Applications of

10

History of Pneumatics
The term "Pneu" is Greek for breath or wind. The modern "Pneu" term "Pneumatics" refers to the study of air movement.

Hydraulic & Pneumatics

By: Alireza Safikhani
1

History of Pneumatics
Early man learned to work with wind as they used sails to propel their boats. Today people still utilize air/wind for windsurfing, sailing and hand gliding.

History of Pneumatics
Windmills were used to pump water and grind grain and have been in existence for a number centuries.

And Today . . .

Development
Compressed air was in use as early as 2500 BC in the form of bellows . Further developments saw compressed air used in organ construction and in mining and metallurgy . One of the first books concerning the application of compressed air dates back to the first century A.D. and A.D. describes devices driven by warm air. The Greek "Ktesibios is Ktesibios the first known man to have used pneumatic power. He built a compressed air impulse catapult. During the 17th century man began to study scientifically the principles of pneumatics. Scientists gradually realised that compressed air could do work previously done manually.

Development . . .
1868 - The first air brake invented by George Westinghouse revolutionised the railroad industry, making braking a safer venture and thus permitting trains to travel at higher speeds. Westinghouse made many alterations to improve his invention leading to various forms of the automatic brake. By 1905, over 2,000,000 freight, passenger, mail, 1905, baggage and express cars and 89,000 locomotives were equipped with the Westinghouse Quick Action Automatic Brake.

Development . . .
Before the 50's, pneumatics was used as a working medium in the form of stored energy. During the 50's sensing and processing roles developed. This allowed working operations to be controlled using sensors. This development of sensors, processors and actuators has led to the development of pneumatic systems.

Development . . .
To-day pneumatics play an important role in automation. Therefore machines which were once operated manually are being replaced by pneumatic actuators. This is a modern day example of an air brake in a truck

Areas of use
Industry Trade Rail transport Air transport Motor vehicles Mining Shipping Medicine Construction Defence

Application areas
1- Generation of linear motion
Clamping tools Feed units Lifting and lowering Opening and closing Swiveling Pneumatic presses Door control Rotary transfer tables Tool loading Turntables Industrial robots Welding clamps Tackers Ejectors Vibrators Transportation Movement Braking

Generation of linear motion . . .

Generation of linear motion . . .

Generation of linear motion . . .

2- Generation of rotary motion

Screw drivers Grinders Thread cutters Drills Shears Nibblers

Generation of rotary motion . . .

3- Applications in control
Sequence control Monitoring Protecting Locking Counting Deceleration Storage Scanning

4- Others
Workshop air Paint spraying Pneumatic post Extinguishers Monitoring units

Others . . .

Properties of pneumatics
High power density of drives Low power to weight ratio at high speeds Innate explosion proof Insensitive to external influences such as high and low temperatures, dirt, mechanical vibration, humidity and electrical noise Drives can be overloaded until standstill is reaches No return piping necessary Simple conversion of energy into rotary, as well as linear motion

Properties of pneumatics . . .
Speed and force easily and continuously controllable over a wide range Energy can be transmitted over long distances Simple maintenance of devices due to uncomplicated construction High reliability, operational dependability and long life of drives and control devices Functionally reliable even under adverse operating adverse conditions Economical application in control equipment and drives

Disadvantages of pneumatics . . .
Preparation necessary Stable Speeds not possible due to compressibility of air High energy costs Efficiency reduced by leakage

Transmission of Energy by Pneumatics 1- Drives

Cylinders Motors Modules

2- Energy control
Directional valves Flow control valves Isolating valves Pressure valves

Control and device engineering Are Unthinkable nowadays Without Pneumatics

3- Control
Manual control Electrical control Electronic control Pneumatic control

4- Energy supply
Distribution Generation Compression

Composition of air
The air we breathe is springy, squashy and fluid in substance We take it for granted that wherever there is space it will be filled with air Air is composed mainly of nitrogen and oxygen Composition by Volume Nitrogen 78.09% N2 Oxygen 20.95% O2 Argon 0.93% Ar Others 0.03%

Atmospheric pressure
The atmospheric pressure is caused by the weight of air above us It gets less as we climb a mountain, more as we descend into a mine The pressure value is also influenced by changing weather conditions

Standard Atmosphere
A standard atmosphere is defined by The International Civil Aviation Organisation. The pressure and temperature at sea level is 1013.25 milli bar absolute and 288 K (15OC)

ISO Atmospheres
ISO Recommendation R 554 Standard Atmospheres for conditioning and/or testing of material, components or equipment

20OC, 65% RH, 860 to 1060 mbar 27OC, 65% RH, 860 to 1060 mbar 23OC, 50% RH, 860 to 1060 mbar Tolerances 2OC 5%RH Reduced tolerances 1OC 2%RH

1013.25 m bar

Standard Reference Atmosphere to which tests made at other atmospheres can be corrected

20OC, 65% RH, 1013 mbar

No qualifying altitude is given as it is concerned only with the effect of temperature, humidity and pressure

Atmospheric pressure
We see values of atmospheric pressure on a weather map The lines called isobars show contours of pressure in millibar These help predict the wind direction and force
1015 mb 1012 mb 1008 mb 1000 mb 996 mb LOW

Mercury barometer
Atmospheric pressure can be measured as the height of a liquid column in a vacuum 760 mm Hg = 1013.9 millibar approximately A water barometer tube would be over 10 metres long. Hg = 13.6 times the density of H2O For vacuum measurement 1 mm Hg = 1 Torr 760 Torr = nil vacuum 0 Torr = full vacuum

760 mm Hg

Atmosphere and vacuum

The power of atmospheric pressure is apparent in industry where pick and place suction cups and vacuum forming machines are used Air is removed from one side allowing atmospheric pressure on the other to do the work

Industrial compressed air

Pressures are in bar g g gauge pressure ( the value above atmosphere) Zero gauge pressure is atmospheric pressure Absolute pressures are used for calculations Pa = Pg + atmosphere For quick calculations assume 1 atmosphere is 1000 mbar For standard calculations 1 atmosphere is 1013 mbar
17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

Absolute pressure bar a

Gauge pressure bar g

Extended Industrial range Typical Industrial range Low range

Atmosphere Full vacuum

Pressure
1 bar = 100000 N/m2 (Newtons per square metre) 1 bar = 10 N/cm2 For measuring lower pressures the millibar (mbar) is used 1000 mbar = 1 bar For measurements in pounds per square inch (psi) 1 psi = 68.95mbar 14.5 psi = 1bar

Pressure units
There are many units of pressure measurement. Some of these and their equivalents are listed below. 1 bar = 100000 N/m2 1 bar = 100 kPa 1 bar = 14.50 psi 1 bar = 10197 kgf/m2 1 mm Hg = 1.334 mbar approx. 1 mm H2O = 0.0979 mbar approx. 1 Torr = 1mmHg abs (for vacuum)

Pressure and force

Compressed air exerts a force of constant value to every internal contact surface of the pressure containing equipment. Liquid in a vessel will be pressurised and transmit this force For every bar of gauge pressure, 10 Newtons are exerted uniformly over each square centimetre.

Pressure and force

The thrust developed by a piston due to air pressure is the effective area multiplied by the pressure D mm P bar

Thrust =

D2 P Newtons
40

Where D = The bore of a cylinder in mm P = The pressure in bar. We require an answer in Newtons 1bar = 100000 N/m2 D2 is therefore divided by 1000000 to bring it to m2 and P is multiplied by 100000 to bring it to N/m2. The result is a division by 10 shown in the product 40 above

Pressure and force

The force contained by a cylinder barrel is the projected area multiplied by the pressure
l

Pressure and force

If both ports of a double acting cylinder are connected to the same pressure source, the cylinder will move out due to the difference in areas either side of the piston If a through rod cylinder is applied in this way it will be in balance and not move in either direction

Force = D . l . P 10

Newtons

Where D = the cylinder bore mm l = length of pressurised chamber mm P = the pressure in bar

Pressure and force

In a balanced spool valve the pressure acting at any port will not cause the spool to move because the areas to the left and right are equal and will produce equal and opposite forces P1 and P2 are the supply and exhaust pressures

Pressure and force

In a balanced spool valve the pressure acting at any port will not cause the spool to move because the areas to the left and right are equal and will produce equal and opposite forces P1 and P2 are the supply and exhaust pressures

P1

P2

P2

P1

Pressure and force

In a balanced spool valve the pressure acting at any port will not cause the spool to move because the areas to the left and right are equal and will produce equal and opposite forces P1 and P2 are the supply and exhaust pressures

The gas laws

For any given mass of air the variable properties are pressure, volume and temperature. By assuming one of the three variables to be held at a constant value, we will look at the relationship between the other two for each case Constant temperature

P.V = constant V T P T = constant

Constant pressure

P1

P2

Constant volume

= constant

Constant temperature
Boyles law states: the Boyle product of absolute pressure and volume of a given mass of gas remains constant if the temperature of the gas remains constant. This process is called isothermal (constant temperature). It must be slow enough for heat to flow out of and in to the air as it is compressed and expanded.
Pressure P bar absolute 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 Volume V

Constant temperature
Boyles law states: the Boyle product of absolute pressure and volume of a given mass of gas remains constant if the temperature of the gas remains constant. This process is called isothermal (constant temperature). It must be slow enough for heat to flow out of and in to the air as it is compressed and expanded.
Pressure P bar absolute 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 Volume V

P1.V1 = P2.V2 = constant

P1.V1 = P2.V2 = constant

Constant temperature
Boyles law states: the Boyle product of absolute pressure and volume of a given mass of gas remains constant if the temperature of the gas remains constant. This process is called isothermal (constant temperature). It must be slow enough for heat to flow out of and in to the air as it is compressed and expanded.
Pressure P bar absolute 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 Volume V

Constant temperature
Boyles law states: the Boyle product of absolute pressure and volume of a given mass of gas remains constant if the temperature of the gas remains constant. This process is called isothermal (constant temperature). It must be slow enough for heat to flow out of and in to the air as it is compressed and expanded.
Pressure P bar absolute 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 Volume V

P1.V1 = P2.V2 = constant

P1.V1 = P2.V2 = constant

Constant temperature
Boyles law states: the Boyle product of absolute pressure and volume of a given mass of gas remains constant if the temperature of the gas remains constant. This process is called isothermal (constant temperature). It must be slow enough for heat to flow out of and in to the air as it is compressed and expanded.
Pressure P bar absolute 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 Volume V

Constant pressure
Charles law states: for a Charles given mass of gas at constant pressure the volume is proportional to the absolute temperature. Assuming no friction a volume will change to maintain constant pressure. From an ambient of 20oC a change of 73.25oC will produce a 25% change of volume. 0o Celsius = 273K
Temperature Celsius 100 80 60 40 20 0 -20 -40 -60

293K

0.25 0.5 0.75

1.25 1.5 1.75

Volume

P1.V1 = P2.V2 = constant

V1 V2 = =c T2(K) T1(K)

Constant pressure
Charles law states: for a Charles given mass of gas at constant pressure the volume is proportional to the absolute temperature. Assuming no friction a volume will change to maintain constant pressure. From an ambient of 20oC a change of 73.25oC will produce a 25% change of volume. 0o Celsius = 273K
Temperature Celsius 100 80 60 40 20 0 -20 -40 -60

Constant pressure
366.25K

0.25 0.5 0.75

1.25 1.5 1.75

Volume

V1 V2 = =c T2(K) T1(K)

Charles law states: for a Charles given mass of gas at constant pressure the volume is proportional to the absolute temperature. Assuming no friction a volume will change to maintain constant pressure. From an ambient of 20oC a change of 73.25oC will produce a 25% change of volume. 0o Celsius = 273K

Temperature Celsius 100 80 60 40 20 0 -20 -40 -60

219.75K
0
0.25 0.5 0.75

1.25 1.5 1.75

Volume

V1 V2 = =c T2(K) T1(K)

Constant pressure
Charles law states: for a Charles given mass of gas at constant pressure the volume is proportional to the absolute temperature. Assuming no friction a volume will change to maintain constant pressure. From an ambient of 20oC a change of 73.25oC will produce a 25% change of volume. 0o Celsius = 273K
Temperature Celsius 100 80 60 40 20 0 -20 -40 -60

Constant volume
366.25K

293K

219.75K
0
0.25 0.5 0.75

1.25 1.5 1.75

Volume

V1 V2 = =c T2(K) T1(K)

From Boyles law and Boyle Charles law we can also see Charles that if the volume of a given mass of air were to be kept at a constant value, the pressure will be proportional to the absolute temperature K. For a volume at 20oC and 10 bar absolute a change in temperature of 60oC will produce a change in pressure of 2.05 bar 0oC = 273K

Temperature Celsius 100 80 60 40 20

8 6 10 12

0 -20 -40 -60 bar absolute

2 bar 16

14

10

15

20

P1 P2 = =c T2(K) T1(K)

Constant volume
From Boyles law and Boyle Charles law we can also see Charles that if the volume of a given mass of air were to be kept at a constant value, the pressure will be proportional to the absolute temperature K. For a volume at 20oC and 10 bar absolute a change in temperature of 60oC will produce a change in pressure of 2.05 bar 0oC = 273K
Temperature Celsius 100 80 60 40 20
8 6 10 12

Constant volume
From Boyles law and Boyle Charles law we can also see Charles that if the volume of a given mass of air were to be kept at a constant value, the pressure will be proportional to the absolute temperature K. For a volume at 20oC and 10 bar absolute a change in temperature of 60oC will produce a change in pressure of 2.05 bar 0oC = 273K
Temperature Celsius 100 80 60 40 20
8 6 10 12

0 -20 -40 -60 bar absolute

0 -20 -40 -60 bar absolute

2 bar 16

14

2 bar 16

14

10

15

20

10

15

20

P1 P2 = =c T2(K) T1(K)

P1 P2 = =c T2(K) T1(K)

Constant volume
From Boyles law and Boyle Charles law we can also see Charles that if the volume of a given mass of air were to be kept at a constant value, the pressure will be proportional to the absolute temperature K. For a volume at 20oC and 10 bar absolute a change in temperature of 60oC will produce a change in pressure of 2.05 bar 0oC = 273K
Temperature Celsius 100 80 60 40 20
8 6 10 12

The general gas law

The general gas law is a combination of Boyles law Boyle and Charles law where pressure, volume and Charles temperature may all vary between states of a given mass of gas but their relationship result in a constant value.
4 2 bar 16 14 0

0 -20 -40 -60 bar absolute

10

15

P1 .V1 P2 .V2 = = constant T1 T2

P1 P2 = =c T2(K) T1(K)

Adiabatic compression
In theory, when a volume of air is compressed instantly, the process is adiabatic (there is no time to dissipate heat through the walls of the cylinder)
16 14 12 bar a 10 8 6 4 2 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 Volume

Polytropic compression
In practice such as in a shock absorbing application there will be some heat loss during compression The compression characteristic will be somewhere between adiabatic and isothermal The value of n will be less than 1.4 dependent on the rate of compression. Typically PV 1.2 = c can be used but is applicable only during the process

For adiabatic compression and expansion P V n= c for air n = 1.4 In the cylinder of an air compressor the process is fast but some heat will be lost through the cylinder walls therefore the value of n will be less 1.3 approximately for a high speed compressor

PV 1. 4 = c
adiabatic

PV 1. 2 = c
polytropic

PV = c
isothermal

Water in compressed air

When large quantities of air are compressed, noticeable amounts of water are formed The natural moisture vapour contained in the atmosphere is squeezed out like wringing out a damp sponge The air will still be fully saturated (100% RH) within the receiver
Condensate Drain

Water in compressed air

The amount of water vapour contained in a sample of the atmosphere is measured as relative humidity %RH. This percentage is the proportion of the maximum amount that can be held at the prevailing temperature. temperature.
25% RH Temperature Celsius 40 20 0 -20 -40 50% RH 100% RH

fully saturated air

At 20o Celsius 100% RH = 17.4 g/m3 50% RH = 8.7 g/m3 25% RH = 4.35 g/m3

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 Grams of water vapour / cubic metre of air g/m3

80

Low temperature drier

For applications requiring air supplies with more than water droplets removed A low temperature dryer can process compressed air to a dew point of just above freezing A low cost and convenient device to use

Low temperature drier

Humid air enters the first heat exchanger where it is cooled by the dry air going out The air enters the second heat exchanger where it is refrigerated. It is cooled to temperatures between + 2 and + 5 C The condensate is collected and drained away As the dry refrigerated air leaves it is warmed by the incoming humid air
Humid air in

Humid air in Bypass Valve Dry air out Drain

Dry air out

M Refrigeration plant

Drain

Low temperature drying

If 1 cubic metre of fully saturated compressed air ( 100 % RH ) is cooled to just above freezing point, approximately 75% of the vapour content will be condensed out. When it is warmed back to 20OC it will be dried to nearly 25% RH
25% RH Temperature Celsius 40 20 0 -20 -40 50% RH 100% RH Temperature Celsius 40 20 0 -20 -40

Low temperature drying

If 1 cubic metre of fully saturated compressed air ( 100 % RH ) is cooled to just above freezing point, approximately 75% of the vapour content will be condensed out. When it is warmed back to 20OC it will be dried to nearly 25% RH
25% RH 50% RH 100% RH

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 Grams of water vapour / cubic metre of air g/m3

80

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 Grams of water vapour / cubic metre of air g/m3

80

Low temperature drying

If 1 cubic metre of fully saturated compressed air ( 100 % RH ) is cooled to just above freezing point, approximately 75% of the vapour content will be condensed out. When it is warmed back to 20OC it will be dried to nearly 25% RH
25% RH Temperature Celsius 40 20 0 -20 -40 50% RH 100% RH

Flow units
Flow is measured as a volume of free air per unit of time Popular units are : Litres or cubic decimetres per second Cubic metres per minute Standard cubic feet per minute (same as cubic feet of free air) scfm
1 m3/m = 35.31 scfm 1 dm3/s = 2.1 scfm 1 scfm = 0.472 l/s 1 scfm = 0.0283 m3/min 1 cubic foot 1 litre or cubic decimetre

l/s or dm3/s m3/m

60 70 10 20 30 40 50 Grams of water vapour / cubic metre of air g/m3

80

1 cubic metre or 1000 dm3

Free air
Flow figures are quoted as litres of free air per unit of time N litres of free air at any pressure will take up a space of N litres when released to atmosphere (for this example assumed as 1000mbar) The actual volume taken up by 1litre of free air is shown at various absolute and gauge pressures
Litres actual volume
All volumes are 1 Litre of free air
1.0

Air filtration quality

ISO 8573-1 Compressed air 8573for general use Part 1 Contaminants and quality classes Allowable levels of contamination are given a quality class number Specified according to the levels of these contaminants: solid particles water oil An air quality class is stated as three air quality numbers e.g. 1.7.1 solids 0.1 m max and 0.1 mg/m 3 max water not specified not 0.01 mg/m3 max

0.5 0.25
0.125 0.0625

bar a bar g

1 0

2 1

4 3

8 7

16 15

Compressed air quality

ISO 8573-1
Class Solids particle concentration size max maximum m mg/m3 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0.1 1 5 15 40 0.1 1 5 8 10 Water Max Pressure Dew point OC Oil concentration mg/m3 0.01 0.1 1 5 25 -

70

Applied Circuits

70 40 20
+3 +7 + 10 Not Specified

Pressure dew point is the temperature to which compressed air must be cooled before water vapour in the air starts to condense into water particles