1.

TENSILE TEST ON MILD STEEL ROD

1.1

AIM

To determine Yield Stress, Ultimate Stress, Breaking stress, percentage reduction in area, percentage elongation over a gauge length and modulus of elasticity of the given specimen.

1.2

APPARATUS

Universal testing machine, extensometer, scale, vernier caliper, etc.

I .3

PREPARATION

1.3.1 REFERENCE

IS 1608 Method for tensiie testing of Steel Products.

I.3.2 INTRODUCTION

Robert Hooke, an English scientist, in 1678 formulated Hooke'slaw and it states that "within elastic limit, the stress developed is directly proportional to the strain." Stress = i l

Strain =

a1
I

Stress a Strain

P I Modules of elasticity = E = - x A

dl

When a steel bar of uniform cross section is subjected to tension test, the stress strain graph will be as shown in the figure. The test piece is subjected to uniformly increasing load and the strains at various stresses are measured with an extensometer. In case of mild steel in the initial stages, strain is proportional to stress till the limit of proportionality is reached. I n this range the material obeys Hooke's law. If the stress is increased beyond this limit, the material behaves in an elastic manner. Beyond this limit the rate of increase in strain will be more till the yield point is reached and the stress is known as yield stress. Actually at this point there is a drop in stress and yielding commences. Therefore, there are two yield points, the upper and lower. After yielding and further increase in stress will cause considerable increase in strain and the curve reaches .the maximum point of ultimate load and the stress is known as ultimate stress. At this stress,
1

the bar will develop neck and the stress will decrease and the bar will break (rupture) and the stress is known as breaking stress or rupture strength. As concrete is weak in tension, steel bars (Mild steel and High yield strength steel) are used in reinforced concrete to strengthen the concrete as steel is very strong in tension. Structural elements like beams and slabs are subjected to tensile stresses due to flexure in these elements. It is therefore essential that steel bars should be tested in tension.
1.3.3 GRAPH Stress Strain Diagram Mild Steel
CIA

FARTIAL.1.Y PLASTIC
_ , r _ _ " -

, ; 7 - +.., ; True s:ress-

Yield

s~ress

( i t is : + stress a l +e
0

T range Linear

strain

fai!Ll:e/
f

P E
Y U B

Limit of Proportionality Elastic Limit Yield Point Ultimate Point Breaking Point

1.3.4 FIXING OF THE LOAD RANGE

Assume ultimate stress of mild steel as 500 ~ l m r n ~ . Ultimate load = area X assumed ultimate stress Choose the load range within the ultimate load.
1.3.5 USE OF EXTENSOMETER

For the use of extensometer, use the extensometer up to say 0.7 times of yield load. Assume yield stress at 250 N/mm2 for MS bars and 400 N/mm2for tor steel Yield load = yield stress x area of cross section Use of extensometer = 0:7 x 250 x cross sectional area

Use the extensometer up to ................N Gauge length for determining percentage elongation = 5.05 Where 'a' is the area of cross section in mm2. mm

1.3.6 1. 2. 3.

PRE-LAB QUESTIONS Hook's Law. Define Poisson's ratio. Differentiate Ductile and Brittle materials. 4. Derive the relationship between the Young's modulus, Poisson's ratio shear modulus and Bulk modulus. 5. Draw the Stress-Strain diagram for ductile material.
PROCEDURE
Measure the diameter of the rod and calculate the area of cross section. Mark the gauge length by means of fine mark to determine elongation. Choose the load range in the universal testing machine, appropriate to the given diameter of the rod, assuming ultimate stress. Fix the specimen in between the grips, care should be taken to ensure that test pieces are held in such a way that the load is applied as axially as possible. Note the gauge length of the extensometer and fix the extensometer to the specimen. Apply the load to the specimen and note the extensometer readings at uniform increment of loads. Remove the extensometer before the yield point. Note down the yield point load shown by the backward movement of the live pointer and stationery for a short duration of time. Increase the load further and note down the ultimate load. Note down the breaking load at which the specimen breaks. Release the specimen from the grips and measure the neck diameter and elongated length of gauge length. Draw a graph stress (Y-axis) versus strain (X-axis) for ductile and brittle materials.

1.4
1.

2.

3.
4.
5.

6.
7.
8.

9. 10.
11.

j2.

1.5

OBSERVATION i) ii)
iii)

iv) v) vi ) vii) viii) xi) x) xi)

xii)

Specimen Diameter of the rod Area of the spe,cimen Least count of the extensometer The gauge length 1, The setting length l2 Yield point load Ultimate load Breaking load Final neck diameter Final gauge length Neck area

: Mild Steel 1 Tor Steel.

= Idiv = 0.01 mm 1,OOmm 300mm ................ N

................N ................ .N ............... .mm

............... .mm2 ................ mm

1.5.1 TABULATION:

Straine=
Load SI.

Deformation(?I)

[T)
\

No. Kg

Based on

Stress

'P'
Scale readin g

Extenso meter(mm)

Scale (mm)

Extensomete r reading

(N /mm2)

Young's modulus 'E' E = ple

(N/,m2)

1.5.2 CALCULATIONS
?.

Yield stress

Yield po int load ~/mm* Cross Sectional Area

2.

Ultimate stress

3.

Actual Breaking stress

HI-ecr - king loc10 iYeck : I r e ~

4.

Nominal Breaking stress

Rreliking lotrriCross Section~~l seu ,I

~ / m m ~

5.

Percentage elongation

Change in length xlO0 % Originctl Ietzgt h

6.

Percentage reduction in cross sectional area=

C'hujigr in ur-erl ~ 1 0 0O/O Origirzitl ureu

I.5.3 FROM GRAPH

in which E P A I ?I =
I.6

'

Young's modulus ~ l r n m ' Load in N Area of cross section in mm2 Gauge length o f specimen in mm Change in length of the specimen in mm

POST-LAB QUESTIONS 1. In what region of a stress vs. strain graph do you find Young's Modulus?

2. What is the difference between the engineering and true stress - strain? 3. In stress-strain diagram, why the curve lowering and then raising after reaching yield point? 4. In machining process, how to differentiate ductile and brittle materials from visual?

1.7
1.

RESULT
Yield stress

..................... N h m2

2.

Ultimate stress

- ...................... Nlmm2 -

3.

Actual Breaking stress

Nominal Breaking stress Percentage elongation Percentage reduction in cross sectional area Modulus of elasticity (from graph) Modulus of elasticity (mean value) from tabulation

..................... Nlmm2
.................... Nlmm2

4.
5.
6.

.....................%
.................... %

7.a.
7.b.

....................Nlrnm2

.........! ..........Nlmm2

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE TEST

The stress characteristics of mild steel and torsteel can be found with the help of this test. The working stress of steel is important in design purposes. As per IS the permissible stresses for mild steel is 140 ~ l m m 'upto 20 mm and that for High yield strength bars is 230

~ / m2. m

2. TORSION TEST

21 .

AIM

To find the modulus of rigidity of the given material and to plot a graph between torque and twist.

2.2

APPARATUS
I. Torsion testing machine 2. Scale 3. Vernier Caliper 4. Thread

2 3 1 THEORY ..
The purpose of torsion testing usually parallels that of uniaxial tension tests. From the experiment, the shear elastic modulus (G), shear proportional stress (tp), shear yield stress (t y), and the stress-strain behavior in general, can be obtained. For a circular shaft, when subjecting to twisting couples or torques, there will be torsional deformation occurring. The distribution of stress in the cross section of a circular shaft is statically indeterminate. However, every cross section remains plane and undistorted.
I.Strain :
'

The shearinq strain in a small element with sides parallel and perpendicular to the axis of the shaft and at a distance pfrorn that axis can be expressed as:

where 4 is the angle of the twist for a length L of the shaft. The above equation shows that the shearing strain in a circular shaft varies linearly with the distance from the axis of the shaft. Therefore, the strain is maximum at the surface.

2. Stress :
Within the elastic range, by using the Hooke's law, the stress z is

where G is the modulus of rigidity of the material. It shows that the shearing stress in a circular shaft also varies linearty with the distance from the axis of the shaft. Therefore, the stress is also maximum at the surface.
3. Relation between torque and the angle of twist

Within the elastic range, the angle of the twist torque T applied to it with the relationship of

of a circular shaft is proportional to the

The value of modulus of rigidity can be found out through observations made during the experiment by using the torsion equation:

I B Where T=torque applied, I,= polar moment of inertia, C=modulus of rigidity, = Angle of twist (radians). and

1,

I= gauge length.
2.3.2 PRE-LAB QUESTIONS 1 . What are the assumptions made in the theory of torsion. 2. What is resisting Torque? 3. Define polar moment of ipertia. 4. Write the torsion formula. 5. Write the relation between the shear modulus, Young's modulus, and Poisson ratio for brass, aluminum, and steel.

2.4
I.

PROCEDURE

The diameter and length of the specimen is measured using vernier caliper and scale. The specimen is kept in its position by making the angle of twist at zero position. This is done by making the torque 'zero' by rotating the lever clockwise or anticlockwise and tropometer made to read zero.
A torque was then applied by rotating the lever and corresponding relative angle of

2.

3.

twist is noted.

4.

Similarly the torque is applied by consecutive increase step by step b y rotating the lever and the corresponding twist is noted. Then after some maximum torque, the torque was decreased step by step and relative angle of twist is noted. The mean angle of twist
I?'

5.
6.

in degrees and '?' inradians are calculated

7.
8.

Modulus of Rigidity & Shear stress for the material are worked out

A graph is plotted between the torque versus relative angle of twist and Modulus of rigidity is calculated.
T -----

FORMULA Torsion Equation :

--------R

Fs

C? ------I

where, T = Torque N rnm Polar Moment if Inertia mm4 Modulus of rigidity ~ / r n m-~ Angle of twist in radians X Length of specimen in mrn Diameter of specimen in mm Radius of specimen in mm Shear stress of specimen in N / mm2
'

J
C

= = -

? Q

R F ,

TORQUE DIAL Least count 1 div

= 400kg cm = 40000 N rnm

Tropometer, 1 division = 1"

2.5

OBSERVATION
(mm)

Diameter of specimen = Length o f specimen =

(rnm) Polar moment of Inertia = J = $d4 132 (rnm4)

2.5.1

TABULATION:

2.5.3 GRAPH

FROM GRAPH

C = ?H

'f

2.6

POST-LAB QUESTIONS
I.What is torsional rigidity? 2 . What are the effects of torques? 3. Why hollow circular shafts are preferred when compared to solid circular shafts?

2.7

RESULT Modulus of rigidity of the given specimen a) FromTable From Graph

b)

3. BENDING TEST
3.1

AIM

To determine the young's modulus of the material of the beam by conducting a deflection test o n simply supported beam. 3.2
APPARATUS

Knife edge supports, weights with hanger, Deflectometer, Calipers, Scale etc.
3.3

PREPARATION

3.3.1 INTRODUCTION
All structural and machine elements whether, cantilever, simply supported, fixed or continuous undergo deflection when subject to external loads. The deflection o f a member should always be within the specified limits. W e can determine the deflection of beams subject to any type of loading by using standard deflection formulae. The actual deflection of the member is directly proportional to the load and span and is inversely proportional to flexural rigidity (El). Actual deflection so calculated should be less fhan the permissible deflection. In the laboratory, however the deflection is directlydetermined and the young's modulus is calculated using the deflection formulae.
Material

~(~lrnrn*)
2.2 1o5
1.195 x

Steel Aluminium

lo5

3.3.2 PRE-LAB QUESTIONS 1. List the different types of beams and supports. 2. Define pure bending. 3. What are the assumptions made in the theory in simple beams?

4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
3.4

Write the flexure formula. Define Moment of Inertia. Define neutral axis of beam. Define Section Modulus. What is point of contra-flexure?

PROCEDURE

1.

Measure the breadth and depth of the beam Fix the position of the span, load and deflectometer a s per the sketch. Note the initial reading of the dial gauge. Apply the loads at suitable increments, each time noting the corresponding deflection.

2.
3.
4.

5.
6.

Decrease the load uniformity at the same rate and note the corresponding deflection each time. Determine the Modulus of Elasticity of the material Then draw the load ( in Y - axis) Versus Deflection ( X - axis) graph. Conduct the experiment for the given materials Mild steel, Aluminium and Timber. Choose y and W from the graph and calculate the Young's Modulus for the material.

7.
8.
9.

3.5

OBSERVA'TIONS Specimen Breadth of cross section Depth of cross section Least count of deflectometer

................. .................mm. .................mm.

.................

3.5.1 TABUtA'rION

(a) For central loading (Mild steel, Aluminium and Timber) SI. No. Typeof material Load in Kg.
1.

Deflection (mm)

N.

Loading

Unloading

Mean deflection I,,( mm

Young's Modulus (El ~lmrn~

2.

3.
4.

5. (b) SI. No.

.

For non-central loading (Mild Steel, Aluminium & Timber) (Case I & Case II) Type of material Load Deflection (mm) N Loading Unloading Mean deflection (,,I mm Young's Modulus (E) ~ l m m ~

1.

Kg

2.

3.
4.
5.

3.5.2 CALCULATIONS
Moment of Inertia
I
= -- x

hl/'

12

For Central Loading

E = ----48431

Hf/

For Non-Central Loading Case I (x < a)

Case It (x =. a) (x < L)
bVbX W ( s - a)' E = ----- (L* - a 2 -x2)+-----6ylL ~ Y I

Y = W =
E =
I

Deflection in m m Load in N Young's modulus in ~ l r n r n ' Moment of inertia in mm4 Span of the beam Distance between L.H. Support and Load Distance between R. H. support and load Distance between L.H. Support and deflectrometer in mm.

L =
a =
b =

x =
3.6

POST-LAB QUESTIONS 1. Mention the limitations of double integration method in simply supported beam subjected to multi point
loads.

2. How the bending stresses varies from top to bottom layer of the beam? 3. How the shear stresses varies from top to bottom layer of the beam?
4. What are the methods for finding out the slope and deflection at a section?

3.7

RESULT
The Young's Modulus of Elasticity the given material = 1. Mild steel For central loading

For Non-central loading Case4 = Case II = 2. Aluminium For central loading For Non-central loading Case I = Case II = 3. Timber For central loading For Non-central loading Case l = Case II =
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE TEST

If the Young's modulus of the material of the specimen is equal to the standard value specified for ,the material, the deflection is found to be valid.

Formulas
Moment of Inertia = I
(1)
=-

bd 12

'
.

For central loading y =48EI

tvi

(2)

For non-central loading (Case I) a > b and x < a (x = Position where deflection is measured)

(3)

For non-central loading (case II) A>banda<x<c

Modulus of Elasticity in ~ l m r n ~ Applied load in N Deflection in mm Moment of Inertia in mm4 Span of the beam (mm) Distance between L - H support Distance between L.H. support Distance between L.H. support

MEAN DEFLECTION l ~ l r n r n ----+

( M I L DSTEEL

ALUMINIUM

ANS

TIMBER

>

4. CHARPY IMPACT TEST

4.1

AIM
To deterrr~ine impact strength of Mild steel using Charpy test the

4.2

APPARATUS

lmpact testing machine, test piece etc.

REFERENCE

IS 1499 Method for charpy impact test (U-Notch) for steel.

INTRODUCTION In the irr~pact test, the specimen is broken by allowing a standard hammer from fixed distance to fall one time. The energy absorbed is determined from which the impact value is obtained.
4.3.1
lmpact strength =
E~ler.c~. CI h.sorheti

Cross Sectiona lorea o theresfpiece f

4.3.2 PRE-LAB QUES'TIONS 1. What is lmpact Energy? 2. Define toughness.

3. 4. 5. 6.
What is difference between hardness and toughness? What is notch? Explain notch sensitivity. Explain the Ductile to Brittle Transition.

4.4
1.
2.

PROCEDURE
Raise the hammer and lock it. Set the pointer at the maximum graudated energy range of the dial. Release the trigger and allow the pendulum to swing. This actuates the pointer to move

3.
4.

in the dial.
Note down the energy absorbed by the bearings shown by the pointer in the dial. Place the specimen in between the simple anvil support keeping the 30" U-notch in the direction opposite to the striking edge of hammer.
6.

5.

Raise the pendulum hammer again and lock it in position. Adjust the specimen so that the striking edge of the hammer and the U -notch coincide

7.

in the same alignment.

8.

Set the pointer to read the maximum energy range marked in the dial. Release the trigger and allow the pendulum to strike the specimen at its mid point. Note down the energy spent in breaking or bending the specimen. Observe the notched face of the specimen is under bending tension. Tabulate the results.

9.
10.
11.

12.

4.5 OBSERVATIONS Side of the specimen = Area of cross section of the specimen = A =
4.5.1 TABULATION
-

a mm axa =

mm2

Energy spent in breaking or bending the specimen (B) (N-m) Energy absorbed by the specimen (B-A) (N-m)

S.No.

Frictional Energy absorbed by bearings without specimen (A) (N-m)

Impact
4.6

Of

Energy absorbed by the specimen the specimen = Cross sectional area of the specimen

POST-LAB QUES'TIONS 1. What are specifications of Charpy Test Specimens?

2. What is the Factors Affecting Charpy lmpact Energy?

4.7

RESULT

'

lmpact strength of U - notched specimen by Charpy's test ................

5. ROCKWELL HARDNESS NUMBER

5.1

AIM To determine the rockwell hardness number of the given specimen.

APPARATUS

5.2

Rockwell hardness testing machine, Penetrators, etc.

5.3.2 REFERENCE

IS 1516 Method for Rockwell Hardness test (B and C Scale) for steel.
5.3.2 INTRODUCTION

The term hardness in general means the resistance of the material to indentation. The hardness value obtained in a particular test serves only as a comparison between materials or treatments. Hardness tests are widely used for inspection and quality control. Heat treatment or working usually results in change in hardness. Hardness test affords a rapid and simple means of inspection and control for the particular material and process. A n indentor of fixed and known geometry makes an impression with the specimen under a known static load applied (either directly or by means of a lever system). The hardness is then expressed as a number that is either inversely proportional to the depth of indentation or proportional to a mean load over the area of indentation.
5.3.3 1. 2. 3. PRE-LAB QUESTIONS What is hardness? What is hardening process? What is tempering process? 4. Mention various hardness measurement methods.

5.4.1 PROCEDURE

In this Rockwell Hardness test, a direct reading instrument based on the principle of differential depth measurement is used.* Choose the Penatrator, Scale and Load for the particular material to be tested from the table.
CHART FOR ROCKWELL AND BRINELL HARDNESS 'TESTS Total Test Force
60Kg I 0 0 Kg 150 Kg 187.5 Kg 250 Kg

lndentor Scale Dial to be read

Daimond 120"

Ball 1.588 mm dia (1I 16"dia)

Diamond 120"
C

Ball 2.5mm Dia Brinell

Ball 5mm Dia Brinell --

A
Black

B
Red

Black'

--

Typical Application

Thin Steel & Shallow case Hardended Steel

Soft steel Malleable Copper and Aluminium alloys

Steel, Hard cast steel, deep case hardened steel, other metals harder than HRB -100.

Steel & Cast Iron

Copper & Aluminium Alloys

1.

Clean the surface of the specimen with an emery sheet. Keep the specimen on the testing platform. Raise the platform until the smaller pointer in the dial reads against the red mark. Apply the toad and maintain until the longer pointer comes to rest. Release the load. Notedown the dial reading after the release of the load. This is the Rockwell hardness number of the specimen. Repeat the same procedure three times for each specimen at different position. Take down the average value as the Rockwell hardness number of the specimen.

2.

3.
4.

5.
6.

Since the order of numbers is reversed on the dial gauge, a shallow impression on a hard material will result in a high number, while a deep impression on a soft material will result in a low number.

5.5

OBSERVATIONS Rockwell Hardness Number Rockwell hardness (Mean)

S. No.

Material

Load

Penetrator

Scale

I
1.
6

11

111

2.

3.
4.

5.

5.6

POST-LAB QUESTIONS
1. Why the hardness of the material is lowering and raising during metal cutting process?

2. What is the advantage of the Rockwell hardness method?

3. What is the disadvantage of the Rockwell hardness method?

4. 5. 6. 7.
5.7
To find hardness value for non ferrous material, what type of ~ o c k w e lscale is used? l For various metals how do you select the scale, load and indenter in Rockwell test? What are the types of indenter for Rockwell Hardness Test and its uses? For a given metal and its thickness, how do you select the diameter of ball?

RESULT Rockwell hardness number for the given material is

1)-:. .............................. 2 ) ..............................

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE TEST The Rockwell test is rapid and simple in operation and may be used on thinner specimens, and very soft to very hard materials. It is essentially used to determine the hardness of finished parts (bearings, valves, nuts, bolts, gears, pulleys, etc.), cutting tools and forming tools, small castings and forgings, sheet metal, large diameter wire, electrical contacts, plastic sheets or parts and case hardened parts etc.

6. BRINELL HARDNESS NUMBER

6.1

AIM To determine the Brinell hardness number of steel and non-ferrous alloys.

6.2.1 APPARATUS
Brinell hardness testing machine, apparatus for measuring the indentation usually Brinell microscope, specimen, penetrator etc.

6.2.2 GUIDE FOR SELECTION OF PENETRATOR AND LOAD

Refer the chart given in Rockwell Hardness Testing

6.3.1 REFERENCE
IS 1500 Method for'~rinel1 Hardness for Steel.

6.3.2 INTRODUCTION
Brinell hardness number is the ratio of the applied load on the specimen to the spherical area of impression by the penetrator. The test consists in forcing a steel ball into the test piece and measuring the mean diameter of the indentation left over the surface after removal of the load. The Brinell hardness HB is obtained by dividing the test load by the curved surface area of the indentation. This curved surface is assumed to be a portion of the sphere.

6.3.3 PRE-LAB QUESTIONS I.What is hardness? 2. Mention various hardness measurement methods. 3. What is hardening process? 4. Mention various types of hardening methods. 5. What is tempering process?
6.4
1.

PROCEDURE
Choose the load range and the type of penetrator from the table given for the material to be tested. Place the specimen underneath the penetrator,

2,

3.
4.

Apply the load and maintain for 10 seconds. Release the load.
Measure the diameter of the impression using the brinell microscope and enter it in the tabulation.

6.5.1 OBSERVATIONS
-

S.

Specimen

Load

Penetrator

Diameter of

No.

impressioi~ dl

Mean d (mm)

Surface area

BHN

d2

(mm2)

---.---

Brinell hardness number

Lo~din kg.

.Srrtjacanrenof impressionin ~q1n1.s.

Surface area

e2[ ~ - . \ i m ]
diameter of the indentor diameter of the impression

D
d
6.6

= =

POST-LAB QUESTIONS 1. How do you calculate the hardness number when using the Brinnel Hardness Tester? 2 . Write the Brinell 's hardness formulae. 3. What are the advantages of the Brinell hardness method? 4. What are the disadvantages of the Brinell hardness method?

6.7

RESULT
Brinell hardness number for the given material ....................................

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE TEST

Brinell Hardness test is best for measuring hardness of grey iron castings consisting of soft flake graphite, iron and hard iron carbide. Brinell hardness tests are conducted on structural steel and other rolled sections, steel, cast iron and aluminium castings and in most forgings.

7. IZOD IMPACT 'TEST

7.1

AIM

To deterrr~ine irnpact strength of Mild steel using lzod test the

7.2

APPARATUS

lmpact testing machine, test piece etc.

REFERENCE

IS 1499 Method for charpy impact test (U-Notch) for steel.

In the impact test, the specimen is broken by allowing a standard hammer from fixed distance to fall one time. The energy absorbed is determined from which the impact value is obtained. lmpact strength =
Energy absorbed CrossSectionolarcn of the testpiece

7.3.2 PRE-LAB QUESTIONS I.Define toughness. 2. What is difference between hardness and toughness? 3. What is Impact Energy? 4. What is notch? 5. Explain notch sensitivity. 6. Explain the Ductile to Brittle Transition. 7. What is hot working? 8. What is cold working?
7.4

PROCEDURE

1. Set the pointer at the zero of the dial.

2. Release the lever and allow the pendulum hammer to swing.

3. Note down the energy absorbed in friction indicated by the pointer in the dial
4. Lock the pendulum in its original position. 5. Keep the specimen truly vertical in the vice notch so that the centre of notch is level with the top of the vice, the notch facing the direction of blow. The 28 mm portion should protrude upward and 47 mm portion should be kept inside the vice for a round specimen.

6. Release the latch and allow the pendulum to strike the specimen.
7. Note down the energy spent in breaking or bending the specimen from the dial.

8.

Observe whether the notched face of the specimen is subjected to bending

tension.

9.

Tabulate the results.

7.5 OBSERVATIONS Side of the specimen

Area of cross section of the specimen = A =
7.5.1
a
x

a =

mm2

TABULATION
Frictional Energy absorbed by bearings without specimen (A) (N-M) Energy spent in breaking or bending the specimen (B) (N-M) Energy absorbed by the specimen (B-A) (N-M)

7.5.2 CALCULATIONS
lrnpact value of the specimen =
7.6
Energvabsorbed by /ltc.rpecLetr Crosssectionnlnretr oj'/ltcspecimen

POST-LAB QUESTIONS I What Does the lzod Test Involve? . 2. What are the factors affecting lzod impact energy? 3. Why the impact energy is decreased when yield strength is increased?

4. 7.7

What is fracture mechanism?

RESULT
Impact value of the specimen =.................... by lzod impact test

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE TEST

Impact test is very useful in testing materials which have not been properly heat treated. Faulty heat treatment gives poor impact or izod values. Wrought iron has very high impact value.

8. DOUBLE SHEAR TEST 8.1 AIM To find the ultimate shear stress of the material by conducting a double shear test.
8.2
APPARATUS

Compression testing machine, double shear apparatus, calipers, etc.

8.3.1 INTRODUCTION
Structural fastenings such as rivets, bolts, welds, and springs are very often subjected to shear due to external loads and moments. Further machine parts like shafts, axles etc. are also subjected to shear stresses due to rotation. It is therefore, essential that the steel has to be tested in shear to find its suitability in practice.

8.3.2 PRE-LAB QUESTIONS 1. Define shear stress and shear strain. 2. Distinguish between single shear and double shear.
8.4

PROCEDURE

1.

Measure the diameter of the rod. Fix the specimen in the double shear asserr~bly with proper side grips. Apply the load to the specimen by keeping the double shear assembly in between the plates of compression testing machine. Note down the ultimate load. This ultimate load divided by twice the cross section area of the specimen will give the ultimate shear stress. Repeat the procedure for a number of specimen and the find out average value

2.

3.

4.
8.5

of ultimate shear stress.

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS
Diameter of the specimen Cross sectional area of the specimen

=
7

....................... mrn.

........................ 2 rnrn
Ultimate shear stress (~lmrn')

Specimen No. 1.
2.

Ultimate load (N)

3.

4.

5.

ljlrinlo~rshear=

Ultimate loucl
A -

2 xcross s e c r i o ~ ~ r r l a r e a o j ~ ~ i ~ e . s ~ e c i n ~ e t r

8.6

POAT-LAB QUESTIONS
1. 2. 3. 4. What are the stresses induced in threaded fasteners when transverse loading? What are the stresses induced in threaded fasteners when axial loading? What is the mode of deformation occur in shear failure? How to find allowable shear strength?

8.7

RESULT
Ultimate shear stress of the specimen

..............................

N/mm2

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE TEST When a member is subjected to a stress parallel to given plane it is subjected to shear stress. The ultimate shear stress for structural steel shall not be less than 300 N/mm2.

9. 9.1

COMPRESSION TEST

AIM To determine the compressive strength of samples of Brick and concrete cubes.

9.2

a) b) c)

d)

APPARATUS REQUIRED Compression testing machine Scale Weighing machine Brick & concrete cube samples

9.3.1 THEORY There are four types of stresses that are studied for determining the strength of materials: tension, compression, shear and torsion. Brittle materials, such as cast iron and concrete, are often weak in tension because of the presence of submicroscopic cracks and faults. However, these materials can prove to be quite strong in compression, due to the fact that the compression test tends to increase the cross sectional areas o f specimens, preventing necking to occur. It has been observed that for varying height of member, keeping cross sectional and the load applied constant, there is an increased tendency towards bending of a member. Member under compression usually bends along minor axis, i.e, along least lateral dimension. According to column theory slenderness ratio has more functional value. If this ratio goes o n increasing, axial corr~pressive stress goes on decreasing and member buckles more and more. End conditions at the time of test have a pronounced effect o n compressive strength of materials. Effective length must be taken according to end conditions assumed, at the time of the test. As the ends of the member is made plain and fit between two jaws of the machine, fixed end is assumed for calculation of effective length. Effective length is taken as 0.5 L where L is actual length o f a specimen

9.3.2 PRE-LAB QUESTIONS 1. What is cornpressive strength? 2. What are the different modes of deformation occur in compression testing?
9.4 PROCEDURE

a.

The' dimensions of the given samples are measured with a scale and the readings are noted. The weight of the samples are taken i n a weighing balance and noted. The samples are kept in compression testing machine, one after the other and the load was applied. The ultimate load at which the specimen breaks was noted. This was indicated by the reversing of the black pointer. The values were substituted in the formula and the compressive strength o f the given samples are calculated and tabulated.

b.
c. d.

e.

9.5

OBSERVATIONS

9.5.1 TABULATIONS
SI
No. Material Dimensions (mm)
L
1.

Volume mm3 (LBD)

Weight (N)

Density Nlmm

Ultimate Load N

Area mm2

Compressive strength N/mm2

2.

3
4.
5.

FORMULA
Compressive strength
9.5.2 CALCULATIONS
1.

Ultinzate load Area

~irnrn~

Brick - I Ultimate load Area Compressive strength

N -

mm2 ~/mm'

2.
3.

- I1 Brick - I l l
Brick Concrete Cube-l Concrete Cube-ll

4.

5. 9.6

1.
2.

POST-LAB QUESTIONS Why Perform a Compression Test? What happens to ductile materials such as mild steel when placed in compression? RESULT The compressive strength of the given samples are Brick - I Brick - II Brick - 111 Concrete - Cube - I Concrete - Cube -

9.7

1.
2.
3. 4. 5.

10. SPRING TEST

1 . 1 AIM T o determine the modulus of rigidityof the material of the spring.

70.2 APPARATUS

Spring testing machine, Caliper, Spirit level, Scale etc.

10.3.1 INTRODUCTION
A spring is an energy absorber. Springs are extensively used to absorb sudden and impact loading. Energy can also be stored in springs. Springs are generally of two types viz. (i) Torsion Spring and (ii) Bending spring.

TYPES OF SPRINGS
Helical springs (Torsion spring) Spiral spring or Flat spring (Torsion spring)
.

Laminated spring or Leaf spring (Bending spring) Helical springs are used as shock absorbers in automobiles and in railway coaches. Spiral springs are used in clocks and watches to store energy Laminated springs are used in railway wagons, coaches, road vehicles, power hammers, etc. There are two types of helical springs. (i) (ii) Closely coiled helical spring and Open - coiled helical spring

In closely - coiled helical springs, the coils are close to each other such that each turn is practically in a plane at right angles to the axis of the spring and the helix angle is less than 10".

In open coiled helical spring, there is a wide gap between the coils and the helix angle is greater than 10".
Coiled springs are made of high carbon steel. These are designed for standard loads using spring deflection formula. However under laboratory conditions, the deflection is determined for a given loading and the rigidity modulus is determined. This should be equal to the standard value specified for the materials.

10.3.2 PRE-LAB QUES'TIONS

1. What is strain energy? 2. What is the principle of conservation of energy? 3. What is a spring? 4. What are the types of springs? 5. Define Stiffness of spring. 6. Define pitch of the spring. 7. Define spring index. 8. What do you mean by active coils? 9. Define solid length of spring. 10.Write down the formula for deflection of an open coiled helical spring subjected to an load 'w'. I Write the formula for strain energy due to torsion. I.
PROCEDURE

Measure the outer and inner diameter of the spring and obtain the thickness of the spring. Find the radius of the spring number of turns of the spring and the measure the length of the spring. Fix the specimen in the spring testing machine. Note down the reading corresponding to the initial position of the spring. Apply the load to the spring. Note down the deformation. At each increment of the load, note down the corresponding deformation -Trial I. Repeat the above procedure again as trial 11. Draw a graph "Load" Versus "Average deformation". Calculate the value of Rigidity modulus shear stress, stiffness factor and flexibility factor as per the Tabulation. Calculate the value of Rigidity modulus of the given spring material from graph.

10.5

OBSERVATIONS
Open coil helical spring Spring in test Material .Type of spring Inner diameter Outer diameter Diameter of wire Radius of the spring

Tension/Compression Open coiled

Number of turns Length of the spring

(2) Closely coiled helical spring

1

Spring in test Material Type of spring Inner diameter Outer diameter Diameter of wire Radius of the spring IVumber of turns Length of the spring

TensionlCo mpression Closed coiled

10.5.1 TABULATION:
(Prepare separate table of observation for open & closed coil springs
-

S.No.

Load W (N)

Deformation (mm) d Loading Trial I Loading Trial I1

Mean deformation d(mm)

Rigidity Modulus (~lrnm')

Shear Stress t (~lmm')

Stiffness factor 'K' (Nlmm)

Flexibility factor 'a' (rnm/N)

10.5.2 CALCULATIONS

1) For open coiled helical spring

Modulus of Rigidity =
1 ' = --, %

64 1t'I< ' n ~ ' o s c i

0
0

Pitch =

n-1(~/)nm~)

tan a = Shear Stress

= t

Pitch 2nR 16lYRCrosh -

6s

Stiffness factor Flexibility factor

= k = W/d

= a = I l k = dMl

2) For closely coil helical spring Modulus of Rigidity

Shear Stress

= t

16WR P@
W Id

Stiffness factor Flexibility factor W

= k =

a = I = d/W /k

=
= -

R
n

d
d L 10.6 1. 2. 3.
10.7

Load in Newton Radius of the spring in mm Number of turns Diameter of the wire Deformation in mm Length of the spring

POST-LAB QUESTIONS What are the differences between closed coil & open coil helical springs? Why the spring will vibrate due to disturbance? What is concentric spring?
RESULT Modulus of Rigidity of the spring (a) From Table (b) From Graph Shear Stress

= N= = = = t =

Stiffness factor Flexibility factor

= k= = a =

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE TEST

Values o f Modulus of Rigidity o f some important materials.

Material
Steel Brass 1 Copper Cast iron

~lrnrn'
0.8
0.3

lo5 to 1

lo5

lo5 to 0.5 x 1o5 lo5

0.4 x l ~t00.5 5

STRENGTH OF MATERIAL LAB: PRE & POST LAB Q-A MANUAL

1. TENSILE TEST ON MILD STEEL ROD Pre-lab Questions

1. Hook's Law. Within the elastic limit, the stress is directly proportional to strain. Ans: CJCLF O=EE Define Po~sson's ratio. Ans: When a body is stressed, within its elastic limit, the ratio of lateral strain to the longitudinal strain is constant for a given material Poisson' ratio (p or I l m ) = Lateral strain /Longitudinal strain Differentiate Ductile and Brittle rnater~als. Ans: Ductile materials Failure is known Elongation is more.

2.

3.

Brittle Materials sudden fracture Less elongation

4.

Derive the relationship between the Young's modulus, Poisson's ratio shear modulus and Bulk modulus. Ans: E = 2G ( l + l l m ) Where, E - Young's Modulus, G - Modulus of Rigidity E = 3K (1-2/m) K - Bulk Modulus, l / m - Poisson's ratio Draw the Stress-Strain diagram for ductile material. Ans:
Stress-Struin tiingram I'or mild stccl

5.

Post-lab Questions 1. In what region of a stress vs. strain graph do you find Young's Modulus? Ans: With-in elastic limit or yield value. What is the difference between the engineering and true stress - strain? Ans: In engineering stress- strain, the cross section area is taken as original area. But in true stress-strain, the area is taken as instantaneous area. Why the curve lowering and then raising after reaching yield point, in stress-strain diagram? Ans: After the material reaches yield point, it enters the plastic zone.

2,

3.
4,

Why the curve lowering after reaching ultimate strength, in stress-strain diagram? Ans: At ultimate load point, the material losses its resistance. So beyond ultimate point, the material stars necking.

5.

In machining process, how to differentiate ductile and brittle materials from visual? Ans: In machining process, the ductile materials form the continuous chip. But in brittle materials form the broken,chips.

2. TORSION TEST Pre-la b Questions

I.

What are the assumptions made in the theory of torsion? Ans: a. Material is homogeneous. b. The material of the shaft is uniform throughout. c. The twist along the shaft is uniform. d. Circular sections remain circular. Thus radius remains straight after torsion. e. Plane normal sections of shaft remain plane after twisting, i.e., n o warping or distortion of parallel planes normal to the axis of the shaft takes place. f. Stress is proportional to strain, i.e., stresses do not exceed proportional limit. What is resisting Torque? Ans: The resisting torque is the sum of the moments of tangential shearing stress acting on any transverse section. Define polar moment of inertia. ~ns:

2.

3.

:*

Jz = the polar moment of inertia about the axis z

,r

* d4 = an eietnetital area p = the radial distance to the etetnent dA from the axis

4.

Write the torsion formula. T/J = t/R = Ge/L Ans: T-Torque J- Polar moment of inertia L- Length T- Shear stress

G-Modulus of rigidity R- Radius

Write the relation between the shear modulus, Young's modulus, and Poisson ratio for brass, aluminum, and steel. Ans. E = 2G ( l + l l m ) Where, E - Young's Modulus, G - Modu[us of Rigidity E = 3K (1-2/m) l / m - Poisson's ratio K - Bulk Modulus,

Post-lab Questions 1. What is torsional rigidity? Ans: Product of rigidity modulus and polar moment of inertia is called torsional rigidity. What are the effects of torques? Ans: When torque is applied a t the ends of the shaft, the shaft is subjected to a twisting moment. When torque is applied at the shaft, Shear stresses are setup in the material of shaft.

2.

3-

. Why hollow circular shafts are preferred when compared to solid circular shafts? Ans: 1. The torque transmitted by the hollow shaft is greater than the solid shaft.

2. For same material, length and given torque, the weight of the hollow shaft will be less compared to solid shaft.

3. BENDING TEST
Pre-lab Questions
1. List the different types of beams and supports Ans. Beams - canblever. simply support and fixed - Hinged, fixed and roller Supports Define pure bending. Ans: If a length of a beam is subjected to a constant bending moment and no shear force, then the stresses will be setup in that length of the beam due to bending moment only that length of the beam is said to be in pure bending or simple bending. What are the assumptions made in the theory in simple beams? Ans: The material of the beam is homogeneous and isotropic. The material obeys Hook's law. The beam is straight initially and bends in to circular arc. The radius of curvature is large compared to span. The transverse section, which are plane before bending remain plane after bending The stresses are induced only in longitudinal direction of beam. The beam bends about its principal axes. Write the flexure formula Ans:
!J=

2.

3.

4.

I
M - Maximum bending moment o - Maximum stress induced E - Young's modulus

E =

F3

I Moment of inertia y - Distance from the neutral axis R - Radius of Curvature

5.

Define Moment of Inertia. Ans: The product of the area and square of the distance of the gravity of the area from an axis is known as Moment of Inertia of the area about that axis. Define neutral axis of beam. Ans: The neutral axis is an axis in the cross section of a beam or shaft along which there are no longitudinal stresses or strains. Define Section Modulus. Ans: Section modulus is defined as the ratio of moment of inertia about the neutral axis to the distance of the outermost layer from the neutral axis. What is point of contra-flexure? l change sign Ans:' In over hanging beam, there w ~ l be a point, the bending moment w ~ l l from negative to positive or vice versa. This point is known as a point of contra-flexure.

6.

7.

8.

Post-lab Questions

1.

Mention the limitations of double integration method in simply supported beam subjected to multi point loads. Ans: In simply supported beam subjected to eccentric load, the deflection at load point is equal for left and right side of the beam. But the slope is not equal. So the no. of equations are increase with respect to ,no of point loads. How the bending stresses varies from top to bottom layer of the beam? Ans: The stress varies from tensile to compression or vice-versa. The max stress is in top and zero stress in neutral axis.

2.

3.
4.

How the shear stresses varies from top to bottom layer of the beam? Ans: The max stress is in neutral axis and zero stress in top and bottom layer. What are the methods for finding out the stope and deflection at a section? Ans: The important methods used for finding out the slope and deflection at a section in a loaded beam are 1. Double integration method 2. Moment area method 3. Macaulay's method The first two methods are suitable for a single load, where as the last one is suitable for several loads.

4. CHARPY IMPACT TEST

-.
1.

Pre-lab Questions What is Impact Energy? Ans: Impact energy is a measure of the work done to fracture a test specimen. Define toughness. Ans: The ability of a material to absorb the energy without failure. What is difference between hardness and toughness? Ans: Toughness is the ability of steel to absorb energy. Hardness is the ability of steels to withstand wear. What is notch? Ans: The notch serves as a stress concentration zone and some materials are more sensitive towards notches than others. The notch depth and: tip radius are therefore very important. Explain notch sensitivity. Ans: The notch sensitivity (q) is the degree to which the theoretical effect of stress concentration is actually reached.

2
3.

4.

5.

6.

Explain the Duct~le Brittle Transition. to Ans: Some materials such as carbon steels undergo what is known as a 'ductile to brittle transition'. This behaviour is obvious when impact energy is plotted as a function of temperature. The resultant curve will show a rapid dropping off of impact energy as the temperature decreases. If the impact energy drops off very sharply, a transition temperature can be determined. This is often a good indicator of the minimum recommended service temperature for a material. Post-lab Questions

'l.

What are specifications of Charpy Test Specimens? Ans: Charpy test specimens normally measure 55x10x10mm and have a notch machined across one of the larger faces. The notches may be: V-notch - A V-shaped notch, 2mm deep, with 45" angle and 0.25mm radius along the base U-notch or keyhole notch - A 5mm deep notch with Imm radius at the base of the notch. What is the Factors Affecting Charpy Impact Energy? Ans: Factors that affect the Charpy impact energy of a specimen will include: I Yield strength and ductility ! . Notches

2.

Temperature and strain rate Fracture mechanism

5. ROCKWELL HARDNESS NUMBER

Pre-lab Questions 1. What is hardness? Ans: Hardness is the property of a material that enables it to resist plastic deformation, usually by penetration. However, the term hardness may also refer to resistance to bending, scratching, abrasion or cutting. What is hardening process? Ans: In metallurgy, hardening describes techniques to increase the hardness of a material. What is tempering process? Ans: After the hardening treatment is applied, steel is often harder than needed and is too brittle for most practical uses. Also, severe internal stresses are set up during the rapid cooling from the hardening temperature. To relieve the internal stresses and reduce brittleness, the material should temper the steel after it is hardened. Mention various hardness measurement methods. Ans: There are three types of tests used with accuracy by the metals industry; they are the Brinell hardness test, the Rockwell hardness test, and thevickers hardness test. Post-lab Questions 1. Why the hardness of the material is lowering and raising during metal cutting process? Ans: 'The metal removal rate of the hard material is very low. What is the advantage of the Rockwell hardness method? Ans: a. Little time required for carrying out the test as the hardness value can be read of directly following indentation, or it is displayed b. Possibility of automation c. Low procurement costs for the test machine as no optical measurement device is necessary d. No operator influence as the hardness value is displayed direct

2.

3.

4.

3.

What is the disadvantage of the Rockweli hardness method? Ans: a. Possibility of error during the test sequence caused by permanent shifting of the specimen, and of other components that are in the force flow during the test b. Limited possibility of the test of edge zone hardened specimen owing to high test loads c. Sensitivity of diamond indenter against damage, thus danger of erroneous measurements d. Influence of the indenter of the hardness test result when using a conical indenter. T o find hardness value for non ferrous material, what type of Rockwell scale is used? Ans: HRB For various metals how do you select the scale, load and indenter in Rockwell test'? Ans: Rockwell Hardness. .Scales. . . . . . .................... ..... .. ........... . . . .

4.

5.

! Scale Indenter
. . . . . . . . .

r in or ~ o a d ~ a j o Load i ~ o t aLoad iValue of : l r l

'Fo i kgf IF1 kgf

. .:. . . . . . . . .

F j kgf

iE
j ,.
. . . . .

..........

!A
. . -

.'........................................

!~iamond cone 110 ,1116" steel ball 110 ,

j j ~ ......... . 160 ''

190 jl00

1100 iq30

r ........-....

i
..?

iB

D~amond cone 10 Dlamond cone 10

140 90 90
50

150 100 100

60

100 100 130 130 130 130

130

D E
F

118" steel ball

10

1/16" steel ball 10 1116" steel ball 10

-I

140 50 140 50 t90 140

I

150
60

H
K

,118" steel ball . :118" steel ball

.

10 10

150 60

,L

~114"steelball 10

M
P

i 114" steel ball 112" steel ball 112" steel ball 112" steel ball

10

-- 100
.-

130 130 130 130 130 130

1114" steel ball . -- - -

10 10 10 10

150

R
S V

50

60

90 140

100 150

Typlcal ~ p ~ l i & % of Rockwell ~ardness-scales n HRA . . Cemented carbides, thln steel and shallow case hardened steel HRB . . . Copper alloys, soft steels, aluminium alloys, malleable,irons, etc Steel, hard cast Irons, case hardened steel and other rnaterlals harder than 100 HRC . HRB HRD . Thin steel and medium case hardened steel and pearlitic malleable iron HRE Cast Iron, alumln~um and magnesium alloys, bearing metals HRF . Annealed copper alloys, thin soft sheet metals HRG . . . Phosphor bronze, beryllium copper, malleable irons HRH . . Aluminium, zinc, lead HRK . . . } HRL . . . ) HRM . . .) . . . . Soft bear~ng metals, plastics and other very soft materials HRP.. } HRR . . ) HRS. . . . } HRV.. . . }

6.

What are the types of indenter for Rockwell Hardness Test and its uses? Ans:

A
'

Brale indenter 60 kgf load

!Thin, hard sheet materials, such as tungsten carbide. Mediurnllow hard materials, such as annealed carbon steels Materials harder than HRB 100. :,Case-hardened materials.
.

1/16 in diamond ball 100 kgf load

Brale indenter 150 kgf load

:
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

:D
<.

'
a

Brale indenter 100 kgf load

. . .

. . . . . . . _ . -

; 1/I 6 inch Brale

1F
....................

__

._

.............

-. . ... .-

:indenter : 60 kgf load

j Soft materials, such as bearing metals.

. . . . . ...........

...................

.....

..........
I

'/" Inch Superficial Brale indenter 15, 30, or 45 kgf load

'

unhardened materials, such as metals softer than hardened steel or hard alloys, or where shallow indentations are desired.

"I6
T
ball

Inch 'larnond

15 30 or 45 kgf load

Unhardened rnater4als,such as metals softer than hardened stee or where shallow lndentat~ons are desired

For a given metal and its thickness, how do you select the uiameter of ball? Ans: Varlous Rockwell scalesH Scale Abbreviat~on Load ,A B HRA HRB HRC HRD HRE HRF HRG 60 kgf Indenter Use
120" diamond conet Tunqsten carblde ------- .. 100 kgf 1116 in diameter steel sphere Alumlnlurn, brass, and soft steels

7.

C
D 'E

150 kgf 120" diamond cone

100 kgf 120" d~amond cone

Harder steels

100 kgf 118 ~nd~ameter steel sphere

60 kgf

F G

1/16 ~ndiameter steel sphere'

150 kgf 1/16 ~ndiameter steel sphere

' ~ l s ocalled a brale ~ n d e n t e r

6. BRINELL HARDNESS NUMBER Pre-lab Questions

1.

What is hardness? Ans: Hardness is the property of a material that enables it to resist plastic deformation, usually by penetration. However, the term hardness may also refer to resistance to bending, scratching, abrasion or cutting. Mention various hardness measurement methods. Ans: There are three types of tests used with accuracy by the metals industry; they are the Brinell hardness test, the Rockwell hardness test, and the Vickers hardness test. What is hardening process? In metallurgy, hardening describes techniques to increase the hardness of a material. Ans: Mention various types of hardening methods. Ans: Surface hardening, Age hardening, Nitriding. What is tempering process? Ans: After the hardening treatment is applied, steel is often harder than needed and is too brittle' for most practical uses. Also, severe internal stresses are set up during the rapid cooling from the hardening temperature. To relieve the internal stresses and reduce brittleness, the material should temper the steel after it is hardened.

2.

3.
4.

5.

1.

How d o you calculate the hardness number when using the Brinnel Hardness Tester? Ans: Brinell hardness is determined by forcing a hard steel or carbide sphere of a specified diameter under a specified load into the surface of a material and measuring the diameter of the indentation left after the test. The Brinell hardness number, or simply the Brinell number. is obtained by dividing the load used, in kilograms, by the actual surface area of the indentation, in square millimeters. Write the Brinell 's'hardness formulae, Ans:

2.

where P is load in kg; D ball diameter in mm; and d is the diameter of the indentation in mm.

What are the advantages of the Brinell hardness method? Ans: a. Suitable for hardness tests on inhomogeneous materials owing to the large indentation, as b. long as the expansion of the in-homogeneity is small in relation to the indentation c. Suitable for hardness tests on large unfinished parts such as forged parts, cast parts, hot rolled or pressed and heat treated parts d. No erroneous measurement at specimen yield in the direction of action of the test load Simple and-robust indenter

4.

What are the disadvantages of the Brinell hardness method? Ans: a. Limitation of range of application for a maximum Brinell hardness of 650 HBW b. Limitation for testing small and thin specimen c. Time consuming for measuring the indentation diameter d. Relatively large degree of damage to the specimen by the indentation.

7. lzod lmpact f est

Pre-lab Questions 1.
2.

Define toughness. Ans: The ability of a material to absorb the energy without failure. What is difference between hardness and toughness? Ans: Toughness is the ability of steel to absorb energy. Hardness is the ability of steels to withstand wear. What is Impact Energy? Ans: Impact energy is a measure of the work done to fracture a test specimen What is notch? Ans: The notch serves as a stress concentration tone and some materials are more sensitive towards notches than others. The notch depth and tip radius are therefore very important. Explain notch sensitivity. Ans: The notch sensitivity (q) is the degree to which the theoretical effect of stress concentration is actually reached.

3.

4.

5.

y
6.

"

'

K, - 1 Kt - 1

Explain the Ductile to Brittle Transition. Ans: Some materials such as carbon steels undergo what is known as a 'ductile to brittle transition'. This behaviour is obvious when impact energy is plotted as a function of temperature The resultant curve will show a rapid dropping off of impact energy as the temperature decreases. If the impact energy drops off very sharply, a transition temperature can be determined. This is often a good indicator of the minimum recommended service temperature for a material. What is hot working'?

7.

hot working refers to processes where metals are plastically deformed above their Ans: recrystallization temperature.

8.

What is cold working? Ans: Altering the shape or size of a metal by plastic deformation. Processes include rolling, drawing, pressing, spinning, extruding and heading. it is carried out below the recrystallisation point usually at room temperature. Post-la b Questions

1.

What Does the lzod Test Involve? Ans: The lzod test involves striking a suitable test piece with a striker, mounted at the end of a pendulum. 'The test piece is clamped vertically with the notch facing the striker. The striker swings downwards impacting the test piece at the bottom of its swing.

2.

What are the factors affecting lzod impact energy? Ans: Factors that affect the lzod impact energy of a specimen will include: Yield strength and ductility Notches Temperature and strain rate Fracture mechanism

3.

Why the impact energy is decreased when yield strength is increased? Ans: For a given material the impact energy will be seen to decrease if the yield strength is increased, i.e. if the material undergoes some process that makes it more brittle and less able to undergo plastic deformation. Such processes may include cold working or precipitation hardening.

4.

What is fracture mechanism? Ans: Metals tend to fail by one of two mechanisms, micro-void coalescence or cleavage.

8.

DOUBLE SHEAR TEST

Pre-lab Questions

I.

Define shear stress and shear strain. Ans: The two equal and opposite force act tangentially on any cross sectional plane of the body tending to slide one part of the body over the other part. The stress induced is called shear stress and the corresponding strain is known as shear strain. Distinguish between single shear and double shear. Ans: In single shear, only one shear plane is there In double shear, two shear planes are there.

2.

Post-lab Questions

I.

What are the stresses induced in threaded fasteners when transverse loading? Ans: Compressive stresses and shear stresses.

2.

What are the stresses induced in threaded fasteners when axial loading? Ans: Tensile stresses What is the mode of deformation occur in shear failure? Ans: Failure planes are parallel. How to find allowable shear strength? Ans: Ans Based on max. Shear stress theory

3.

4.

9. COMPRESSION TEST
Pre-lab Questions
1.

What is compressive strength? Ans: Maximum Stress a material can sustain under crush loading. What are the different modes of deformation occur in cornprj.xsion testing? Ans: 'The figure to the right illustrates the modes of deformation in compression testing. (a) Buckling, when U D > 5. (b) Shearing, when U D s 2.5. (c) Double barreling, when U D > 2.0 and friction is present at the contact surfaces. (d) Barreling, when U D < 2.0 and friction is present at the contact surfaces. (e) Homogenous compression, when U D < 2.0 and no friction is present at the contact surfaces. (f) Compressive instability due to work-softening material.

2.

Post-lab Questions

1.

Why Perform a Compression Test? Ans: Axial compression testing is a useful procedure for measuring the plastic flow behavior and ductile fracture limits of a material. What happens to ductile materials such as mild steel when placed in compression? Ans; It starts buckling.

2.

10. SPRING 'TEST

Pre-lab Questions
1.

What is strain energy? Ans: Whenever a body is strained, the energy is absorbed in the body. The energy, which is absorbed in the body due to straining effect, is known as strain energy. What is the principle of conservation of energy? Ans: The principle of conservation of energy states that energy cannot be created or destroyed, although it can be changed from one form to another. What is a spring? Ans: A spring is an elastic member, which deflects, or distorts under the action of load and regains its original shape after the load is removed. What are the types of springs? Ans: Helical Springs, Leaf springs and Torsion springs Define Stiffness of spring. Ans: It is defined as the load per unit deflection. K= wl6

3.

4.
5.

6.

Define pitch o f the spring. Ans: The distance between the center to center of the wires in adjacent active coils Define spring index. Ans: It is the ratio of the mean coil diameter to the diameter of the spring wire. C = Dld

7.

10

. . ; .7.'.< i . ; : < j . , . . . <,. . F .

1:11. -7-.
.& ,

. . .:-z<.?;:.j .;:.:..., ~ . . . . ,..

.,. < # ..< W

.
I

What do you mean by active coils? Those coils which are free to deflect under loads. Ans:

9.

Define solid length of spring. Ans: Length of a compression spring when under .sufficient load to bring all corls into contact with adjacent coils. Write down the formula for deflection of an open coiled helical spring subjected to an load 'w'. Ans:

TO.

Where F- shear stress in ~lrnrn',na No, of active coils. G- shear modulus, D- Mean coil dia and d- Wire dia.

11.

Write the formula for strain energy due to torsion. Ans :

.'

'.~..u .,J
-

T
U = -0

T?
- --- -

Strain Energy

2k,

-r21

2GJ

Post-lab Questions
1.
What are the differences between closed coil & open coil helical springs? The wires are coiled such that there is a gap

Helix an le is less than 10"

2.
,

Why the spring will vibrate due to disturbance? Ans; Due to Principle of conservation of energy What is concentric spring? Ans: A small spring is kept inside the big spring.

3.