ManWho Has Made Himselfa Machine',a manwho 'oughtto be patented and shownwith pride at the ParisInternational Exhibition,BritishEngine: ExhibitNo. 1, hors concours,the SudanMachine'.4 Even Kitchener'smost sympatheticbiographersmade no attempts to conceal that he was widely-perceivedas a distant,stern figure- although they claimedthat the real man was less inaccessiblethanhe seemed.5Many politiciansshareda criticalview of Kitchener.The most vocal amongthem was WinstonChurchill, who had served under Kitchenerin the Sudan ('It was a case of dislikebefore firstsight',was his later comment).In his book on the SudancampaignChurchill wrote: [Kitchener] treatedall men like machines,fromthe privatesoldierwhose saluteshe disdained,to the superiorofficershe rigidlycontrolled... The stern and unpityingspiritof the Commander was communicated the to troops, and the victories which markedthe progressof the River War were accompaniedby acts of barbarity alwaysjustifiedeven by the not harshcustom of savage conflictsor the fierce and treacherousnatureof the Dervish.6 A harsh,ruthless,implacablesoldier;a skilfulmilitaryorganizer; faithful a servant of the British Empire across the continents - from Africa, to Australia,to India.This was the man called on by The Times on 3 August 1914 to play the role of a dictatorin the true Roman sense: the victorious soldierreadyto serve his countryin a time of danger. That same day Kitchenermade his way to Dover in an unsuccessful attemptto leave.7He triedagainthe day after,4 August;but at the very last minutea messagefromthe PrimeMinisterarrivedandKitchenerwent back to London.A daypassed.Britainenteredthe warwithouthavingappointed a new Secretaryof War.Clearlythings were not going smoothly.Presumably Lord Asquithwas not particularly eager to offer Kitchenera position traditionallygiven to civilians;and Kitchenerwas apparentlyhesitant to acceptit. On 5 August The Times pressedagainfor LordKitchener's nomination, launchinga full-fledgedattackagainsthis most seriouscompetitor: Haldane, the Lord Chancellor.The militarycorrespondentof The Times, Charles 'aCourt, Colonel Repington, who had been a member of Kitchener's staff duringthe Sudan campaign,wrote a long article in which he sharplyjuxtaposedHaldane'spro-German immacuimage and Kitchener's late pro-Frenchrecord (as a young man, he had enrolled as a volunteerin the Franco-Prussian war). After having once more stressed Kitchener's organizational gifts and the confidencehe was sure to inspirein the nation, the militarycorrespondent concluded:

'YourCountry Needs You'

We are well awarethat Kitcheneris not a partyman, and the suggestion is without a precedent;but the situationis wholly exceptional,and calls
for exceptional measures ... The War Office really needs Lord Kitch-

ener, and ought to have him.8 In a few hours those words had become reality.Late in the evening of 5 AugustLord Kitchenerwas appointedSecretaryof War.It has been noted thathe was the firstservingsoldierto sit in any Cabinetsince George Monk and in 1660.9Lord Northcliffe,the strong-willed fiercelypro-warowner of The Times and the Daily Mail, had succeededin overcomingall resistance includingLord Kitchener's.10 Also on 5 August, The Times had issued an appeal,a call to arms: YourKing and CountryNeed You Will you answeryour Country's call? Each day is fraughtwith the gravestpossibilities,and at this very momentthe Empireis on the brinkof the greatest war in the historyof the world. In this crisisyour Countrycalls on all her young unmarried men to rallyroundher Flag and enlist in the ranksof the Army. If every patrioticyoung man answersher call, Englandand the Empirewill emerge strongerand more united than ever. If you are and unmarried between 18 and 30 years old will you answeryour Country'scall? And go to the nearestRecruiter- whose address you can get at any Office,and Join the Army
Today!'"

The propagandamachine of wartimehad begun rolling, the message was there - only Lord Kitchener'sname and face were missing. The Call to Arms was republishedthe followingday;on 7 Augusta requestfrom Lord Kitchenerfor 'an addition of 100,000men to his Majesty'sregularArmy' was published:'LordKitcheneris confidentthat this appealwill be at once responded to by all those who have the safety of our Empire at heart'.12 The impactof this personalappeal,which was repeated over and over, was enormous.The hordes of volunteersclimbedto thirty-five thousanda day.FromSeptember1914onwardsthe appealwas reinforcedby the poster with Kitchener's face. Althoughthe initialrecruiting boom declined,in the first eighteen months of war, before the adoption of compulsoryservice, 'Kitchener'sarmies', or 'Kitchener'sdivisions' (even some official documentsused these terms)swelledto two and a half millionmen - a veryhigh figure,whichKitchener'sobituariesturnedinto five million.13 This massivephenomenonultimatelycollapsedthe distinctionbetween LordKitchenerthe poster and Lord Kitchenerthe general,contributing to the victoryof the formerover the latter.Kitchener'seyes, staringfrom the ubiquitousposters,left a deep impressionon his contemporaries:

Journal Workshop History

~~~ig

2d Photograp ofa grupo

vlun;teers,1914

4b

T~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

~~~~~~L.

Fig. 3. A. L. Mauzan, 'All of you, do your duty', poster for defence bonds, Italy, 1917.

Fig. 4. 'YOU! shirker, defeatist, counter-revolutionary BE AFRAID!' Hungarian World-War. One recruitment poster.

'Your Country Needs You'

Theircolour is quite beautiful[a journalistwrote]- as deep and as clear a blue as the sea, in its most azure moments- and they look out at the world,with the perfectdirectnessof a manwho sees straightto his end.14 Kitchener'seyes reappear,as an epitome of his life and character,in the official three-volumebiographypublishedin 1916, shortly after his tragic death in the wreckof the Hampshire: Even the eyes, on whose steely qualitiesso many have dwelt, were not youngor brilliant- too muchsandhad blownin them for that;and there was a slight- a very slight- divergencebetween them. But they looked very straightat any person Lord Kitchenerwantedto see ... 15 A journalisthad indicated the same detail, in a rather disparagingtone, while Kitchenerwas still alive: About the eyes of Kitchenerit may be said without offence that the terrorthey inspire is heightenedby a squintwhich has tended to grow more pronouncedwith age. The eyes are blue, penetrating,and full of judgment;withouttheir irregularity, they would be difficulteyes to face, but with this irregularity they fill certainmen with a veritableparalysis of terror.Some one who knows him very well has describedto me the effect of those eyes upon people who meet him for the firsttime: 'They strikeyou', I was told, 'witha kind of clutchingterror; look at them, you try to say something,look away,and then tryingto speak,findyour eyes returningto that dreadfulgaze, and once more choke with silence'.16 For Kitchener's admirers even his slightphysicaldefect,barelyvisiblein the posters, became part of his posthumouslegend: 'His gaze was somewhat strange,due, no doubt, to a slight divergenceof the visual axes - a gaze which no one talkingto him could wholly meet, however boldly he might stare.The Sphinxmust look like that'.17 I will return to Kitchener'sgaze later. Let us now focus on the poster's impact. A photographfrom the ImperialWar Museum Archive shows a group of volunteerswho respondedto Kitchener'scall to arms.(Fig. 2) A carefulreaderof this picturestressedthe social mix of the recruits. In a group of half a dozen can be seen at least three classes, each identifiedby appropriatehead-gear:the cloth-capof the working-man; the straw-boater the 'gent' or 'toff'; the trilbyof the man of business of or professionalman.18 This comment sounds unexceptionable,but it raises a further question.

History Workshop Journal

III4

jfty'I?Jtyrl I1'fi7If<laIIt)hlJ~ 'I

'

i1)t' $tJl1enmll Fig 5. J. U. Engelhardt, 'You too must enlist', recruitment poster, Germany, 1919.

FOR

U.S.ARNYf

9~LT

Fig 6. J. M. Flagg, 'I want you for U.S. Army', recruitment poster, US, 1917.

Fig 7. D. Moor, 'Have YOU Enrolled as a Volunteer?', Red Army recruitment poster, Russia,
1920.

Fig 8. Dirk Bouts, Christus, Salvator Mundi (Vera effigies),

c. 1464.

'Your Country Needs You'

Sincethe recruitment centreswere locatedin differentneighbourhoods, the social mix representedin the picturewould have been unlikely- except in In a stagedpicture.19 this case, the commentwould make explicita deliberately subliminalmessage - to use Raphael Samuel'swords.We would get the message,namely,that differentsocialgroupsequallyrespondedto Lord Kitchener'sappeal, but we would miss the code. Even propaganda,an allegedlyself-evident,transparent language,needs to be deciphered. Duringthe war,or immediatelyafterthe war,moreor less reworkedversions of the Kitchenerposterwere made in Italy,Hungary, Germany.20 and disIn the United Statesand the Soviet Union Lord Kitchenerreappeared, guised as, respectively,Uncle Sam and Trotsky.21 (Figs 3,4,5,6,7)This long series of imitationsand variations(along with, as we shall see, inversions and parodies)provesthe effectivenessof LordKitchener's poster:arguably the most successfulever. We'll never know how many people decided to volunteer under the impulse of Kitchener'simage. In some cases the ultimatereason for that choice must have been opaque to the actors themselves.22 is certainly It inscrutableto later observerslike us. But we can safely assume that the imperativesconveyed by those posters- YOUR KING AND COUNTRY NEED YOU, KITCHENERWANTSMOREMEN,andso forth- affected many onlookers. The depiction of authorityacted like authorityitself. A discharge of social energy took place; a command was introjected and turnedinto a decisionwhichwas, literally,a matterof life and death. This effectiveness has usually been taken for granted - preventing a closer analysisof the visual and verbalmechanismsinvolved.How did the poster act? The tool I shall use to answer this question is Aby Warburg's notion of For a long time Warburg's Pathosformeln, formulasof emotion.23 legacy - obscuredthe importanceof his his libraryand the instituteattachedto it own writings.Duringthe last few decadesthe seminalideas he workedout in the late nineteenthand early twentiethcenturyhave become more and more influential.The idea of Pathosformeln, one of the most important amongthem,wasintroduced Gertrud by Bing,the distinguished scholarwho was at one time directorof the Warburg Institute,in the followingterms: it was paganculture,both in religiousritualandin imagery,that supplied the most telling expression of elemental impulses [Pathosformeln]. Pictorialformsare mnemonicsfor suchoperations; they canbe transand and restoredto a new and vigorouslife, wherever mitted, transformed, kindredimpulsesarise.24 In the Middle Ages, when 'the expression of elemental impulses' was banned for religious reasons, that 'primeval vocabulary of passionate

Journal HistoryWorkshop

labelled it) had been forgotten.Warburg came gesticulation'(as Warburg to realize that the formula- the emotional gesture - was a neutralforce, Those Renaissanceartists open to different,even opposite interpretations. invertedtheirclassicalmeaning.25 who recoveredsuchgesturesoccasionally My attemptto act out Warburg's argumentwill startwith three passages from the thirty-fifthbook of Pliny the Elder's Natural History, a section The entirelydevotedto GreekandRomanartists.26 firstdealswithFamulus, a painterfromthe time of EmperorAugustus.He was,Plinywrote (XXXV, 120), 'a dignifiedand severe but also very florid artist;to him belonged a Minerva who viewed the viewer no matter where he looked from'
(spectantem spectans, quacumque aspiceretur).27

The second passage (XXXV, 92) is about Apelles, the famous Greek painter: He also painted Alexander the Great holding a thunderbolt,in the temple of Artemis at Ephesus, for a fee of twenty talents in gold. The fingers have the appearanceof projectingfrom the surface, and the thunderboltseems to standout from the picture(digitieminerevidentur
et fulmen extra tabulam esse); readers must remember that all this was

producedby four colours ...

28

A third passage (XXXV, 126) indirectly clarifies the meaning of the previous one. Apelles's depiction of Alexander as Zeus, with projecting fingers and holding a thunderbolt,relied upon extreme foreshortening,a visual device which had been brought to perfection by another painter, Pausias.Here is Pliny again: But Pausias also did large pictures, for instance the sacrificeof oxen which formerlywas to be seen in Pompey'sPortico.He firstinvented a method of paintingwhich has afterwardsbeen copied by many people but equalledby no-one; the chief point was that althoughhe wantedto show the long body of an ox he paintedthe animalfacingthe spectator and not standingsideways,and its greatsize is fully conveyed(adversum
eum pinxit, non traversum, et abunde intellegitur amplitudo).29

What made Lord Kitchener'sposter possible is in my view a long chainreaction ignited by the combinedreading of these passages.Let us listen to the voices of three among the many witnesses who attested to the ubiquitouspresenceof LordKitchener's posterduringthe FirstWorldWar. The firstis MichaelMacDonagh,a journaliston The Times, who in January 1915wrote: Posters appealingto recruitsare to be seen on every hoarding,in most shop windows,in omnibuses,tramcarsand commercialvans. The great

'YourCountry Needs You'

base of Nelson's Pillaris covered with them. Their numberand variety are remarkable.Everywhere Lord Kitchener sternly points a monstrouslybig finger,exclaiming: WantYou.30 I The second witness is Mont Abbott, at the time of the First WorldWara In from Enstone, Oxfordshire. his recollectionshe said: young farmworker The gwoost of Kitchenerhad been fadinghis fingerat me for some time on they washed-out posters outside the Post-Office, 'Your King and CountryNEED YOU'. Being up to me eyes the last few yearsin 'Rosy's rump',lone calves, mad bulls, and hungryhorses out at FulwellI hadn't had time to list at Kitchener.But by 1918the old gwoost were cropping up afresh,pointing at me from barn doors and tree trunks,'YourKing and CountryNEED YOU'. The Germanswere hammering againat yet our exhaustedlads in the fifth army,90,000of our men and 1,300of our guns taken at Lys. I'd be sixteenin July.I only hoped the lads could hold out till I got there
- which they did.31

The thirdwitness is H. D. Davray,the authorof a biographypublished in France after Lord Kitchener'sdeath and immediatelytranslatedinto English. In June 1916, Davray writes, at a time when Lord Northcliffe's press had started to attack Lord Kitchenerfor his failure to provide the necessaryquantityof bomb shells to the Frenchfront: the CentralRecruitingCommitteeposted on the wallsof Londonand all over Great Britaina poster displayingan enormousfull-faceportraitof LordKitchener.Fromwhateverangleit was regardedthe eyes met those of the onlooker and never left them;and on one side in largeletterswas the laconic appeal:KitchenerWantsMore Men!32 Mont Abbott never heardof Plinythe Elder. MacDonaghand Davraycertainly were not thinking of him when they commented on Kitchener's poster. But when we read the words 'fromwhateverangle it was regarded the eyes met those of the onlooker and never left them', we may ask ourselves:whose imageis beingdescribedhere,Minerva's LordKitchener's? or who is pointinga monstrously finger,Lord Kitcheneror Alexanderthe big Great? These echoes recapitulatethe historicaltrajectorythat I am going to sketch. My digressionwill start from a well-knownpassage from the introduction
to De visione Dei sive de icona liber (On the vision of God or on the image),

a treatisewrittenin 1453by the greatphilosopherNicholasof Cusa,known as Cusanus.33 give his readerssome idea of the relationship To betweenGod

10

History Workshop Journal

Fig. 9. Crossbow Archer, Austria, c. 1430.

Fig. 10. Antonello da Messina, Christ Blessing, c. 1465.

Fig. 11. Icon of Christ Pantocrator, Mount Sinai Monastery of St Catherine, sixth-seventh century.

Fig. 12. Hans Memling, Christ Giving His Blessing, Flemish, 1478.

'YourCountry Needs You'

11

and the world, Cusanuswrote that the most appropriate image they could Thereare many picturewouldbe the face of somebodywho sees everything. such images,he went on, wonderfullypainted:the face of the archerin the of that of Roger, the great painter,in the premarket-square Nuremberg; that cious panel of his, now on displayin the hall of the Brusselstribunal; in my own chapel,in Koblenz;that of the angel who holds of the Veronica Cusanusaccompanied manuscript the the insigniaof the churchin Brixen.34 of his treatisewith a little panel showingthe image of Jesus as it had been impressedon Veronica's veil. If you hangit on a wall,he explained,each of you will see that fromwhateveranglethe imageis viewed,you will have the feeling of being, so to speak, the only one regardedby it.35 The paintingsCusanusmentioned in this passage are lost, but we can their appearance. Some of them, like the true image (vera icon, reconstruct hence Veronica)of Christ,belonged to well-knowntypes. (Fig. 8) In articulating the experience of viewing the Veronica, Cusanus reworkedPliny'sallusionto the 'Minervawho viewed the viewerno matter where he looked from' (spectantem spectans, quacumque aspiceretur). A verylearnedreaderwho had (as the aforementioned passageshows)a keen interestin the visualartswouldhave been familiarwith Pliny'swork.36 One wonderswhetherCusanus's referenceto the all-seeingarcher- also a rather widespreadtype (Fig. 9) - may have implied a reference to Pliny's discussion of the depiction of Alexander the Great holding a thunderbolt.37 Even more speculative, of course, would be a connection between the Nurembergarcherand Pliny's.But this sort of connectioncan be assumed, in my view, in the case of a famous paintingwhich did survive:Antonello da Messina'sBlessing Christ (London,NationalGallery).Antonello started from a venerable iconographictype, the so-called Salvator Mundi (the Saviourof the World),a figurewho 'viewedthe viewerno matterwhere he looked from', and included the blessing gesture representedby innumerable icons. (Figs 10, 11) InitiallyAntonello, who was deeply interestedin the works of contemporaryFlemish painterslike Petrus Christusor Hans Memling, (Fig. 12) followed the traditionaliconography;then he modified Christ'sblessing hand by introducinga bold, innovative foreshortening.Much has been writtenon this dramatic pentimento. In my view Antonello was inspiredby Pliny'spassageon Alexanderthe Great depictedas Zeus: 'the fingershave the appearanceof projectingfrom the surface,and the thunderboltseems to stand out from the picture' (digiti eminere videntur et fulmen extra tabulam esse). Pliny'sNatural History was publishedin Latin in 1469.The first Italiantranslationwas issued in Venice in 1476 by the Frenchprinter NicolasJenson.38 This huge publishing effort,involvingapproximately onethousandfolio pages, involved lengthypreparations. CristoforoLandino's translationmust have been availablein Venice in 1475, when Antonello, freshlyarrivedfrom Sicily,revisedand signed his painting.39 'Pare che le dita sieno rilevate et el fulgore sia fuori della tavola': this

12

Journal HistoryWorkshop

momentous sentence came to be regarded - for instance in Ludovico

Dolce's dialogue on painting (1557) - as the locus classicus, the foremost

authorityon foreshortening.40 Pliny gave no indicationof how to go about achievingthe remarkableeffect and so his laconic descriptionbecame a challenge to those who aimed to recreate (or invent) a fragmentof a lost tradition.Pliny'swordsurgedon those who labouredto createpictorialillubecame increasingly sion. Foreshortening popularamongartistsanxiousto The prove their ability to overcome difficulties.41 crucialinfluencein this domainwas of courseMichelangelo.In the Creation Sun and Moon and of other frescoes in the Sistine Chapel,projectingfingers,gesticulating hands and bold foreshorteningsstressed spatial and narrative relationships.42 (Fig. 13) Beyond God'simperiousgestureone can see the painter'sgesture: a not-so-hiddenanalogyinspiredby the Neoplatonicidea of art as divine creation.43 In a splendiddrawing,now at the BritishMuseum,Pontormo,the great Mannerist painter, articulated Michelangelo's idea in a non-narrative context. (Fig. 14) Here the protruding createsa sense of close intimacy arm between the painter's self-image, seen in a mirror, and the viewer as onlooker.44 Nearly a centurylater, Caravaggioreworkedthe gesture with whichMichelangeloendowedGod the FathercallingAdam to life, in order to express a differentevent: St Matthewsummonedby the Son of God.45 (Fig. 15) Can we interpretKitchener'spointingfingeras a secular,foreshortened version of Jesus' horizontalgesture in Caravaggio's painting?After all, in both cases we have a call- a call to arms,a religiouscall.But the two images that one assumes that there are so differentin their formal arrangement were some (maybe many) missinglinks in between. I have been unable to find them. My provisionalconclusionwould be the following:Lord Kitchener's poster could emerge because two intertwinedpictorial traditions existed, involving frontal, all-seeing figures as well as figures with foreshortenedpointingfingers. But those pictorialdevices, by themselves,would have been insufficient to generateLordKitchener's poster.Its birthplace locatedin a different was visualenvironment: demoticlanguageof advertisement.46 the (Figs 1, 16) The poster for Godfrey,Phillipsand Sons cigaretteswas reproducedand much praisedin a little book by H. Bridgewater,the advertisingmanager
of the Financial Times, entitled Advertising or the Art of Making Known. A Simple Exposition of the Principles of Advertising, publishedin 1910.47

I have come to regard commercial warfare [Bridgewaterwrote] as merelya highertype of the warfareof ancienttimes.To competesuccessfully in modern warfare - Commerce - one must possess the same

attributesthat led men to victoryin the days of yore, namely,courage,

'Your Country Needs You'

13

00

Fg 13_ihlneo

rainofteSnadMo,10-2

13. Fig.

-zichelangelo,Creation of the Sun and Moon, 1508-12.

|'V

-A*s

Fig. 14. Pontormo, Nude Study, c. 1525.

Fig. 15. Caravaggio, Calling of St Matthew.

14

HistoryWorkshop Journal

perseverance,the abilityto roughit, and last, but not least, resourcefulness.48

Technical devices were not less important. Among them Bridgewater stressed'the value of Perspective': By a proper appreciationand use of perspectivean artist can depict a landscapecoveringa largetractof country(possiblythousandsof square miles) in a few squareinches.49 the A foreshortened fingercould also demonstrate value of perspective.An equally aggressiveYOU could reinforce the message. 'The you style of also has come in for a great deal of attention',wrote S. R. advertisements
Hall in his Writing an Advertisement (Boston 1915):

Certainwriterswere able to get attentionand good resultsby a forceful style of copy addressedto the reader as a letter would be, in which the pronoun 'you' was freely used. It was 'You, Mr. Reader', 'You Need This', and so on.50 In the front cover of the London Opinion of 5 September 1914, Alfred Leete'sportraitof LordKitchenerwasframedby two messages:'Thispaper insuresyou for ?1,000', '50 photographsof YOU for a shilling'.The same sense) were used to sell the techniquesused to hit a target(in a commercial in war.Incidentally, 1971the Committeeto Unsell the War- the Viet-Nam war - publishedjust one poster, whose image and caption reversedLord Kitchener'smessage:'I WANTOUT'.51 (Fig. 17) Alfred Leete's weekly drawingsfor the London Opinion had invariably a humorous character, even when they dealt with political matters.52 The serious mood of his Kitchenerportraitwas quite exceptional.On 14 November 1914, Leete quoted his own work in a more jocular vein, by representingLord Kitchenerin the act of catchinga young man reading 'FootballSpecial',when he ought to have been volunteering.(Fig. 18) On 26 December Leete contributedagainto the recruiting campaign, playfully reworking John Hassall's poster 'Skegness is so bracing' (1908), 'with to acknowledgement the well-knownposter'.53 (Fig. 19) But in the meantime the ParliamentaryRecruiting Committee had askedAlfred Leete to transform cover for the London Opinion into the his The poster whichwas going to become so famous.54 reasonsfor this choice have been stressed countless times. One writer recently suggested that Uncle Sam, Lord Kitchener'sAmerican counterpart,was 'a strong authBut ority figurewith whom the viewer could identify'.55 was it possible to identify with such an authoritarian figure?The stern glance, the stabbing

'YourCountry Needs You'

15

finger, the perspective as though seen from below, must have usually elicited a feeling of awe, of hierarchicaldistance, of submission.Even a sophisticatedobserverlike Osbert Sitwell,who startedhis recollectionsof
Kitchener with a slightly ironical tone, ultimately fell back upon a quasi-

religious attitude- as if he were respondingto the poster's ancient prototype: sat With an altogethersquarenessand solidity,[Kitchener] there as if he were a god, slightlygone to seed perhaps,but waitingconfidentlyfor his earthlydominionto disclose itself ... a slightlyunfocusedglance which seemed almostin its fixityto possess a power of divination... And you could, in the mind'seye, see his image set up as that of an Englishgod, by nativesin differentpointsof the Empirewhichhe hadhelpedto create and support,preciselyas the Roman Emperorshad formerlybeen worshipped. Within a few months' time, when from every hoardingvast posters showed Lord Kitchenerpointing into perspectivesin space, so steadily perceived, if focused with uncertainty,and below, the caption 'He wantsYOU!' I often thoughtof that squarefigure.. .56 Osbert Sitwell'simperialmystiquewas sharedby less snobbishobservers. The poster'spowerignoredclassdistinctions a tinydetailin the vastdefeat of Europeanworkers.57
* * *

But the visual device chosen by Leete could be developed in a different direction.Let me quote once again Pliny (XXXV, 92) on the depictionof Alexanderthe Great by Apelles: 'The fingershave the appearanceof projecting from the surface,and the thunderboltseems to stand out from the picture'.Thus far I have focused mainlyon projectingfingers;I was unable to decide whether Cusanus'sarcheraiminghis arrowat the viewer was a deliberate response to Pliny's. Apelles depicted Alexander the Great as Zeus: his thunderboltwas an attributeof power. In the early twentieth century the mythical thunderboltbecame a weapon, an updated bow: a handgun.(Figs 20, 9) 'Halt! You are not allowed to go furtherwithout having read that the typewriting machinePolygraph a firstclassGermanproduct': is these words were shouted by a Montenegrinbanditin an advertisement about 1908 of for a typewritermade by a Leipzigfirm,PolyphonMusikwerke.58 The poster'saim was to arrestthe viewer'sattentionand bringhim to a halt. In this case no identification mechanismwas involved,of course.The Montenegrinbandit embodied not authoritybut a (playful) threat. The Phillipscigaretteposter,praisedby the advertising managerof the Financial Times as an admirableillustrationof the arrestingpower of a forceful illustration,achieved its aim by sending a more subdued message.59 But both posters embody a visually-aggressive quality,related to the crowded,

16

History Workshop Journal

Fig. 16. Advertisement for Godfrey Phillips Cigarettes, London, c. 1910.

Fig. 17. 'I Want Out', poster, US, 1971. Issued by the Committee to Unsell the War.

lONDON
N~

^-:PINrh0nk

se..~~~~~~~~~~~~W
f 0.- ^s

1. et,Lr FigKe. Afe Kicenr Lno Nov. 194 Oiio,1 . Nov. 1914.

Fig. 19. Alfred Leete, 'The East Coast is Bracing - to Recnnting', London Opinion, 26 Dec. 1914.

'YourCountry Needs You'

17

tense, frenetic urban scene where they would have been seen. I wonder whether an analogousvisual event, albeit projectedon to a nearly metaphysical plane, might have inspired the note Aby Warburgwrote on 27 August 1890:'Assumption that the work of art is somethinghostile moving Five years later the Lumiere brothers plunged towards the beholder'.60 of cinemaaudiencesinto terrorby projectingtheir 'Arrival a Traininto the Station of La Ciotat'.Figuresrunningtowardthe viewer became a recurLordKitchener's rentfeatureof earlymovies.61 posterrelieduponthe same visualdevices and was addressedto an audienceaccustomedto cinemaand its rangeof sophisticatedvisualtricks,includingGriffith's close-ups.Visual devices inventedby Hellenisticpainterswere successfullyadaptedto twenlife came to appreciateas he tieth-century and its demands.But as Warburg the art of the ItalianRenaissance,the meaningof ancientformuanalyzed las sometimesgot reversedin transmission. A chillingillustration this symbolicinversionis providedby a German of postermade in 1944,duringthe occupationof the Ukraine.62 (Fig.21). This ugly piece of Nazi propagandaturned the discoveryof a mass grave, the result of Stalinistextermination,into an incitementto slaughterJews and Bolsheviks. Throughthe visual device that we have come to know quite well, the viewer, symbolically affronted and threatened by the Jewish is an commissar, urgedto take a quiteliteralrevenge,by re-enacting all-toofamiliarevent - a pogrom. The import of this reversal of Apelles's lost depiction of Alexander the Great, possibly inspired by the Polyphon Musikwerkeposter, is clear. The embodimentof authorityand legitimate power has been turnedinto a targetof hatred. This shift bringsus, once again,to the receptionof the recruitment poster. 'The whole country',a biographer Kitchenerwrote, 'wassoon placarded of with posters depicting Kitchenerin the characterof Big Brother, with a Field-Marshal's cap, hypnoticeyes, bristlingmoustache,a pointingfinger, and the legend "YourCountryNeeds YOU".'63 'In the character Big Brother': passingreferenceto GeorgeOrwell of this deservesa more seriousscrutiny. the very beginningof Nineteen EightyAt Four (1949) the readeris confrontedwith the descriptionof [a] coloured poster, too large for indoor display,. . . tacked to the wall. It depicted simplyan enormousface, more than a metre wide:the face of a man of aboutthirty-five, with a heavyblackmoustacheand ruggedly handsomefeatures... It was one of those pictureswhichare so contrived that the eyes follow you about when you move. BIG BROTHER IS WATCHING YOU, the captionbeneathit ran.64 Eric Blair,who later took George Orwellas a pen name,was born in 1903, in India. He moved to Englandwith his familyin 1907.The passage I just

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quoted is obviouslybased on a childhoodmemoryof the Kitchenerposters scatteredall over Englandin the fall of 1914.On 2 October1914,the elevenyear-oldEric Blairpublishedin a local newspaperhis firstpiece, a patriotic poem whose end echoed Kitchener'sappeal: Awake! YoungMen of England, For if, when your Country'sin need You do not enlist by the thousand, You trulyare cowardsindeed. Two years later Blair published another poem, entitled 'Kitchener',to death.65 mournthe field-marshal's Thereis no need to recallthe role playedin the novel by the imageof Big In Brother,eitheras a posteror fromthe telescreen.66 the lightof whatI have said thus far, it is impossibleto miss in this passagea distant(but distinct) echo of Pliny on the image of Minerva'who viewed the viewer no matter An wherehe lookedfrom'.Is the echo director indirect? answerto thisquestion shouldtake into accountanotherpassageof Nineteen Eighty-Four: A new posterhad suddenlyappearedall over London.It had no caption, and representedsimplythe monstrousfigureof a Eurasiansoldier,three or four metreshigh,stridingforwardwith expressionless Mongolianface and enormous boots, a sub-machine-gun pointed from his hip. From whateverangle you looked at the poster, the muzzle of the gun, magnified by the foreshortening,seemed to be pointed straightat you. The thing had been plasteredon every blank space on every wall, even outnumberingthe portraitsof Big Brother.67 a ThisEurasiansoldieris undeniably link to be addedto the seriesof images descending from Apelles's painting, 'representingAlexander the Great holdinga thunderbolt'. Orwellmay have been familiarwith Pliny'spassage. But thereis another,more intriguing, that possibility: Orwell,in placingside by side Big Brotherand the Eurasiansoldier,the all-seeingimage of authority and the aggressiveimage of threat,was in fact unfoldingthe hidden that image,the figurewho faces polarityunderlying highly-charged primeval the viewer.But as readersof Nineteen Eighty-Four willrecall,the waragainst Eurasiais a staged event. Like the poster Kitchenerthat blotted out the General,the televisedwaris more authenticthan the real one. Big Brother probablydoes not exist:he is a name, a face, a slogan- like a poster advertising a commercialbrand.In 1949, when it was first published,Nineteen book;its referencesto the StalinEighty-Four waswidelyreadas a Cold-War ist terrorseemed self-evident.Half a centurylater,the descriptionof a diccontrolcan be easily tatorshipbased on electronicmedia and psychological accommodated a different,not entirelyimpossiblereality. to

'YourCountry Needs You'

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~~~~~T
TV

Fig. 20. Advertisement for a Polyphon Musikwerke typewriter, Germany, c. 1908.

Fig. 21. 'Vmnytsa', German poster issued during the occupation of the Ukraine, 1944.

LordKitchener'sposter (Fig. 1) led us to Eric Blair'schildhoodmemories. Thereis no need to insiston the historicalrelevanceof memories,a domain of researchwhich Raphael Samuelforcefullymade his own. Memoriesare the stuff of history,especiallyfor a journallike HistoryWorkshop,whose aim has been to bring the boundariesof professionalhistorianscloser to people'slives. This is an aim I am deeply sympatheticwith. But is historyhistoryas historicalwriting- coextensive with memory?Notwithstanding the eloquence of Samuel'sargumentson this issue, I feel closer to those who, following Maurice Halbwachs, insist in stressing the difference between memory and history.68 The case study I have just submittedto you may throw some light on this difference.To decipher the subliminal messagesconveyed by Lord Kitchener'sposter we need a view from afar, a perspective removed in time, a critical distance: attitudes which are certainlynourishedby memory,but are independentfrom it.

NOTES AND REFERENCES This is a revised version of the Raphael Samuel Memorial Lecture I delivered in London in October 2000. Many thanks to Samuel Gilbert for his linguistic advice. 1 Raphael Samuel, Theatres of Memory, I: Past and Present in Contemporary Culture, London, 1994, p. 27. 2 Alfred Leete. A Woodspring Museum Publication (exhibition catalogue), Woodspring Museum, Weston-super-Mare, 1985, p. 11. But see also E. S. Grew and others, Field-Marshal Lord Kitchener. His Life and Work for the Empire, 3 vols, London, 1916, particularly vol. 3, p. 221 (by G.4eorge] T.[urnbull]): '"[Kitchener] was not a man, but a poster . . ." Justice to the

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memoryof the late Sir ArthurMarkham requiresthe admissionthat he had said that too, adding:"He was a very good poster".' of Victory, Boston and New York,1915,p. 45.
3 The Times, 3 Aug. 1914. 4 G. W. Steevens, WithKitchener to Khartoum, quoted by H. Begbie, Kitchener Organizer 5 H. D. Davray, Lord Kitchener: His Work and Prestige, English transl. 1917, pp. 34 ff. 6 Davray, Lord Kitchener, p. 41. 7 P. Magnus, Kitchener: Portrait of an Imperialist, London, 1958, p. 277. Haldane of Cloan. His Life and Times, 1856-1928, London, 1960, pp. 307-10.

8 'Lord Haldane or Lord Kitchener?',The Times,5 Aug. 1914. See also D. Sommer,

9 Kitchener attendeda Councilof Waron 5 Aug.,in the afternoon, beforebeingformally appointed: W. Germains('A Rifleman'),The Truth V. AboutKitchener, London,1925,p. 43. 'A decisionviewedin some quarters a triumph the Northcliffe as for press'.Magnus, Kitchener, p. 277:'He was desperatelyanxiousto avoid a summonsto join the government Secretary as of War'.
11 The Times, 5 Aug. 1914. 10 J. L. Thompson, Northeliffe. Press Baron in Politics, 1865-1922, London, 2000, p. 224:

12 TheTimes,7 Aug. 1914.EricField,who claimsto havewrittenthe appealpublished on 5 August,saysthatKitchener revisedit by inserting sentences: two 'LordKitchener needsyou' and 'God save the King'at the end (E. Field,Advertising: Forgotten the Years, London,1959, pp. 28-9, ill. pp. 134-6).Fieldrefersto the appealpublished 11 August; does not mention on he the intermediate versionwhichappearedon 7 August.
13 5.000.000 Men, Published Solely for the Benefit of the Lord Kitchener National Memorial Fund and the British Red Cross Fund, London, 1916 (with a text signed by Arthur Conan the New Armies, 1914-16, Manchester, 1988, pp. 75, 169 and throughout. 14 H. G. Groser, Lord Kitchener. The Story of his Life, London (1901), new updated

Doyle). On 'Kitchener's divisions' SirG. Arthur,Kitchener la guerre(1914-1916), see et Paris, 1921,p. 43. For a fully-documented accountsee P. Simkins,Kitchener's Army:the Raisingof edition 1914,p. 145 (T. P. O'Connor).

15 Grew and others, Field-Marshal Lord Kitchener, vol. 1, p. 11.

16 H. Begbie, Lord Kitchener, Boston and New York1915,p. 99.

22 See the richevidencepresentedby Simkins, Kitchener's Army,p. 165ff. 23 Translatedas 'emotive formulas'in A. Warburg,The Renewalof Pagan Antiquity, transl.D. Britt,Los Angeles, 1999. 24 Warburg, Renewal, 82. p. throughout(see index under Pathosformeln polarity)based on Warburg's and unpublished notes;M. Barasch,'PathosFormulae: Some Reflectionson the Structure a Concept'[1985], of
25 E. H. Gombrich, Aby Warburg:An Intellectual Biography, London, 1970, pp. 320-1 and

rote Keil. Das politische Plakat, Theorie und Geschichte, Berlin, 1985, pp. 94-5.

19 For a differentpicturesee Simkins,Kitchener's Army,pp. 79 ff. 20 On the Italian poster (by A. L. Mauzan,1917) and the Germanposter (by J. U. Engelhardt, 1919,for the new Republicanarmy)see P. Paretand others,Persuasive Images, Princeton,1992,ill. 54, 155. 21 M. Timmers (ed.), ThePowerof thePoster,London1998,p. 160ff. On the Sovietposter (made by D. Moor in 1920,and reworkedby the same painterin 1941)see F. Kampfer, Der

17 Davray, Lord Kitchener, p. 34. 18 M. Brown, The Imperial WarMuseum Book of the First World War,London, 1991, p. 42.

the Warburg Institute),p. 52. RathequotesfromL. Volkmann, Bewegungsproblem der Das in bildendenKunst,Esslingen a. N., 1911, p. 21 ff. (The referenceto Pliny is missingin the previouseditionI was able to consult,Esslingen1908,p. 14). Minervaspectantemspectans, quacumqueaspiceretur'(Plinius, NaturalisHistoria,transl. H. Rackham,London, 1961, Loeb ClassicalLibrary;the translationhas been modified). 0. Rossbach in RE, 6, col. 1985 suggests that some mechanicaldevice was implied (see D. Freedberg,ThePowerof Images,Chicago,1989,pp. 292-3). This seems unlikely. 28 '[Apelles]pinxitet Alexandrum fulmentenentemin temploEphesiaeDianae Magnum vigintitalentisauri,digitieminerevidentur fulmenextratabulamesse;legentesmeminerint et
omnia ea quattuor coloribus facta ...' (Plinius, Naturalis Historia, transl. H. Rackham, 27 'Fuit et nuper gravis ac severus idemque floridus tumidus pictor Famulus. Huius aut

in his Imago Hominis. Studies in the Language of Art, New York, 1994, pp. 119-27. 26 K. Rathe, Die Ausdrucksfunktion extrem verkurzter Figuren, London, 1938 (Studies of

London,1961,Loeb Classical Library).

'Your Country Needs You'

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29 'Pausias autem fecit et grandes tabulas, sicut spectatamin Pompei porticu boum immolationem. Eamprimusinvenitpicturam, quamposteaimitatisuntmulti,aequavitnemo. et Ante omnia,cum longitudinem bovis ostendivellet, adversum eum pinxit,non traversum, abundeintellegitur transl.H. Rackham, amplitudo.' (Plinius,Naturalis Historia, London,1961, Loeb Classical Library).
30 Quoted by C. Haste, Keep the Home Fires Burning. Propaganda in the First World War,

London,1977,p. 55.
31 S. Stewart, Lifting the Latch: a Life on the Land, based on the life of Mont Abbott of

EnstoneOxfordshire, Oxford,1987,pp. 73-4 (I am verygratefulto Alun Howkinsfor passing this piece of evidence to me). See also F. L. Goldthorpe'sunpublished memoirquoted by
Simkins, Kitchener's Army, p. 172:

and tales of German The accusingfingerof Kitchenerstabbedme at every bill-posting, atrocitiesand strickenBelgiumdinnedinto my ears daily.I supposeit was a combination whichsent me to the local drillhall on November15th.My age was of these manyurgings then 171/2. Art 32 Davray,LordKitchener, 55 (see alsoE. H. Gombrich, andIllusion,London,1962, p. p. 96). a. 33 Nicholasof Cusa,Opera,Parisiis1514,vol. 1, reprint,Frankfurt M. 1962,c. XCIX r: see E. Panofsky,'Faciesilla Rogerimaximipictoris'(see note 34). of 34 I follow the interpretation E. Panofsky,'Faciesilla Rogeri maximipictoris'in Late
Classical and Mediaeval Studies in Honor of Albert Mathias Friend, Princeton, 1955,

'Ein pp.392-400;see alsoH. Kauffmann, Selbstportrat RogersvanderWeydenaufden Berner Trajansteppichen', Repertorium Kunstwissenschaft 1916,pp. 15-30;H. Beenken,'Figura fir 39,
cuncta videntis', Kunstchronik iv, 1951, p. 266; A. Neumeyer, Der Blick aus dem Bilde, Berlin,

1964,p. 40 f. ex 35 Nicholasof Cusa,Operavol. 1, c. XCIXr:'et quisquevestrum experietur quocunque se loco eandeminspexerit, quasisolumper eam videri'. e La 36 M. Bettini,'TraPlinioe Sant'Agostino:Petrarca le artifigurative', memoriadell' antico,ed. S. Settis,vol. 2, Torino,1984,pp. 221-67. of 37 AndreaDe Marchi kindlyshowedme the photograph a painting(probably Venetian, 17th-18thcentury)from the Saibene collection,depictingan archerwho points his arrow towardsthe viewer. 38 Plinio, Historianaturale,transl. C. Landino,Venetiis, 1476:'Pare che le dita sieno rilevateet el fulgoresia fuoridella tavola. . .' 39 The illusionistically to paintedcartellino, painted,according the evidencegatheredby of after the reworking Christ'shand,reads:'millesimoquatricentessimo X-rayphotographs, me sexstage/simoquinto VIIIa indi Antonellus/Messaneus pinxit' (1465 eighth indiction Antonellusof Messinapaintedme). The date based on Jesus'sbirth- 1465- is contradicted fiscalcycle inventedin Egypt)whichpoints by the date based on the indiction(a fifteen-year either to 1460or to 1475.Art historiansattemptto solve the contradiction differentways. in GiovanniPrevitalihas convincingly suggestedthat 1475fits the best with Antonello'sstylistic evolution('Da Antonelloda Messinaa Jacopodi Antonello.1. La datadel Cristobenedicente dellaNationalGallerydi Londra', Prospettiva 1980,pp.27-34). See alsoF. Sricchia 20, Santoro,
Antonello e l'Europa, Milano, 1986, pp. 106, 162. 40 L. Dolce, Dialogo della pittura... intitolato l'Aretino, Venezia, 1557, c. 37 r (quoting

Landino'stranslation).Pliny's passage is mentioned,in a different perspective,in E. H. Gombrich,TheHeritageof Apelles, Oxford,1976 (Italiantransl.,M. L. Bassi, Torino,1986, p. 21). 41 E. H. Gombrich,'The Leaven of Criticismin RenaissanceArt', in Art, Scienceand Literature the Renaissance, C. Singleton,Baltimore,1967,pp. 3-42 (reprintedin The in ed. Heritage Apelles,Oxford,1976;Italiantransl.M. L. Bassi,Torino1986,pp. 154-77). of
42 Michelangelo's Creation of Sun and Moon is reproduced by J.J. Tikkanen, Studien aber den Ausdruck in der Kunst, I: Zwei Gebarde mit dem Zeigefinger, Helnsigfors, 1913, p. 77, Abb.

108;on pp. 44-98 ('Das Zeigen als kunstlerisches Ausdrucksmotiv': preliminary, still a but valuablesurvey). 43 On Michelangelo's sonnet about his work on the Sistine Chapelceiling see I. Lavin, 'Berniniand the Art of SocialSatire',in Drawingsby Gian LorenzoBernini,ed. by I. Lavin, Princeton,1981,pp. 26-64, especiallyp. 34 (but my conclusiondiffersfromLavin's).

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44 J. Cox Rearick,TheDrawingsof Pontormo,New York,1964,vol. 1, p. 247;vol. 2, ill. 241 (about 1525,stylistically close to the Supperat Emmaus). 45 I. Lavin, 'Caravaggio's Callingof Saint Matthew:the Identityof the Protagonist', in
Lavin, Past-Present. Essays on Historicism in Art from Donatello to Picasso, Berkeley, Los

Angeles, Oxford,1993,pp. 84-99, especiallyp. 95. 46 Tikkanen,Studien,p. 44, mentionedthe presence of the pointingfingerin publicity A. (withoutfurtherindications). Chastel('L'artdu geste a la Renaissance', now republished in his Le gestedansl'art,Paris,2001,p. 39) compares earlysixteenth-century paintings, showing backward the viewerandpointingat the scene, andmodernpostersdirectly at figuresglancing the addressing viewer.But the differencebetweenthe two gesturesshouldnot be overlooked.
47 H. Bridgewater, Advertising or the Art of Making Known. A Simple Exposition of the Principles of Advertising, London, 1910, p. 15.

48 Bridgewater, Advertising, 1-2. pp. 49 Bridgewater, Advertising, 30. p. 50 S. R. Hall, Writing Advertisement, an Boston, 1915,pp. 114-5.
51 Timmers (ed.), Power of the Poster, p. 160 ff. 52 A. Leete, Schmidt the Spy and His Messages to Berlin, London, 1916; Leete, The Work

of a PictorialComedian, London,1936(whichI have not seen;the copy at the BritishLibrary

has been destroyed). See in general Alfred Leete. A Woodspring Museum Publication

(exhibitioncatalogue). in 53 Hassall'sposter is reproduced Timmers(ed.), Powerof the Poster,p. 181. See also W. S. Rogers,'The ModernPoster:Its Essentialsand Significance', LondonJournalof the in RoyalSocietyof Arts,23 Jan.1914,pp. 186-92,on humorous posters:'TheSkegnessposterby is Hassall,withthe title "Sobracing" typical,andonce seen is neverforgotten'(republished in 54 Size of the originalposter:75 x 50 cm. 55 R. Walton,'Fourin focus',in Timmers(ed.), Powerof the Poster,p. 164. 56 OsbertSitwell,GreatMorning (1948),p. 264 (quotedby Magnus, Kitchener, 276-7). pp. 57 Socialist imagery sometimes referred,either explicitly or implicitly,to Kitchener's poster:see Herald'scartoonof 20 Feb. 1915 ('Kingand Countrydo not need you! Desist!')
reproduced in J. M. Winter, Socialism and the Challenge of War:Ideas and Politics in Britain L'affiche anglaise: les ann&es90, Paris, 1972).

1912-1918, London, 1974, plate 9 (between p. 119 and p. 120). Another example (kindly broughtto my attentionby M. AndreDelord) is a posterby Niverwhichthe FrenchSocialist party used in the 1936 elections:a workerpointinga threatening fingersays 'C'est bientot qu'onva r6glerles comptes'. 58 'Halt!Sie durfennichtehervoruberals bis Sie gelesenhaben,dassdie Schreibmaschine Fabrikat (here reproduced ist' Polygraph, deutsches,erstklassiges ein fromL. Volkmann, Das
Bewegungsproblem, Esslingen, 1908, Abb. 10). Both K. Rathe (Die Ausdrucksfunktion, p. 55 note 39) and F. Kampfer (Propaganda politische Bilder im 20. Jahrhundert, Hamburg, 1997,

pp. 78-80) referto the PolyphonMusikwerke posteras a precedentfor the Vinnytsa poster.
59 Bridgewater, Advertising. p. 15.

60 Gombrich, Aby Warburg, 80: 'Annahme Kunstwerkes etwasin Richtungauf p. des als den ZuschauerfeindlichBewegtes'.Warburg, Gombrichnotes, reworkedan idea he had as foundin a book whichhad a greatimpacton him:T. Vignoli,Mitoe scienza,Milano,1879. 61 J. Auerbach,'ChasingFilm Narrative: Repetition,Recursion,and the Body in Early Cinema',Critical Inquiry,26 (2000),pp. 798-820.
62 F. Kampfer, Propaganda politische Bilder, refers to I. Kamenetsky, The Tragedy of Vinnytsa:Materials on Stalin's Policy of Extermination in Ukraine (1936-1938), Toronto, 1989,

whichI have not seen.

63 P. Magnus, Kitchener: Portrait of an Imperialist, p. 288.

64 G. Orwell,NineteenEighty-Four, Harmondsworth, 2000,p. 3.

65 G. Orwell, A Kind of Compulsion, 1903-1936: the Complete Works, ed. by P. Davidson, vol. 10, London, 1998, p. 20. J. Myers, Orwell, Wintry Conscience of a Generation, New York,

2000,p. 23, connectsthe firstpoem to Kitchener's poster (but not to NineteenEighty-Four). 66 On 14 June 1940,Orwellcomplained about'the absenceof any propaganda postersof a generalkinddealingwiththe struggleagainstFascism, comparable those he hadseen etc.' to in Spainduringthe civilwar (quotedin Timmers(ed.), ThePowerof the Poster,p. 240). Paris,1927(new edn, 1952).
67 Orwell, Nineteen Eighty-Four, p. 156. 68 Samuel, Theatresof Memory, pp. ix-x; M. Halbwachs, Les cadres sociaux de la memoire,