Desalination, 73 (1989) 341-357 Elsevier Science Publishers B.V.

, Amsterdam -

341 Printed in The Netherlands

BELGARD@ EV - 15 YEARS'
M A FINAN

EXPERIENCE

IN SCALE

CONTROL

S SMITH

C K EVANS
Chemicals

J W H MUIR

Ciba-Geigy Industrial Tenax Road TRAFFORD PARK Manchester Ml7 1WT

SUMMARY
Since its introduction in 1973, BELGARD has almost become synonymous with scale control additive for multistage plants flash and other processes involving the distillation of seawater. The initial impetus has been maintained over the last fifteen years by continued research and development. On-site trials and evaluation with the co-operation and assistance of plant manufacturers and end users, has resulted in and chemical improved plant performance dosing and better monitoring techniques. This paper, reviews the early history of BELGARD EV and work introduction of subsequent leading to the BELGARD EVZOOO. Up-to-date with BELGARD experience products is presented, including use with sponge ball cleaning, optimisation of additive dose levels, advances in dosing techniques, development of analytical methods for polymers, and advances in on-site plant monitoring.

INTRODUCTION
Ciba-Geigy's involvement in the inhibition of scale formation in seawater evaporators can be traced back to the days of World War 2, when the British Admiralty placed a contract with the then Geigy Company Limited to develop a scale inhibitor for use in the submerged tube As a evaporators installed in His Majesty's warships. result of this research program, a product based on a napthalene condensation sulphonic acid-formaldehyde Geigy reaction was introduced, and successfully (subsequently Ciba-Geigy in 1970), became involved in the research and development of scale control additives and corrosion inhibitors for use in all types of plant and

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systems using water as a heat exchange medium. The patenting of the multistage flash process in 1957 by Professor Silver of Glasgow University and the subsequent rapid growth of land-based desalination plants, led to the need for improved methods of scale control which would remain effective up to top brine temperatures of around 120C. Polyphosphate-based mixtures of chemicals, sodium tripolyphosphate, dispersing agent and antifoam, most usually in the ratio 48:48:4, have been used to inhibit alkaline scale deposition in seawater evaporators since the 1950s. The major problem with polyphosphate-based inhibitors was found to be the thermal degradation of the polyphosphate at temperatures above 90C and the subsequent loss of activity of the product. This restriction in top brine temperature to 90/95"C limited the thermal efficiency of the evaporator. As well as being restricted to a top brine temperature of 9O"C, products based on polyphosphate have been reported to be not very effective scale inhibitors. Butt and Bou-Hassan (ref 1) reported a 33% decline in Gained Output Ratio (GOR) in a 250-day test with Shuwaikh Mix, a non-proprietary polyphosphate formulation, and Diamond (ref 2) reported the need for frequent acid cleaning when polyphosphate was used in Qatar. It should be noted that neither of these units were fitted with on-line ball cleaning equipment. Acid dosing was introduced in the 1960s as a means of overcoming the temperature limitations and the poor performance of polyphosphate. Acid dosing, by removing the bicarbonate from the feedwater, allowed evaporators to operate at increased top temperatures, close to the calcium sulphate solubility limits. The use of acid, however, while enhancing the thermal efficiency of evaporators and possibly reducing capital costs (lower heat transfer surface area requirement), was found to have drawbacks. Careful control and monitoring of the dose level was found to be essential to minimise the risks of plant corrosion or scale formation and ensure a have A number of authors reasonable plant life. described successful long-term operation of acid dosed In the 1960s and 197Os, however, the plants (ref 3.4). necessary expertise in the control of dosing was found to

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be lacking in various parts of the world where acid was used. This led to the early failure and scrapping of an undocumented number of plants. Cox (ref 5) summarised the advantages and disadvantages of additive and acid treatment in 1982. Stating that "a high temperature acid treated MSF plant that has not had to be completely rebuilt after 10 years is a rarity". As the problems associated with acid dosing became widely known, the opportunity for a "high temperature scale control additive" to replace acid while giving comparable performance was noted. Many chemical types were tried, some of them still in use today, although in modified form as processes for the manufacture of low molecular including weight (> 1500) polymers were developed, polyacrylate, polymethacrylate, phosphonate and blends of these products. The UK AEA based at Harwell in England, had undertaken in 1965, a UK Government sponsored project to investigate all areas of flash distillation. One aspect of this project was to examine scale formation and means of preventing it. In view of earlier contacts with the Geigy Company in the development of a product for invited to shipboard evaporators, Ciba-Geigy was participate in this project in 1967. Over the next 5 years, many new and chemically different compounds were evaluated in test rigs both at Harwell and in Manchester, From this in the search for a high temperature additive. research, the polymerised maleic anhydride molecule, which is the basis of BELGARD EV, was selected as the most effective at both low and high temperatures (ref 6). The first plant trials with BELGARD EV were carried out in 1972 in the North Face plant at Gibraltar (ref 7) followed by its commercial use in this plant. THE ALL TEMPERATURE ADDITIVE

BELGARD EV was originally intended for high temperature operation, but it was also found to be very effective low compared with polyphosphate formulations during frequently temperature operation. Although it is referred to as a high temperature additive (HTA), it temperature should be more properly called an all Many trials have been carried out to additive (ATA).

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demonstrate the comparable performance of the product against polyphosphate at low temperature and against sulphuric acid at high temperature. The results of most of these are well documented in the literature. Table 1 gives a brief summary of four of the longer term trials carried out. Although MSF plants in Qatar which were built in 1971 were designed for dual temperature additive operation, they continued to operate at 90/95'C with polyphosphate up to 1975. Problems with scale and sludge formation resulted in the frequent need for acid cleaning, leading to corrosion and loss of plant life expectancy. The results from a seven month test of BELGARD EV at top brine temperatures between 105C and 110C in a unit previously operated at low temperature, are described by Diamond (ref 2). The dose level of BELGARD EV was 6 ppm and the unit was not fitted with on-line sponge ball cleaning. Increasing the top brine temperature of the unit resulted in an increase in production of about 20%. Diamond concluded that fouling was minimal throughout the test period and that the product had proved itself as an antiscalant at 110C with a seawater concentration of 1.6. TABLE 1 : Trials with Qatar Plant Design3TBT Prod m /day Design SCA SBC fitted Date of trial Trial TBT Dose of BELGARD EV ppm No of days' operation R Abu Aboud go/115 9000/10000 PP/HTA 1975;:976 105/110 6.0 300 BELGARD EV Curacao KAE Vl 105 8500 Acid Oman Saudi Arabi a

Ghubrah 1 Al Khaldeah 91/113 118 18000/27250 2268 PP/Acid Acid yes 197;:1979 19777:;78 1983 105 go/100 118 6.0 390 2.5/3.0 520 8.0 90

TBT = Top Brine Temperature "C SCA = Scale Control Additive Ball SBC = Sponge Cleaning

PP

Polyphosphate

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Similar confirmation of the high temperature activity of the polymaleic acid molecule was obtained from several tests carried out in plants originally designed for acid dosing. Stewart (ref 8) describes the results in detail from the KAE unit Vl test in 1978/1979. When operated with acid, this unit suffered from loss of thermal efficiency due to deposition of scale with a relatively high concentration of iron in the lower temperature condensers. The unit was changed to operation with 6 ppm of BELGARD EV, again without on-line ball cleaning, and the performance was monitored for a total of 280 days' operation. Stewart concluded that there was a definite advantage in favour of BELGARD EV dosing compared with acid dosing, the efficiency of the unit being maintained over a longer period. There was a reduction in corrosion rates within the unit owing to the higher recycle brine During acid dosing the unit was acid cleaned at PH. with approximately four monthly intervals, whereas BELGARD EV, no acid washing was necessary over a period of at least 390 days' operation. Chalchal (ref 9) describes operation of the Ghubrah plant to 1979 and tests carried out with BELGARD EV. FErnmissioned in 1976 this dual temperature plant was designed to operate with polyphosphate up to 95C and with sulphuric acid up to 113C. From March 1977 through to 1979, tests were carried out with BELGARD EV to prove its effectiveness at top brine temperatures in the range of 90 - 110C. Using dose levels in the range 2.5 3.0 ppm, depending on temperature, no significant fouling occurred and Chalchal concluded that BELGARD EV was very efficient in retarding scale formation. Acid cleaning cycles in excess of 1 year were demonstrated for operation up to 100C. At Al Khaldeah in Saudi Arabia, Mokhtar (ref 10) carried out a 90 day direct comparison of plant performance operating with acid and with BELGARD EV at a top brine temperature of 118C in a unit fitted with on-line ball Mokhtar cleaning. The additive was dosed at 8-10 ppm. concluded that as regards production, corrosion control, performance and cost savings, operation with BELGARD EV was very successful. The treatment was changed from acid dosing to BELGARD EV. In 1981 the International Desalination and Environmental

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Association (IDEA) recognised the contribution made by Ciba-Geigy and BELGARD EV to the world desalination community with the following statement taken from their Research Award: "The BELGARD EV invention gave the impetus to the world chemical the high temperature industry to develop antiscalant compounds. These compounds have made a major contribution to MSF water production including improved plant efficiency, operation and maintenance and to the conservation of their materials of construction. In fact, they put an end to untimely MSF plant corrosion and failure which were becoming common-place with acid dosing". Demonstration of the successful use of an additive as an in high temperature alternative to both acid dosing plants, plants and polyphosphate in low temperature resulted in a change of attitude amongst plant operators, Additive dosing at consultants and manufacturers. temperatures higher than 95C had been achieved and problems inherent in the use of polyphosphate overcome. There was a shift in the design philosophy of new plants, away from acid dosing and towards high temperature additive treatment. New plants were designed, first with dual scale control capability and the necessary equipment to utilise either acid or high temperature additive. This was followed by plants designed to operate with only additive treatment up to top brine temperatures of 115C. Between 1979 and 1989 many new MSF plants were commissioned. scale control dosing Some with dual capability (acid or additive), but the majority were designed for dual temperature operation using additive alone. All of these plants had on-line sponge ball cleaning systems included from the design stage. Many of were these new and large (up to 220 MGD) plants commissioned with BELGARD EV, the product being used performance and for particularly high temperature reliability tests. BELGARD EVZOOO

for dual Although many new plants were designed temperature operation, the high temperature capacity, which was intended to meet future increases in demand,

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after the initial was not required immediately; commissioning period reverted to the plants low temperature operation. Ciba-Geigy in recognising the need for a cost-effective additive for low temperature use, had continued research into new scale inhibitors, and in 1983 introduced BELGARD EVZOOO, a terpolymer of maleic acid. The introduction of BELGARD EVZOOO followed the same pattern as BELGARD EV - proving trials in a number of locations followed by acceptance and regular use of the product. BELGARD EVZOOO is now widely used throughout the Middle East in plants operating at top brine temperatures in the range 80 to 105C. Typical dose levels used are from 0.6 to 3.0 ppm. Shams El Din (ref 11, 12) compared the use of a proprietary polyphosphate formulation with BELGARD EV2000 over almost 2 years of operation of the MSF evaporators at Umm al Nar in Abu Dhabi. Evaporators of low temperature design, previously limited to a top brine temperature of 9O"C, were able to operate up to 94C resulting in an 8-10% increase in distillate production. He concluded that the use of BELGARD EV2000 gave steadier operation while maintaining plant efficiency. TOXICOLOGY AND THE ENVIRONMENT Most seawater desalination plants provide potable water for human consumption and it is, therefore, vital that used in the seawater do not present any additives toxicological hazards. Results of tests on the general toxicological aspects of a number of scale control additives have been reported by Leimgruber (ref 13). He concluded that BELGARD EV does not give rise to any toxic hazard in the drinking water produced from satisfactorily operated desalination plant. All BELGAR; products have approvals regulatory from the major authorities such as the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), KIWA in Holland and the United Kingdom Department of the Environment. A knowledge of the potential long-term effects on marine ecosystems of chemicals discharged into the sea is essential. For example, there is a general consensus of opinion that the discharge of phosphates can lead to

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eutrophication. Korte (ref I44 has re.ported SF;; experimental results from analysis of ecotoxicological profile of various chemicals. As regards BELGARD EV his results showed that there was no accumulation in algae and fish and he concluded that the use of BELGARD EV in desalination plants is ecologically safe. in regular there have effects in which could

In the past

15 years in which BELGARD products have been use in MSF plants producing potable water, been no observations or reports of harmful human beings, animals, marine or plant life be attributed to the products.

ADDITIVE DOSE LEVELS AND SPONGE BALL CLEANING There has been a downward trend in additive dose levels from the early recommendations for use of BELGARD products at 2 ppm for low temperature operation up to 10 ppm for high temperature operation. Use levels have generally been halved, and in most large desalination plants, are now in the range 1-5 ppm. The main factors that have contributed to the downward trend are:- a developing understanding and awareness technical capabilities of the additives. of the

- the adoption of on-line sponge ball cleaning in all new additive dosed desalination plants and the recognition of the synergy between ball cleaning and additive. - the requirement for plant operators to reduce chemical costs while maintaining effective plant performance. - competition amongst additive suppliers to provide the most cost effective dose levels to meet the needs of the end user. Perhaps the most significant of these factors has been the almost universal adoption of sponge ball cleaning, This which enables lower dose levels to be used. permitted additive suppliers to recommend lower dose levels and encouraged end users to carry out their own optimisation tests to determine the best combination of additive dose level and operation of the ball cleaning system.

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Sofi (ref 15) reported on a series of optimisation tests carried out at the Al Jubail 2 and Al Khobar 2 desalination plants in Saudi Arabia using two scale additives, a control acid polymer" 'maleic and a "polyphosphonate". The objective of these tests was to optimise production costs and particularly scale control additive dose levels. From the initial levels of 3-5 ppm for low temperature operation and 7-12 ppm for high temperature operation, dose levels were reduced to the "extremely low levels of 2.2-0.8 ppm" for high and low temperature operation. Similar exercises to optimise additive dose levels have been carried out over the last few years in most of the major desalination plants bordering the Gulf. BELGARD product dose levels are now typically in the range 1-3 ppm which gives over successful operation the temperature range 90-112C. One driving force in the downward spiral of dose levels over the last few years has been the increased level of competition between additive suppliers. Ciba-Geigy with the BELGARD products, has managed successfully to meet the challenge of low dose level operation, but feels that caution is necessary to avoid potential problems from underdosing with less effective additives. In optimising additive dose levels, the technical interests of the end user and the supplier should be the same. Achieving the optimum performance from the desalination plant, results in long-term trouble free operation minimum with maintenance and reduced cleaning costs which are attributable to scale formation. The optimum additive dose level does not necessarily mean the lowest level which will maintain scale free conditions on the heat transfer surfaces. Low dose levels that maintain scale free heat exchangers can allow scale to build up in the flash chambers. Although this does not directly affect the thermal efficiency, it can cause operating problems due to the lifting of the scale which can block filter screens and the condenser tubes. Too low dose levels, particularly at higher temperatures, can give rise to excessive sludge formation which will then necessitate increased operation of the ball cleaning system and subsequent increases in replacement ball costs. Although

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heat transfer surfaces can be kept clean, sludge deposits can build up on waterbox surfaces and collect in the chambers flash requiring removal manual during maintenance periods. Shams El Din (ref 12) reported that in tests with BELGARD EVZOOO carried out at 94"C, dose levels were increased from 1.6 ppm to 2.35 ppm with a subsequent improvement in thermal efficiency. He has since maintained dose levels higher than the recommended 1.5 ppm and has found that operation at this level is more cost-effective in terms of steam use and replacement sponge ball costs. Wear and damage to circulating sponge balls can be attributed to three factors: mechanical damage due to collisions with the evaporator's internal surfaces, repeated compression of the balls as they enter the tubes and surface wear due to abrasion by the sludge and scale deposits in the tubes. The first two factors are reduced by intermittent rather than continuous operation, whilst the third can be reduced by using the most effective additive at its optimum dose level. One comparison of the effects of continuous versus intermittent operation the high was obtained during temperature reliability test of one unit operating at 112C with 6.8 ppm BELGARD EV. The cleaning system was initially operated continuously with a 250-ball charge, giving an average of 7.5 balls/tube/day. Over the first 10 days' operation, a steady decline in the performance ratio was noted. This was reversed and the performance ratio recovered by increasing the ball charge to 500 and operating the system for four hours/eight hour period, equivalent to about 10 cycles/eight hours and the same ball cleaning rate of 7.5 balls/tube/day. In later high temperature tests at 112C in the same plant, each test being of 90 days duration, BELGARD dose levels were successfully reduced to as low as 2.5 ppm with ball cleaning rates at 12 balls/tube/day. Little evidence of consistent investigation into the interdependence of ball cleaning cycles and additive dose rates is as yet available in the literature. This is understandable when it is considered that the primary function of end users is to produce water and power,

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rather than to use their plants as experimental tests Recommendations for the use of both systems are beds. constantly usually made independently, although a expanding database of experience with BELGARD products does enable Ciba-Geigy to give relevant advice. It has been recognised by Ciba-Geigy that the use of products are sponge ball cleaning and BELGARD complementary to each other's performance and that there should be an optimum use level for each of the two deposit control systems for any given set of plant operating parameters. PERFORMANCE PROCEDURE MONITORING, CHEMICAL DOSING AND ANALYTICAL

The scale control performance of an additive has traditionally been related to its effect on the fouling This is then expressed as rate of the heat exchangers. an acid cleaning cycle of the desalination plant. The advances in the last 15 years has seen significant techniques available for performance monitoring. Calculation of heat transfer coefficient and performance ratio on-site by additive suppliers' service the engineer, followed by later calculation of fouling factors using the home base mainframe computer, has been superseded in some plants by real time calculations utilising on-line monitoring systems. The computer desalination engineer now has available desk top personal computers enabling him to calculate independently of the additive supplier, the fouling rates for his plant. The service engineer can also make use of portable computers to give on-site analysis of data. Ciba-Geigy has developed a performance calculation programme available for desk top PCs and their technical service engineers can make use of a computer similar in size to an A4 sheet of paper for on-site calculations. Additive dosing techniques have also advanced during the last 15 years from the individual tank and dosing pump (or vacuum drag system) for each unit to the automated control chemical dosing ring main systems utilising houses fitted to many of the plants commissioned in the 1980s. Advantages of the new centrally controlled dosing systems include easier preparation of additive solutions, particularly where modern liquid polymeric additives are

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used, and more consistent dosing to the individual units. One problem noted during tests with BELGARD was that these systems were usually designed for operation with polyphosphate. Dosing pump capacities suitable for dosing 4-5 ppm of polyphosphate as a 5% solution, were incompatible with the dose levels required with BELGARD strength dosing solutions and the trend to higher The sizing of dosing pumps or flow control emerged. meters to be compatible with low temperature operation with polyphosphate places some restriction on the ability to fully realise labour savings resulting from much less frequent preparation of chemical dosing solutions. One request consistently raised by end users has been an of BELGARD analytical procedure for the determination products. The maleic polymer molecule contains only The absence of easily carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. proved identifiable atoms the molecule has troublesome. Although 'Traditional methods of analysis have been available, they have not been easy to use or An analytical procedure specific to the reliable. BELGARD products which depends on a spectrofluorimetric emission from the polymer, has now been developed. Using a spectrofluorimeter with appropriate filters, unlimited concentrations of the BELGARD products can be determined. Practical use of the method has demonstrated that an accuracy of t 10% is obtainable. HYBRID TREATMENT - ACID + BELGARD EV

During the early trials with BELGARD EV there were two occasions where the design of the plant and the required operating conditions were not compatible with additive dosing alone. In order to provide a solution to the problems being encountered in these plants, Ciba-Geigy introduced the use of concurrent acid and additive dosing, later to be referred to as the hybrid treatment. The hybrid treatment, or injection of both acid and additive, was first used by Ciba-Geigy at two MSF plants Prior to this, the initial in Holland in the 1970s. tests with BELGARD EV alone had not given the desired results. The basic hybrid treatment consists of:-

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(a)

addition of acid to the feedwater at less than the stoichiometric amount (e.g. 75-90%) to give a recycle brine pH in the range of 8.0-8.2 which leaves a residual alkalinity in-the recycle brine. injection of BELGARD EV to the recycle brine to from this residual control any scale deposition alkalinity.

(W

Tab le 2 summarises the basic design and operat ing parameters of the Texelstroom and Terneuzen plants. TEXELSTROOM The desalination holiday island of unit on the Texelstroom operated from 1972 to 1975 with acid dosing, With this recycle and a recycle brine pH of 7.5-7.7. brine pH, corrosion of the mild steel flash chambers, interstage walls and waterboxes occurred, resulting in of iron oxides on the heat transfer the deposition loss of production and surfaces and the subsequent thermal efficiency. TABLE 2 : Operating Terneuzen plants parameters of Texelstroom and

Texelstroom Number of units Top brine temperature Production (m /day) Year commissioned Design scale control Scale control after trials 1 115 3000 1972 Acid 80% acid + 3.5 ppm BELGARD EV

Terneuzen 2 116 2700 1969 Acid 92% acid t 1.5 ppm BELGARD EV

("C)

This deposition was particularly aggravated during the winter months when a reduction in the seasonal water demand was met by reducing the top brine temperature and the recycle brine flow rate, giving lower tubeside brine velocities. The iron oxide deposits could not be removed by on-line

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acid cleaning and the unit had to be shut down year for mechanical cleaning by hydrojet.

twice

A trial with BELGARB EV was carried out in 1976. Low brine velocities and a high recycle brine pH (around 10.0) resulted in the deposition of magnesium hydroxide sludges (the unit was not fitted with an on-line ball exchangers cleaning system) in and the the heat It was decided to subsequent loss of unit performance. test the mixed acid/additive treatment. After a three month test with 50% of the stoichiometric BELGARD EV proved amount of acid plus 3.5 ppm unsatisfactory, the acid injection rate was increased to With 80%, still maintaining 3.5 ppm of the additive. this treatment regime, the improvement in overall plant was dramatic. Spanhaak operation and performance (ref 16, 17) reported a decrease in iron corrosion by a factor of 10, some reduction in the corrosion of copper alloys and a significant reduction in the quantity of product water dumped owing to high impurity levels. One major advantage was that any deposition which occurred during the hybrid treatment were readily removed by on-line acid washing, thus eliminating the need for shutdown for mechanical cleaning. The plant at Texelstroom continued to operate with acid and BELGARD EV through to 1988 when an alternative water supply to the island was provided. TERNEUZEN This plant which uses Scheldt estuary water as make up, initially suffered a major problem of tube perforations caused by deposits of silt, phosphates and iron oxide from the polluted feedwater. Acid cleaning and frequent on-line acid slugging brought the tube perforation problem under control but resulted in high rates of corrosion shell and copper of the steel evaporator alloys. Typical levels of iron and copper in the blowdown during acid dosing were 740 ppb and 250 ppb. The use of 8.0 ppm BELGARD EV in place of acid dosing iron and produced significant reductions in copper However, losses, by factors of 3 and 10 respectively.

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with additive dosing alone, the recycle brine pH increased to about 9.7 leading to the deposition of magnesium hydroxide scale and unacceptable heater fouling (kJ/KG of rates. Specific heat consumption distillate/day) increased from 0.21 with acid dosing to 0.33 with additive alone. After a trial operation with the hybrid acid/BELGARD EV feed treatment, the method of scale control adopted for routine operation of the units was based on 92% of the a stoichiometric volume of sulphuric acid, to give plus 2.5 ppm of BELGARD EV. recycle brine pH of 8.5, Results from the trial with this treatment show iron and copper levels in the blowdown of 110 ppb and 50 ppb respectively, and a specific heat consumption of 0.07 (ref 18). Long-term experience with the hybrid treatment in the Terneuzen units confirmed periods of operation of up to 18 months without the need for acid cleaning (ref 19). A high level of expertise in acid dosing techniques has been developed by some end users during the last decade and plants continue to operate with acid. The dangers of exist underdosing overdosing still and and acid opportunities for improving the operation of these plants by utilisation of the hybrid treatment method should not be forgotten. CONCLUSION The experience gained from 15 years of scale control in MSF seawater evaporators has shown that fouling can be effectively controlled in high temperature plants without recourse to acid dosing. The performance of high temperature additives, suggests that BELGARD EV can be complemented by sponge ball cleaning devices. In low temperature plant operation, the modern polymers superior have performance to polyphosphate based additives. and All plants are individual require optimisation to find the correct compromise between dose rate and the use of sponge ball cleaning to give the best cost-performance.

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REFERENCES Butt F H, Bou-Hassan A H, "Performance of a Polyphosphate based Scale Control Additive in an MSF Plant of Kuwait", Desalination 36 (1981) 129. Diamond M D, Lee S W, "Antiscalant Additives at High 10th Annual Conference of Temperature Operation", WSIA, Hawaii, 1 (1982) Session IV. Nada N, "Operating Experience of MSF Plants in Saudi and Arabia", International Congress on Desalination Water Refuse, Bahrain, Nov-Dee 1981. Barba D et al, "Port0 Torres Desalting Plants", Proc. 5th International Symposium on Fresh Water from the Sea, Alghero, 2 (1976) 33-48. Cox B, "The Chemical Treatment of Seawater Feed for MSF Plants", IDEA Pure Water Magazine, July-Aug 1982. Elliot M N, Hodgson T D, "Additives for Alkaline Scale Control at Temperatures above 93C (2OO"F)", Proc. 4th International Symposium on Fresh Water from the Sea, 2 (1973) 97-110. Hodgson T D, Smith S, "The appraisal of Additives for Proc. Scale Inhibition during Seawater Distillation", 5th International Symposium on Fresh Water from the Sea 1, (1976) 305-318. Stewart J et al, "The Use of Acid and Additive. Practical Experiences in a Multistage Flash Plant", Proc. Congress on Desalination and Water Reuse, Nice, 2 (1979) 299-307. Chalchal S, "Operating Experience of a Large Multistage Flash Evaporator in the Sultanate of Oman", Desalination, 31 (1979) 333-340. 10 Mokhtar A A, "90 Days Demonstration of BELGARD EV at 118.33"C at Al Khaldiah MSF Desalination Plant, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia". 11 Shams El Din A M, "A 600 Day Experiment with Polyphosphate as Antiscale Agent in MSF Distillers", Desalination 61 (1987) 89-101.

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12 Shams El Din A M, "A 700 Day Experiment with

BELGARD EVZOOO as Antiscale Agent in MSF Distillers", Desalination 69 (1988) 147-160.

13 Leitngruber R A, "Toxicological Aspects of Scale Preventitive Agents Used in Desalination Equipment for Drinking Water", International Congress on Proc. Desalination and Water Re-use, Nice, 1 (1979) 615-620.

14 Korte

F, Ecotoxicol ogy of BELGARD EV" , Proc. International Congress on Desalination and Re-use, Nice 1, (1979) 411-424.

Water

15 Al-Sofi M A, Al-Hussain M, Al-Zahrani S G, "Additive Scale Control and Operation Modes", Optimization Desalination GG (1987) 11-33. 16 Spanhaak G, "The Application of a High Temperature Scale Control Additive to a European MSF Plant", Desalination, 23 (1979) 455-464. 17 Spanhaak G, Finan M A, Harris A, "Extended Operational Experience of the use of Acid and a High Temperature Scale Control Additive in a European MSF Plant", Proc. 6th International Symposium on Fresh Water from the Sea, Las Palmas, 2 (1979) 289-298. 18 Romeijn A A, BELGARD EV Field Trials in the Multistage Flash Evaporators in Terneuzen, Holland", Proc. 6th International Symposium on Fresh Water from the Sea, Las Palmas, 2 (1978) 241-256.

19 Romeijn A A "MSF Evaporator Corrosion Control", IDEA Pure Water Magazine, 11, No 3, May-June 1982.