Delta Course - Probablity - Statistics - Counting (Not For GMAT)

Probability Overview
In this section we will cover:
Expressing probabilities
GMAT Probability Rule #1
Probability
You may encounter questions on the GMAT that ask the probability of an event
occuring. For instance:
• Sara rolls two fair, six-sided dice. What is the probability she will roll two 6s?
• Roland flip two fair coins. What is the probability that neither of the coins will
land on tails?
• A bag contains six blue marbles and six red marbles. If Teresa randomly
chooses a marble from the bag, what is the probability that the marble is
blue?
All of these problems are probability problems. Probability is a measure of the

likelihood of an event occurring.
Expressing Probability
The probability of an event occurring is expressed as a number between 0 and 1. A
probability of 0 means the event can never happen. A probability of 1 means the
event is certain to happen.
You may see probability express on the GMAT in terms of a percent, a decimal, or a
fraction. For instance, the probability of a fair coin landing on tails can be expressed
as
Fraction 1/2
Decimal .5
Percent 50%
Sometimes you may see notation similar to that below:

P(A) = ½
This means that the probability of an event A is 1/2.
Probability Rules
There are four probability rules you need to memorize in order to master GMAT
probability questions:
1. The probability of an event A occurring is the number of outcomes that

result in A divided by the total number of possible outcomes.
2. The probability of an event occurring plus the probability of the event not
occurring equals 1.
3. The probability of event A AND event B occurring is the probability of

event A times the probability of event B given that event A has already
occurred.
4. The probability of event A OR event B occurring is the probability of event

A occurring plus the probability of event B occurring minus the probability
of both events occurring.
Rule #1
Basic Probability
The probability of an event A occurring is the number of outcomes that
Example: Raphael tosses a fair coin. What is the probability the coin will
come up heads?
Probability of heads = [heads]/[heads, tails]

Probability of heads = 1/2
Example: Tom rolls a fair die. What is the probability that the die will roll an
even number?
Probability of even number = [2, 4, 6]/[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]

Probability of even number = 3/6
Probability of even number = ½
Rule #2
Complementary Events
The probability of an event occurring plus the probability of the event not
occurring equals 1.
In other words, we can say with 100% certainty that an event will either occur or not
occur. For instance, the probability of a fair, six-sided die rolling a 4 is 1/6. The
probability of the die not landing on 4 is (1 - 1/6) or 5/6. 1/6 + 5/6 = 1.
This concept can be very helpful on the GMAT. Sometimes it is easier to determine
the probability of an event not occurring than determining the probability of an event
occurring. Once your know the probability of an event not occurring, you can
subtract the probability from 1 to find the probability of an event occurring.
Rule #3
Conditional Probability
The probability of event A AND event B occurring is the probability of event
A times the probability of event B given that event A has already occurred.
Example: Joseph rolls two fair, six-sided die. What is the probability that
both die will roll a 6?
Probability of 1st die coming up 6: 1/6

Probability of 2nd die coming up 6: 1/6
Probability of both die coming up 6: (1/6) * (1/6)
Probability of both die coming up 6: 1/36
Example: A bag contains three blue marbles and three red marbles. If two
marbles are drawn randomly from the bag, what is the probability that they
are both blue?
This problem is a dependent probability. Two events are said to be dependent

events if the outcome of one event affects the outcome of the other event. The
probability of drawing the second marble depends on the outcome of the first
marble. If the first marble is red, there is no possibility of drawing two blue marbles.
Thus, the probability of drawing a second blue marble is calculated after the first blue
marble has been drawn.
Probability of drawing blue on first draw: 3/6
If a blue is drawn on the first draw, there are three red marbles and two blue
marbles remaining in the bag.
Probability of drawing blue on second draw (given that first was blue): 2/5
Probability of drawing two blue: (3/6) * (2/5)

Probability of drawing two blue: 6/30
Probability of drawing two blue: 1/5
Rule #4
Additive Rule
The probability of event A OR event B occurring is the probability of event A
occurring plus the probability of event B occurring minus the probability of
both events occurring.
Example: Charles rolls a fair, six-sided die. What is the probability of Charles
rolling a 2 or a 4?
P(2) = 1/6
P(4) = 1/6
P(2 or 4) = 1/6 + 1/6
P(2 or 4) = 2/6
P(2 or 4) = 1/3
In the previous problem, the events were mutually exclusive. Mutually exclusive
means that the events cannot occur together. There is no way to roll a 2 and a 4 at
the same time. The events in the following problem are NOT mutually exclusive.
Example: Of the 100 students at a certain school, 30 students are taking a

chemistry class, 40 students are taking a physics class, and 20 students are
taking both a physics and a chemistry class. If a student is chosen at
random from the school, what is the probability that he or she is taking a
physics or a chemistry class?
P(chemistry) = 30/100
P(physics) = 40/100
P(chemistry and physics) = 20/100
P(chemistry or physics) = 30/100 + 40/100 - 20/100
P(chemistry or physics) = 50/100
P(chemistry or physics) = ½
Advanced Probability
You may encounter more difficult probability questions on the GMAT. For instance:
• A bag contains 5 green marbles and 3 purple marbles. 3 marbles are selected
at random. What is the probability that 2 green marbles and 1 purple marble
were selected?
• 6 fair coins are tossed. What is the probability that exactly 4 of the coins
come up tails?
• A point is chosen at random inside a circle with a radius of 9 cm. What is the
probability that the point is within 3 cm of the center of the circle?
All of these problems are advanced probability problems. The same probability rules
that we learned earlier apply to these problems. All of these problems combine other
math principles (such as Counting Methods) with probability.
Probability and Counting Methods

You may encounter probability problems on the GMAT that incorporate aspects of
counting methods problems. Remember the basic formula for probability?

With some probability problems, you will need to use counting methods techniques
to determine the number of outcomes that result in A, the total number of possible
outcomes, or both.
For instance:
A bag contains 3 green marbles and 3 yellow marbles. 3 marbles are

selected at random. What is the probability that 2 green marbles and 1
yellow marble were selected?
The total number of possible outcomes is the number of ways 3 marbles can be
selected from 6 marbles. In this problem, the order of drawing the marbles does not
matter. As you may have noticed, the characteristics of this problem are identical to
the characteristics of a combination problem. The number of ways the marbles can
be selected is the number of combinations of 6 marbles taken 3 at a time.
Using the combination formula, the number of combinations of n objects taken

r at a time is
C(n,r) = n!/(r!(n-r)!)
C(6,3) = 6!/(3!(3!))
C(6,3) = 720/(6 * 6)
C(6,3) = 720/36
C(6,3) = 20
There are 20 possible outcomes when selecting 3 marbles out of 6 marbles.
We have now determined the total number of possible outcomes. Now we have to
determine the number of outcomes that result in 2 green marbles and 1 yellow
marble.
We can break this step into two parts:
1. Determining the number of ways to select the 2 green marbles

2. Determining the number of ways to select the 1 yellow marble.
The number of ways the 2 green marbles can be selected is the number of
combinations of 3 green marbles taken 2 at a time.
C(3,2) = 3!/(2!(1!))
C(3,2) = 6/2
C(3,2) = 3
The number of ways the 1 yellow marbles can be selected is the number of
combinations of 3 yellow marbles taken 1 at at time. The number of combinations of
n objects taken 1 at a time is always n.
C(3,1) = 3!/(1!(2!))
C(3,1) = 3!/2!
C(3,1) = 6/2
C(3,1) = 3
We can figure out the number of ways the yellow marble and green marbles can be
selected with the Multiplication Principle. The Multiplication Principle tells us that
the number of ways independent events can occur together can be
determined by multiplying together the number of possible outcomes for
each event.
The number of ways to select 2 green marbles and 1 yellow marble is (3 * 3) or 9.
The probability of selecting 2 green marbles and 1 yellow marble is 9/20.
Probability and Counting Methods

There are other probability problems where counting methods formulas can be
applied.
For example,
A fair coin is tossed 6 times. What is the probability that exactly 3 of the
coins come up heads?
As always, we will be using the basic formula for probability:

Below are the ways the each coin can come up heads:
1st coin heads
2nd coin heads
3rd coin heads
4th coin heads
5th coin heads
6th coin heads
The number of outcomes that will result in three heads is the number of ways we can
select 3 heads outcomes (for instance: 1st coin heads, 3rd coin heads, 5th coin
heads) from the 6 possible outcomes for heads.
We can generalize the number of outcomes that result in heads (or tales) with the
following rule:
The number of ways that exactly r coins out of n coins can come up heads
(or tails) is the number of combinations of n items taken r at a time.
The number of combinations of n objects taken r at a time is
C(n,r) = n!/(r!(n-r)!)
C(6,3) = 6!/(3!(3!))
C(6,3) = 720/36
C(6,3) = 20
We have now determined the number of outcomes that will result in 3 heads. Finally,
we need to determine the total number of possible outcomes.
The total number of outcomes can be determined by the multiplication principle. The
Multiplication Principle tells us that the number of ways independent events
can occur together can be determined by multiplying together the number
of possible outcomes for each event.
There are 2 possible outcomes for each toss of the coin. Thus, there are (2 * 2 * 2 *
2 * 2 * 2) or 64 possible outcomes.
The probability of exactly 3 coins coming up heads is 20/64 or 5/16.
These principles can be applied to other problems that have a 50/50 chance of
occuring. For instance:
On any day in April in a certain city, the probability of rain is 50%. What is
the probability of that it rains exactly 5 days during a 7 day period in April?
Probability and Geometry

You may encounter probability problems on the GMAT that incorporate aspects of
geometry problems.
If a point is chosen at random within a space with an area, volume, or

length of Y and a space with a respective area, volume, or length of X lies
within Y, the probability of choosing a random point within Y is the area,
volume, or length of X divided by the area, volume, or length of Y.
For instance:
A point is chosen at random inside a circle with a radius of 9 cm. What is the
If a point is chosen at random within a space with an area of X, the probability that
the point lies withiThe probability of choosing a random point within an space with an
area of X inside an a space with an are of Y, the probability of choosing a point within
Y is the area of Y divided by the total area of the object X.
The area of a circle is pi(r2) where r is the radius of the circle.
The area of the 9 cm circle is
= (92)pi
= 81pi
The area within 3 cm of the center of the circle is the area of a circle with a radius of
3 cm.
The radius of the 3 cm circle is
= (32) pi
= 9pi
The probability of the point chosen being within 3 cm of the center is the area of a
circle with a 3 cm radius divided by the area of a circle with a 9 cm radius. Thus, the
probability of a random point being within 3 cm of the center of a circle with a 9 cm
radius is
= 9pi/81pi
= 9/81
= 1/9
Probability and Number Properties

Below are properties of odd and even numbers:
even * even = even

odd * odd = odd
even * odd = even
even + even = even

even + odd = odd
odd + odd = even
Number properties such as these can be turned into probability problems. For
instance,
If a fair dice is rolled three times, what is the probability that the product of
the numbers rolled is even?
There are 7 outcomes that will result in the product being even:
even * even * even

odd * odd * even
odd * even * odd
even * odd * odd
even * even * odd
even * odd * even
odd * even * even

There are 3 odd numbers out of the 6 numbers on a dice. The probability of rolling
an odd number on any one roll is 1/2. There are 3 even numbers out of the 6
numbers on a dice. The probability of rolling an even number is 1/2.
Thus, the probability of the above rolls is
= (1/2) * (1/2) * (1/2)

= 1/8

occurring plus the probability of event B occurring minus the probability of
both events occurring.
Thus, the probability of (even, even, even), (odd, odd, even), (odd, even, odd),
(odd, even, odd), (even, odd, odd), (even, even, odd), (even, odd, even), or (odd,
even, even) is
= 1/8 + 1/8 + 1/8 + 1/8 + 1/8 + 1/8 + 1/8

= 7/8
Weighted Coins
Some questions may ask the probability of a heads or tails when a weighted coin is
tossed. For instance,
A coin has been weighted so that it is 6 times as likely to come up heads as

it is tails. If the coin is flipped, what is the probability that the coin comes
up tails?
The probability of an event occurring plus the probability of the event not occurring
equals 1. Since there are only two outcomes possible, the probability of heads plus
the probability of tails equals 1.
H = probability of heads
T = probability of tails
T + 6T = 1
7T = 1
T = 1/7
Trials Required
Some problems may ask the number of trials required to result in a certain
probability.
For instance,
A bag contains 3 blue marbles and 3 yellow marbles. If a marble is drawn

with replacement, what is the minimum number of draws required so that
there is at least a 90% probability of drawing a yellow marble?
In this case, it is easier to calculate the probability of not drawing a yellow marble.
The probability of an event occurring plus the probability of the event not
occurring equals 1. If the probability of drawing a yellow marble is at least 90%,
the probability of not drawing a yellow marble must be at most 10%.
There is a 3/6 probability on each draw that the marble drawn will not be yellow. The
probability of event A AND event B occurring is the probability of event A
times the probability of event B given that event A has already occurred.
Since the probability of not drawing a yellow on each draw is 3/6, we must determine
how many times to multiply 3/6 by itself in order to reduce the probability below
10%.
.5n < .10
.51 = .5
.52 = .25
.53 = .125
.54 = .0625
Thus, 4 draws are required.

Law of Total Probability
You may encounter problems like the following:
Of the students at a certain school, 50% of the students are in class A, 30%
of the students are in class B, 20% of the students are in class C. Of the
students in class A, 20% are wearing eyeglasses. Of the students in class B,
10% are wearing eyeglasses. Of the students in class C, 10% are wearing
eyeglasses. If a student is selected at random, what is the probability that
the student is wearing eyeglasses?
The total law of total probability can be used to answer these types of problems.
The Law of Total Probability
P(B) = x P(Ax) P(B | Ax)
This equation can be read as: "The Law of Probability states that the Probability of B
equals the probability of B given A1 times the probability of A1 plus the probability of
B given A2 times the probability of A2 ... plus the probability of An times the
probability of An."
Looking at the problem above:
Applying the law of total probability to this problem:
P(G) = probability that the student chosen is wearing eyeglasses

P(G|X) = probability that the student is wearing glasses given the student is in class
X
P(G) = P(A)P(G|A) + P(B)P(G|B) + P(C)P(G|C)

P(G) = (.5)(.2) + (.3)(.1) + (.2)(.1)
P(G) = .1 + .03 + .02
P(G) = .15
Bayes' Theorem
Some questions may ask that given an event has occured, what is the probability
that the event was the result of a certain cause?
For instance:
Of the students at a certain school, 50% of the students are in class A, 30%
of the students are in class B, 20% of the students are in class C. Of the
students in class A, 20% are wearing eyeglasses. Of the students in class B,
10% are wearing eyeglasses. Of the students in class C, 10% are wearing
eyeglasses. If a student is selected at random is wearing eyeglasses, what
is the probability that the student is in class B?
Fortunately, the Rev. Thomas Bayes', an 18th century mathematician, developed a

formula for these types of problems.
Bayes' Theorem:
P(Ay | B) = P(Ay)P(B | Ay)/ x P(Ax) P(B | Ax)
You may recognize the denominator to this equation. This is the equation from the
Law of Total Probability.
Applying Bayes' Theorem to the problem above:
P(G | X) = probability that the student is wearing glasses given the student is in
class X
P(B | G) = probability that the student is in class B given that the student is wearing
glasses
We know the denominator is .15 because we determined it in the Law of Total

Probability section.
P(B | G) = (P(B)P(G|B))/(P(A)P(G|A) + P(B)P(G|B) + P(C)P(G|C))

P(B | G) = (.3 * .1)/((.5)(.2) + (.3)(.1) + (.2)(.1))
P(B | G) = (.03)/(.15)
P(B | G) = .2
Statistics
Overview
Mode
Median
Mean
Common Mean Problems
Range
Standard Deviation
Mode
The mode is the most common value.
Example: What is the mode of 3, 3, 5, and 7?
3 is the value that occurs most often. The mode is 3.

If several items in the data set occur with the same frequency, a data set can have
more than one mode.
Example: What is the mode of 3, 3, 5, 5, 7?
3 and 5 are the values that occur most often. The modes are 3 and 5.
The mode does not always have to be a number.
Example: What is the mode of the following list of cars: sedan, sedan, truck,
SUV, and station wagon?
Sedan is the value that occurs most often. The mode is sedan.
Median
The median is the middle value, after the data has been arranged in order of
size. The median of an odd number of values is always is the middle value. The
median of an even number of values is halfway between the middle two values.
Example: What is the median of 1, 4, 6, 7, and 10?
The middle value of this data set is 6.
Example: What is the median of 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, and 20?
Since there is an even number of values, the median is halfway between the middle
two values. In this case, the median is between 14 and 16. Thus, the median is 15.
Mean
The mean is the sum of all the values divided by the number of values.
Mean = (sum of all values) / (number of values)
Example: What is the mean of 5, 7, 15, 20, and 25?
mean = (sum of all values) / (number of values)

mean = (5 + 7 + 15 + 20 + 25)/5
mean = 72/5
mean = 15.4
Mean Problems
GMAT test writers seem particularly fond of mean problems. Below are different
examples of mean problems you may encounter on the GMAT.
Finding the sum
Example: The average (arithmetic mean) of 5 numbers is 10. What is the
sum of the 5 values?
This problem can easily be solved by using the mean formula and solving for the sum
of all values.
mean = (sum of all values)/(total number of values)

10 = (sum of all values)/5
(sum of all values) = 50
Thus,
(sum of all values) = (mean of all values) * (number of values)
Finding the mean of consecutive integers

Example: What is the average (arithmetic mean) of the integers from 5 to
25, inclusive?
(mean of consecutive numbers) = (smallest number + largest number)/2
In this problem,
= (5 + 25)/2
= 15
Finding the sum of consecutive integers

Example: What is the sum of the integers from 5 to 25, inclusive?
(sum of consecutive numbers) = (mean of consecutive integers) * (number

of consecutive integers)
We already learned how to find the mean of consecutive integers in the previous
example. Here is how to find the number of consecutive integers:
(number of consecutive integers) = largest integer - smallest integer + 1
In this problem,
= ((5 + 25)/2) * (25 - 5 + 1)
= 15 * 21
= 315
Using the mean to find the number that was added or deleted
Example: Robert scored an average (arithmetic mean) of 70 on three
accounting tests. Luckily, his professor allows students to drop their lowest
test score. If the average of Roberts’s two highest scores is 80, what was
his lowest score?
Number deleted = Original total – New total

Number added = New Total - Original total
In this problem,
Original total = (mean of all values) * (number of values)
Original total = 70 * 3
Original total = 210
New total = (mean of all values) * (number of values)
New total = 80 * 2
New Total = 160
Number deleted = Original Total - New Total
Number deleted = 210 - 160
Number deleted = 50
Range
The range is the difference between the highest value and the lowest value.
Range = highest value – lowest value
Example: A patient’s temperature readings were 104, 100, 102, and 99.
What is the range of the patient’s temperature?
Range = highest value – lowest value

Range = 104-99
Range = 5
Standard Deviation
The standard deviation of a set of data shows how the data is distributed around the
mean.
Here are the steps for calculating the standard deviation:
1. Calculate the mean of the numbers

2. Subtract the mean from each number in the set and square the
differences
3. Find the average of the squared differences
4. Calculate the nonnegative square root of the difference
Example: What is the standard deviation of 3, 5, 7, and 9?
1. Calculate the mean of the numbers

mean = (sum of all of the values)/(number of values)
mean = (3 + 5 + 7 + 9)/4
mean = 6
2. Subtract the mean from each number in the set and square the differences.
3 - 6 = -3 -32 = 9
5 - 6 = -1 -12 = 1
7 - 6 = 1 12 = 1
9 - 6 = 3 32 = 9
3. Find the average of the squared differences

mean = (sum of all values)/(number of values)
mean = (9 + 1 + 1 + 9)/4
mean = 5
4. Calculate the nonnegative square root of the difference

standard deviation = square root of 5
Counting Methods
Overview
The Multiplication Principle

Permutations
Factorial Notation
Permutations with Indistinguishable Items
Combinations
Partitions
Circular Permutations
Multiplication Principle
You may encounter questions on the GMAT that ask how many different ways an
event can occur. For instance:
• Mary rolls a six-sided die and then flips a quarter. How many different
outcomes are possible?
• A restaurant offers three types of pasta and four types of sauces. If a dish
only has one pasta and one sauce, how many different dishes are possible?
• Sara is tired of working and wants to take a trip. She is considering five
different vacation destinations: Cancun, Corfu, Moorea, Punta Cana, or Playa
del Carmen. There are four airlines that fly to each location: FunAir, TripJet,
IslandAir, and BankruptAir. Each airline offers four types of drinks on their
flights: soft drinks, mixed drinks, beer, and wine. If Sara only has one drink
on her flight, how many different ways could she choose a destination, airline,
and drink?
Each of the previous examples can be shown with a tree diagram. A tree diagram
shows all of the possible outcomes of an event.
Example: A restaurant offers spaghetti, angel hair, and fettuccine pasta and
marinara, alfredo, and pesto sauce. How many different ways are there to
choose a pasta and a sauce?
Here is a tree diagram for this problem:

The tree diagram shows that there are 9 different ways to choose a pasta and a
sauce.
Suppose that the menu choices were expanded to include 4 appetizer choices, 2
bread choices, 3 drink choices, and 4 dessert choices. The possible outcomes for a
meal are so numerous that it would be difficult and time consuming to construct a
tree diagram.
Luckily, the Multiplication Principle allows us to quickly determine the number of

possible outcomes. The Multiplication Principle tells us that the number of ways
independent events can occur together (example: a meal) can be determined by
multiplying together the number of possible outcomes for each event (example: each
course of the meal).
Example: Mary rolls a fair, six-sided die and flips a coin. How many different
outcomes are possible?
There are six different outcomes that the die could produce: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6. Their
are two different outcomes that the coin could produce: heads and tails.
Using the Multiplication Principle, multiply the number of outcomes for each event.
Thus,
Number of outcomes = 2 * 6
Number of outcomes = 12
Independent events are events where the result of one event does not affect the
outcome of another event. For example, choosing spaghetti as your pasta does not
affect what you can choose for dessert or an appetizer. Here is an example of a
problem with dependent events:
A family is choosing between taking a vacation in Washington, DC, New

York City, and London. They also are deciding whether or not they want to
visit the Washington Monument, the White House, Yankee Stadium, the
Empire State Building, Big Ben, or the House of Commons. If the family only
visits one city and one site, how many different ways are there to choose
cities and sites?
The sites the family wants to visit are dependent upon which city they choose to
visit. Thus, this problem has dependent events, and the multiplication principle can’t
be applied.
Permutations
You may encounter questions on the GMAT that ask how many ways you can arrange
a group. For instance:
• How many different ways can you arrange three markers?

• 5 runners are running a race. How many different ways can they win first,
second, and third place?
• There are 5 people on a committee. How many different ways can they elect a
chairperson, treasurer, and secretary?
All of these problems are permutation problems. A permutation is a linear

arrangement of elements for which the order of the elements must be taken into
account.
Permutations
Tree diagrams can also be used with permutation problems. For example,
How many different ways can you arrange a red, blue, and green marker?
Here is a tree diagram that shows all of the possible ways the markers could be
arranged:
The tree diagram shows there are six different ways to arrange the three markers.
Permutations
Suppose that you were asked to arrange 6 different markers. There are so many
different arrangements that it would be difficult and time consuming to construct a
tree diagram.
The multiplication principle can be applied to arranging items in a set. When you are
arranging n items in a set, there are n possible outcomes for the first item, n-1
possible outcomes for the second item, n-2 possible outcomes for the third item, and
so on. Each of these possible outcomes can be multiplied together, using the
multiplication principle, to determine the number of arrangements.
The tree diagram does a good job of illustrating how you can use the multiplication
principle to determine the number of ways to arrange items in a set.
There are three choices for the marker in the first position: red, green, or blue. Once
a red marker has been placed in the first position, there are two choices for the
marker in the second position: green or blue. Once a red marker marker has been
placed in the first position and a green marker has been placed in the second
position, there is only one choice for the marker in the third position: blue.
Factorial
Factorial notation can be used to represent solving arrangement problems by the
multiplication principle.
If you are arranging n items in a set, the number of different permutations possible
is n!.
n! is pronounced n factorial.
n! = n(n-1)(n-2)(n-3) . . . * 2 * 1
For instance,
2! = 2 * 1
3! = 3 * 2 * 1
4! = 4 * 3 * 2 * 1
5! = 5 * 4 * 3 * 2 * 1
6! = 6 * 5 * 4 * 3 * 2 * 1
Example: How many different ways can you arrange five different markers?
The number of different ways to arrange the markers is 5!.

5! = 5 * 4 * 3 * 2 * 1
5! = 120
Indistinguishable Elements
Some arrangement problems may ask the number of different distinct ways
items with indistinguishable items. For instance,
How many different distinct ways can the letters in the word TRUST be arranged?
We know the number of ways the letters can be arranged is 5!. However,
the question asks how many different distinct ways the letters can be
arranged. Since there are 2 T's in the word TRUST, the different ways of
arranging the 2 T's are indistinguishable.
To find the number of distinct permutations of a set of items with indistinguishable

items, divide the factorial of the items in the set by the product of the factorials of
the number of indistinguishable items.
In this problem, the number of different distinct ways of arranging the

letters in the word TRUST is 5!/2! or 60.
Let's take a look at another example:
How many different distinct ways can the letters in the word MISSION by arranged?
Using the rule above,
= 7!/(2! * 2!)
= 5040/4
= 1260
Permutations
Now suppose we don’t want to arrange an entire set, but instead we want to order a
subset of a larger set. For instance:
• How many different ways can five books be arranged three at a time?
• How many different ways can four markers be arranged two at a time?
• How many different ways can six cars be arranged three at a time?
Fortunately, we can still use the multiplication principle to solve these problems. For
example, if we are trying to fill three slots on a bookshelf with 5 books, we have 5
possibilities for the first slot, 4 possibilities for the second slot, and 3 possibilities for
the third slot. 5 * 4 * 3 = 60 possible ways to arrange 5 books taken three at a time.
There is a general formula we can use for solving permutation problems. The number
of permutations of n objects taken r at a time is:
P(n,r) = n!/(n-r)!
For our bookshelf problem,
P(5,3) = 5!/(5-3)!
P(5,3) = 5!/2!
P(5,3) = (5*4*3*2*1)/(2*1)
P(5,3) = 60
Delta Course Tip

Since you now understand the multiplication principle, you can solve problems where
you are ordering a subset of a larger set by using the multiplication principle. Simply
complete the factorial notation for the number of items in the set for as many items
that are in the subset. If there are 6 objects taken 4 at a time, complete 4 steps of
6's factorial. Thus, 6 * 5 * 4 * 3. If there are 6 objects taken 2 at a time, complete 2
steps of 6's factorial. Thus, 6 * 5.
For example,
P(7,4) = 7*6*5*4
P(7,4) = 840
This is easier than using the permutation formula. Here is this problem solved with
the permutation formula:
P(7,4) = 7!/(7-4)!
P(7,4) = (7 * 6 * 5 * 4 * 3 * 2 * 1)/(3 * 2 * 1)
P(7,4) = 5040/6
P(7,4) = 840
Combinations
a group where the order of arrangement does not matter. For instance:
• A pizza restaurant offers the following toppings: sausage, pepperoni, chicken,

tomatoes, pineapple, and mushrooms. How many different ways can you
make a three topping pizza?
• A teacher wants to take her students to a math competition. However, the
school only has enough money to send 4 students to the event. If there are 8
students in the class, how many different groups of 4 students can go on the
trip?
As you can tell, the order of arrangement in these problems does not matter. It does
not matter which topping was placed on the pizza first. It also does not matter in
what order the students are chosen. A student will go on the trip whether he was
chosen first or last.
All of these problems are combination problems. A combination is a linear

arrangement of elements for which the order of the elements is not taken into
account.
Combinations
C(n,r) = n!/(r!(n-r)!)
Example: John bought a machine to make fresh juice. He has five different
fruits: strawberries, oranges, apples, pineapples, and lemons. If he only
uses three fruits, how many different juice combinations can John make?
C(5,3) = 5!/(3!(2!))
C(5,3) = (5*4*3*2*1)/(3*2*1*2*1)
C(5,3) = 120/12
C(5,3) = 10
Delta Course Tip

There is also a shortcut for calculating combinations. First, use the shortcut for
permutations. Then, divide that number by the factorial of the number of items in
the subset.
Example: John bought a machine to make fresh juice. He has five different
fruits, strawberries, oranges, apples, pineapples, and lemons. If he only
uses three fruits, how many different juice combinations can John make?
C(5,3) = (5*4*3)/(3!)
C(5,3) = 60/6
C(5,3) = 10
Partitions
You may encounter questions on the GMAT that ask how many ways you can divide
people or objects into groups of a set number of people or objects.
These problems are a slight twist on combination problems. The combination formula
can be used to determine the number of ways each group can be formed. The
multiplication principle is then used to determine the number of ways the groups can
be selected together.
Example:
A group of 6 friends want to play a trivia game. How many different ways
can the ways can the friends be divided into 3 teams of 2 people?
The order of selection does not matter. Thus, this is a combination problem.
C(n,r) = n!/(r!(n-r)!)
There are C(6,2) ways to select the first team.
C(6,2) = 6!/(2!(4!))
C(6,2) = 720/48
C(6,2) = 15
Since 2 friends have now been selected, there are C(4,2) ways to select the second
team.
C(4,2) = 4!/(2!(2!))
C(4,2) = 24/4
C(4,2) = 6
Since 4 friends have now been selected, there are C(2,2) ways to select the third
team.
C(2,2) = 1
The Multiplication Principle tells us that the number of ways independent events can
occur together can be determined by multiplying together the number of possible
outcomes for each event.
15 * 6 * 1 = 90
The order of team selection does not matter. Thus, this is an unordered partition. To
account for the unordered partition, divide 90 by the factorial of the number of
teams.
= 90/3!
= 90/6
= 15
Circular Permutations
a group in a circle. For instance:
• How many different ways can you arrange 5 beads on a metal ring?
• How many different ways can you arrange 4 people around a table?
The number of ways to arrange n distinct objects along a fixed circle is
(n-1)!
Example: How many different ways can 6 people sit around a round table?
= (n-1)! = (6-1)! = 5! = 5 * 4 * 3 * 2 * 1 = 120
GMAT Mind
A mental approach to the GMAT
It is frustrating to see students diligently prepare for the GMAT only to have test
anxiety affect their performance and their score. We created this short guide for
these students.
This guide borrows several principles and techniques from Sports Psychology and
applies them to the GMAT.
We hope you find it useful.
Stress-reducing techniques
Reduce the importance of the GMAT
If you have high anxiety about the GMAT, you should work to reduce it's importance
in your mind. One way to reduce this anxiety is to think about the GMAT in "the big
picture."
For instance,
• Your GMAT score is only one part of your admissions package that includes
essays, recommendations, GPA, work experience, and interviews.
• A low score (compared to a school's average) does not mean you won't be
accepted. Top schools may have a high mean GMAT score, but the standard
deviation of this score may also be high.
• If worst comes to worse, you can always retake the GMAT. Even though they
may not admit it, many schools only look at your highest GMAT score.
Remove GMAT uncertainties
One of the most common causes of stress is uncertainty about a situation. Work
diligently to remove any uncertainty you have about the GMAT.
Here are some tips:
• Make a visit to the test center before test day. Talk with the test center staff.
Take a look at the testing room. Go over test-day check-in procedures with
the staff. Make sure you know how to locate the center. Make sure you know
how long it will take to reach the test center given traffic and weather
conditions.
• Take practice tests under real test conditions. If you want to simulate
distractions, take a test at your local library.
• Call the test center the day before the test to reconfirm your appointment.
• The night before the test, set out all of the documents and items you will be
taking to the test.
• Give yourself adequate time to prepare for the GMAT.
Stress-busting Tools
The following are techniques you can use on test day to reduce your anxiety and
refocus on the GMAT.
Progressive Muscular Relaxation (PMR)
This is a technique you can use when waiting for the test to begin or during your
break.
PMR involves fully contracting muscles in your body for a few seconds and then
releasing the tension. The result is a feeling of relaxation in the muscles.
You can start PMR from your feet and work up to your head. You can use this
technique on any muscle that is feeling tense: your calves, your thighs, your glutes,
your stomach, your fist, your biceps, your pectorals, your neck, etc.
Breathing
It is almost cliche, but taking a few deep breath when you are stressed really can
relieve tension. You can also practice deep breathing while doing your PMR exercises.
Imagery
Imagery has been shown to be effective in reducing anxiety and stress.
The powers of the mind are remarkable. If someone creates a stressful scene in their
mind, their body will begin to exhibit signs of stress. If someone imagines a peaceful,
serene scene, they will reduce their stress levels.
Here are some steps for using imagery to create a stress-reducing scene in your
mind:
Imagine a peaceful, serene scene, say a running stream.
Incorporate your other senses into the image.
Imagine the sound of the water, the birds, the trees blowing in the wind.
Imagine the smell of the flowers and the trees.

Imagine the feeling of the cool breeze blowing against your face.
You can also use deep breathing with imagery.
Handling Test-day Distractions

You must be prepared for distractions during your test. There are thousands of
distractions you may encounter from a tapping pencil to a loud air conditioner to a
test question.
The key to handing distractions is not to concentrate on them. There is no point in

wasting your mental energy fretting about them.
Simply try to accept and ignore them.
If this doesn't work, you might try a quick relaxation technique like imagery or deep
breathing to refocus your attention back to the test.
Don't be a perfectionist.
After you have finished a question, do not dwell on it.
There is no point in worrying about a question after you submit your answer. There is
no going back. Your time and energy will be better focused on trying to do the best
you can on the rest of the test.
Remember, you can miss questions and still achieve a high GMAT score. And since
the GMAT is a multiple choice test, there is always the possibility that you guessed
correctly.
Do not let one question cause you to lose focus.
If you become stuck for a long time on one question, you must make an educated
guess and move on. There is no point in wasting valuable time and energy fretting
over a particular question.
If you have chronic test anxiety, you may want to consult with a psychologist or
sports psychologist prior to the GMAT.
We hope you've found these tips useful. If you have a favorite stress-reducing
technique, please pass it along.
Advanced Probability Questions
#1 of 25
A bag contains 4 red marbles and 3 blue marbles. 3 marbles are selected at random.
What is the probability that 2 red marbles and 1 blue marble were selected?
A. 18/35
B. 3/7
C. 2/3
D. 3/7
E. 14/17
#2 of 25
A group of friends have decided to take a roadtrip. Whenever they come to a fork in
the road, they will flip a fair coin to decide whether to head right or left. If the coin is
heads, they will head right. If the coin is tails, they will head left. If the friends have
made seven decisions, what is the probability that they took exactly four lefts?
A. 1/16
B. 1/32
C. 21/25
D. 35/128
E. 4/7
#3 of 25
In a certain city in September, there is a 50% chance the high temperature on any
day will be greater than 70 degrees. In a 5-day period, what is the probability that
the high temperatures will be 69, 75, 70, 72, and 75?
A. 5/13
B. 7/20
C. 2/5
D. ¼
E. 5/16
#4 of 25
6 fair coins are tossed. What is the probability that exactly 3 or exactly 4 of the coins
come up tails?
A. 3/16
B. 7/12
C. 17/27
D. 17/32
E. 35/64
#5 of 25
A deck of cards contains 2 blue cards and 5 red cards. A card is randomly selected
from the deck. Whatever color card is selected, a card of the other color is inserted
into the deck. For instance, a blue card is drawn and a red card is reinserted in the
deck. If another card is now selected, what is the probability that the card is red?
A. 6/7
B. 11/15
C. 32/49
D. 4/7
E. 12/49
#6 of 25
A bag contains 3 red marbles and 3 green marbles. If 2 marbles are drawn at
random, what is the probability that marbles are the same color?
A. 2/5
B. 7/15
C. 3/5
D. 2/3
E. 5/7
#7 of 25
A deck of cards contains 6 cards numbered from 1 to 6. If three cards are randomly
selected from the deck, what is the probability that the numbers on the cards are
drawn in order (example: first draw: 3, second draw: 4, third draw: 5)?
A. 1/60
B. 1/216
C. 1/30
D. 1/24
E. 1/6
#8 of 25
4 letters are randomly selected from the word TRAMPLE. What is the probability that
the 4 letters can be arranged to form the word TRAM?
A. 2/3
B. 1/15
C. 1/35
D. 1/12
E. 3/7
#9 of 25
A. ½
B. ¼
C. 2/3
D. ¾
E. 1/3
#10 of 25
Square A has an area of 25 square centimeters. Square B has a perimeter of 16

centimeters. If square B is placed within square A and a random point is chosen
within square A, what is the probability the point is not within square B?
A. 9/25
B. 1/5
C. 16/25
D. 3/5
E. 6/25
#11 of 25
A bag contains 6 red marbles and 4 blue marbles. If a marble is drawn with
replacement, what is the minimum number of draws required so that there is at least
a 70% probability of drawing a blue marble?
A. 6
B. 4
C. 3
D. 2
E. 5
#12 of 25
At a certain movie theater, 25% of the audience is eating popcorn, 25% of the
audience is drinking a soda, and 20% of the audience is both drinking a soda and
eating popcorn. If a person selected at random from the audience is eating popcorn,
what is the probability that they are also drinking a soda?
A. ¾
B. 1/5
C. 2/5
D. ½
E. 4/5
#13 of 25
A coin has been weighted so that it is four times as likely to come up tails than
heads. If the coin is tossed three times, what is the probability that it doesn't come
up tails?
A. 1/25
B. 4/25
C. 4/5
D. 1/125
E. 3/20
#14 of 25
A deck of 9 cards contains 2 red cards, 3 blue cards, and 4 green cards. 3 cards are
randomly drawn with replacement from the deck. What is the probability that all
three cards are the same color?
A. 11/81
B. 64/729
C. 5/7
D. 27/729
E. 2/5
#15 of 25
randomly drawn without replacement from the deck. What is the probability that all 3
cards are a different color?
A. 2/9
B. 3/20
C. 1/5
D. 2/7
E. 8/243
#16 of 25
If a fair dice is rolled three times, what is the probability that the product of the
numbers rolled is odd?
A. ½
B. 1/8
C. ¼
D. 1/3
E. 1/5
#17 of 25
If a dice is rolled three times, what is the probability that the sum of the numbers
rolled is even?
A. ½
B. ¼
C. 1/8
D. 5/8
E. 2/3
#18 of 25
rolled is odd?
A. ½
B. ¼
C. 1/8
D. 5/8
E. 2/3
#19 of 25
Of the students at a certain business school, 60% are first-year students and 40%
are second-year students. Of the first-year students, 50% are receiving some form
of financial aid. Of the second-year students, 25% are receiving some form of
financial aid. If a student is chosen at random, what is the probability that he or she
is receiving some form of financial aid?
A. .50
B. .33
C. .10
D. .30
E. .40
#20 of 25
Of the students at a certain business school, 60% are first-year students and 40%
are second-year students. Of the first-year students, 50% are receiving some form
of financial aid. Of the second-year students, 25% are receiving some form of
financial aid. If a student is chosen at random is receiving financial aid, what is the
probability that he or she is a first-year student?
A. .40
B. .75
C. .30
D. .10
E. .675
#21 of 25
An integer from 1 to 50, inclusive, is selected at random. Which of the following

ranges most likely contains the number selected?
A. 5-10
B. 18-25
C. 30-36
D. 42-48
E. 1-4
#22 of 25
How many times must a fair, six-sided die be rolled so that there is at least a 1/4
probability that a 4 is rolled?
A. 1
B. 2
C. 3
D. 4
E. 5
#23 of 25
How many times must a fair coin be tossed that so there is at least a 4/5 probability
that the coin comes up tails?
A. 1
B. 2
C. 3
D. 4
E. 5

#24 of 25
Of the students at a certain school, 30% of the students are in class A, 30% of the
students are in class B, and 40% of the students are in class C. Of the students in
class A, 80% have a passing grade. Of the students in class B, 70% have a passing
grade. Of the students in class C, 90% are making a passing grade. If a student is
selected at random, what is the probability that the student has a passing grade?
A. 93%
B. 75%
C. 36%
D. 81%
E. 72%

#25 of 25
grade. Of the students in class C, 90% are making a passing grade. If a student
selected at random has a passing grade, what is the probability that the student is in
class A?
A. 6/35
B. 3/4
C. 8/27
D. 4/9
E. 7/25
ANSWERS

#1 of 25
A bag contains 4 red marbles and 3 blue marbles. 3 marbles are selected at random.
What is the probability that 2 red marbles and 1 blue marble were selected?
A. 18/35
B. 3/7
C. 2/3
D. 3/7
E. 14/17
Correct!
The probability of an event A occurring is the number of outcomes that result in A
divided by the total number of possible outcomes.
In this problem, the total number of possible outcomes is the number of

combinations of 7 objects taken 3 at a time.
C (n,r) = n!/(r!(n-r)!)
C (7,3) = 7!/(3!(4!))
C (7,3) = 5040/144
C (7,3) = 35
The number of ways of selected 2 red marbles is the number of combinations of 4

objects taken 2 at a time.
C (4,2) = 4!/(2!(2!))
C (4,2) = 24/4
C (4,2) = 6
Since there are 3 blue marbles, there are 3 ways to select 1 blue marble.
outcomes for each event.
Thus, the number of ways 2 red marbles and 1 blue marble can be selected is 3 * 6
or 18.
The probability of selecting 2 red marbles and 1 blue marble is 18/35.
#2 of 25
A group of friends have decided to take a roadtrip. Whenever they come to a fork in
the road, they will flip a fair coin to decide whether to head right or left. If the coin is
heads, they will head right. If the coin is tails, they will head left. If the friends have
made seven decisions, what is the probability that they took exactly four lefts?
A. 1/16
B. 1/32
C. 21/25
D. 35/128
E. 4/7
Correct
The number of possible outcomes can be determined by the multiplication principle.

outcomes for each event. There are two outcomes possible when flipping a coin:
heads or tails.
Thus, the number of possible outcomes are
=2*2*2*2*2*2*2
= 128
The number of ways 4 tails can occur out of 7 tosses is the number of combinations
of 7 objects taken 4 at a time.
C (n,r) = n!/(r!(n-r)!)
C (7,4) = 7!/(4!(3!))
C (7,4) = 5040/144
C (7,4) = 35
The probability of 4 tails is 35/128.
#3 of 25
In a certain city in September, there is a 50% chance the high temperature on any
day will be greater than 70 degrees. In a 5-day period, what is the probability that the
high temperatures will be 69, 75, 70, 72, and 75?
A. 5/13
B. 7/20
C. 2/5
D. 1/4
E. 5/16
Correct

outcomes for each event. There are two outcomes possible for each day: greater
than 70 or less than 71.
=2*2*2*2*2
= 32
The number of ways 3 days of temperatures greater than 70 can occur out of 5 days
is the number of combinations of 5 objects taken 3 at a time.
C (n,r) = n!/(r!(n-r)!)
C (5,3) = 5!/(3!(2!))
C (7,4) = 120/12
C (7,4) = 10
The probability of 3 days of temperatures greater than 70 is 10/32 or 5/16.
#4 of 25
6 fair coins are tossed. What is the probability that exactly 3 or exactly 4 of the coins
come up tails?
A. 3/16
B. 7/12
C. 17/27
D. 17/32
E. 35/64
Correct

outcomes for each event. There are two outcomes possible when flipping a coin:
heads or tails.
=2*2*2*2*2*2
= 64
C (n,r) = n!/(r!(n-r)!)
C (6,3) = 6!/(3!(3!))
C (6,3) = 720/36
C (6,3) = 20
The probability of rolling 3 tails is 20/64.
C (n,r) = n!/(r!(n-r!))
C (6,4) = 6!/(4!(2!))
C (6,4) = 720/48
C (6,4) = 15
The probability of 4 tails is 15/64.

occurring plus the probability of event B occurring minus the probability of both
events occurring.
Thus, the probability of exactly 3 or exactly 4 tails is
= 20/64 + 15/64
= 35/64
#5 of 25
A deck of cards contains 2 blue cards and 5 red cards. A card is randomly selected
from the deck. Whatever color card is selected, a card of the other color is inserted
into the deck. For instance, a blue card is drawn and a red card is reinserted in the
deck. If another card is now selected, what is the probability that the card is red?
A. 6/7
B. 11/15
C. 32/49
D. 4/7
E. 12/49
Correct
The probability of event A AND event B occurring is the probability of event A times
the probability of event B given that event A has already occurred.
The probability of drawing a red card on the first draw is 5/7. If the first card
selected is red, a blue card is reinserted into the deck. Thus, the deck now has 4 red
cards and 3 blue cards. The probability of drawing a red card now is 4/7. The
probability of drawing a red card and then a red card is
= (5/7) * (4/7)
= 20/49
The probability of drawing a blue card on the first draw is 2/7. If the first card
selected is blue, a red card is reinserted into the deck. Thus, the deck now has 6 red
cards and 1 blue card. The probability of drawing a red card now is 6/7. The
probability of drawing a red card and then a red card is
= (2/7) * (6/7)
= 12/49

events occurring.
The probability of drawing a red card on the first draw and a red card on the second
draw OR drawing a blue card on the first draw and a red card on the second draw is
= 20/49 + 12/49
= 32/49
#6 of 25
A bag contains 3 red marbles and 3 green marbles. If 2 marbles are drawn at random,
what is the probability that marbles are the same color?
A. 2/5
B. 7/15
C. 3/5
D. 2/3
E. 5/7
Correct
The total number of possible outcomes is the number of combinations of 6 objects

taken 2 at a time. The number of combinations of n objects taken r at a time is
C(n,r) = n!/(r!(n-r)!)
C(6,2) = 6!/(2!(4!))
C(6,2) = 720/48
C(6,2) = 15
The total number of outcomes that would result in 2 red marbles is the number of
C(3,2) = 3!/(2!(1!))
C(3,2) = 6/2
C(3,2) = 3
The total number of outcomes that would result in 2 green marbles is the number of
C(3,2) = 3!/(2!(1!))
C(3,2) = 6/2
C(3,2) = 3
There are 6 (3 + 3) outcomes that result in the 2 marbles being the same color.
Thus, the probability of drawing marbles of the same color is
= 6/15
= 2/5
#7 of 25
A deck of cards contains 6 cards numbered from 1 to 6. If three cards are randomly
selected from the deck, what is the probability that the numbers on the cards are
drawn in order (example: first draw: 3, second draw: 4, third draw: 5)?
A. 1/60
B. 1/216
C. 1/30
D. 1/24
E. 1/6
Correct
Since the order of arrangement matters (example: 123 is different than 321), the
number of possible outcomes is the number of permutations of 6 objects taken 3 at
a time. The number of permutations of n objects taken r at a time is:
P(n,r) = n!/(n-r)!
P(6,3) = 6!/3!
P(6,3) = 720/6
P(6,3) = 120
There are only 4 outcomes that result in sequential cards:
1,2,3
2,3,4
3,4,5
3,4,5
Thus, the probability of drawing cards with sequential numbers is
= 4/120
= 1/30
#8 of 25
4 letters are randomly selected from the word TRAMPLE. What is the probability that
the 4 letters can be arranged to form the word TRAM?
A. 2/3
B. 1/15
C. 1/35
D. 1/12
E. 3/7
Correct
The total number of possible outcomes is the number of combinations of 7 objects

taken 4 at a time. The number of combinations of n objects taken r at a time is
C(n,r) = n!/(r!(n-r)!)
C(7,4) = 7!/(4!(3!))
C(6,4) = 5040/144
C(6,4) = 35
Since each letter in TRAM appears only once in TRAMPLE, there is only one
combination of letters that results in the letter TRAM.
Thus, the probability of drawing four letters that spell TRAM is 1/35.
#9 of 25
A. ½
B. 1/4
C. 2/3
D. 3/4
E. 1/3
Correct
The area of a circle is pi(r2) where r is the radius of the circle.
The area of the 10 cm circle is
= (102)pi
= 100pi
The area within 5 cm of the center of the circle is a circle itself with a radius of 5
cm.
The radius of this circle is
= (52) pi
= 25pi
The probability of the point chosen being within 5cm of the center is the area of the
5 cm circle divided by the area of the 10 cm circle. Thus, the probability of a random
point being within 5 cm of the center of a 10 cm circle is
= 25pi/100pi
= 1/4
#10 of 25
Square A has an area of 25 square centimeters. Square B has a perimeter of 16

centimeters. If square B is placed within square A and a random point is chosen within
square A, what is the probability the point is not within square B?
A. 9/25
B. 1/5
C. 16/25
D. 3/5
E. 6/25
Correct
The perimeter of a square is 4 times the length of a side of the square. The area of
a square is the square of a side.
If the perimeter of square B is 16, the length of a side of square B is 4. If the length
of a side of square B is 4, the area of square B is 42 or 16.
The probability of randomly choosing a point not within square B is the area of
square A not within square B divided by the area of square A.
The area of square A not within square B is the area of square A minus the area of
square B. Thus, the area of square A not within square B is
= 25 - 16
=9
The probability of randomly choosing a point within square A but not within square B
is
= 9/25
#11 of 25
A bag contains 6 red marbles and 4 blue marbles. If a marble is drawn with
replacement, what is the minimum number of draws required so that there is at least a
70% probability of drawing a blue marble?
A. 6
B. 4
C. 3
D. 2
E. 5
Correct
In this case, it is easier to calculate the probability of not drawing a blue marble.
equals 1. If the probability of drawing a blue marble is at least 70%, the probability
of not drawing a blue marble must be at most 30%.
There is a 6/10 probability on each draw that the marble drawn will not be blue. The
probability of event A AND event B occurring is the probability of event A times the
probability of event B given that event A has already occurred. Since the probability
of not drawing a blue on each draw is 6/10, we must determine how many times to
multiply 6/10 by itself in order to reduce the probability below 30%.
.6^n < .30
.6^1 = .6
.6^2 = .36
.6^3 = .216
Thus, 3 draws are required.
#12 of 25
At a certain movie theater, 25% of the audience is eating popcorn, 25% of the
audience is drinking a soda, and 20% of the audience is both drinking a soda and
eating popcorn. If a person selected at random from the audience is eating popcorn,
what is the probability that they are also drinking a soda?
A. ¾
B. 1/5
C. 2/5
D. 1/2
E. 4/5
Correct
20% of the audience is both eating popcorn and drinking a soda. The total number
of possible outcomes is the 25% of the audience that is eating popcorn. Thus, the
probability of selecting a person eating popcorn who is also drinking a soda is
.20/.25 or 4/5.
#13 of 25
A coin has been weighted so that it is four times as likely to come up tails than heads.
If the coin is tossed three times, what is the probability that it doesn't come up tails?
A. 1/25
B. 4/25
C. 4/5
D. 1/125
E. 3/20
Correct
If p is the probability of tails, 4p is the probability of heads. The probability of an
event occurring plus the probability of the event not occurring equals 1.
p + 4p = 1
5p = 1
p = 1/5
The probability of 3 heads is
= (1/5) * (1/5) * (1/5)

= 1/125
#14 of 25
randomly drawn with replacement from the deck. What is the probability that all three
cards are the same color?
A. 11/81
B. 64/729
C. 5/7
D. 27/729
E. 2/5
Correct
Probability of 3 red = (2/9) * (2/9) * (2/9)

Probability of 3 red = 27/1728
Probability of 3 red = 8/729
Probability of 3 blue = (3/9) * (3/9) * (3/9)

Probability of 3 blue = 27/729
Probability of 3 green = (4/9) * (4/9) * (4/9)

Probability of 3 green = 64/729

events occurring.
Probability of 3 red or Probability of 3 blue or Probability of 3 green:

= 8/729 + 27/729 + 64/729
= 11/81
#15 of 25
randomly drawn without replacement from the deck. What is the probability that all 3
cards are a different color?
A. 2/9
B. 3/20
C. 1/5
D. 2/7
E. 8/243
Correct
If you are arranging n items in a set, the number of different permutations possible
is n!.
The number of different ways the 3 different colors could be drawn is

= 3!
=3*2*1
=6

The probability of drawing a card of each color is
= (2/9) * (3/8) * (4/7)

= 24/504
= 1/21
Since there are 6 different ways to draw a card of each color, the probability that all
3 cards are a different color is
= (1/21) * 6
= 6/21
= 2/7
#16 of 25
If a fair dice is rolled three times, what is the probability that the product of the
numbers rolled is odd?
A. 1/2
B. 1/8
C. 1/4
D. 1/3
E. 1/5
Correct
Reviewing the properties of integers:
even * even = even

odd * odd = odd
even * odd = even
There is only one outcome that will result in the product being odd:
odd * odd * odd
There are 3 odd numbers out of the 6 numbers on a dice.

The probability of rolling an odd number on any one roll is 1/2.
Thus, the probability of the product of 3 rolls being odd is
= (1/2) * (1/2) * (1/2)

= 1/8
#17 of 25
rolled is even?
A. 1/2
B. 1/4
C. 1/8
D. 5/8
E. 2/3
Correct
even + even = even

odd + odd = even
even + odd = odd
There are four outcomes that will result in the sum of the numbers rolled being
even:
even + even + even

odd + odd + even
odd + even + odd
even + odd + odd
There are 3 odd numbers out of the 6 numbers on a dice. There are 3 even numbers
out of the 6 numbers on a dice.

The probability of rolling an odd number or an even number on any one roll is 1/2.
The probability of each of the above rolls is
= (1/2) * (1/2) * (1/2)

= 1/8

events occurring.
(odd, even, odd), or (even, odd, odd) is
= 1/8 + 1/8 + 1/8 + 1/8

= 1/2
#18 of 25
rolled is odd?
A. ½
B. 1/4
C. 1/8
D. 5/8
E. 2/3
Correct
even + even = even

odd + odd = even
even + odd = odd
There are four outcomes that will result in the sum of the numbers rolled being odd:
odd + odd + odd

even + even + odd
even + odd + even
odd + even + even
[rule for conditional probability]
Thus, the probability of the product of each of the above rolls is
= (1/2) * (1/2) * (1/2)

= 1/8
[rule for probability]
(odd, even, odd), or (even, odd, odd) is
= 1/8 + 1/8 + 1/8 + 1/8

= 1/2
#19 of 25
Of the students at a certain business school, 60% are first-year students and 40% are
second-year students. Of the first-year students, 50% are receiving some form of
financial aid. Of the second-year students, 25% are receiving some form of financial
aid. If a student is chosen at random, what is the probability that he or she is receiving
some form of financial aid?
A. .50
B. .33
C. .10
D. .30
E. .40
Correct
This problem can be solved with the law of total probability. Applying the law of total
probability to this problem:
P(F) = probability that the student chosen is receiving some form of financial aid
P(F|X) = probability that a student is receiving some form of financial aid given that
they are a X year student
P(F) = P(1)P(F|1) + P(2)P(F|2)

P(F) = (.60)(.50) + (.40)(.25)
P(F) = (.30) + (.10)
P(I) = .40
#20 of 25
Of the students at a certain business school, 60% are first-year students and 40% are
second-year students. Of the first-year students, 50% are receiving some form of
financial aid. Of the second-year students, 25% are receiving some form of financial
aid. If a student is chosen at random is receiving financial aid, what is the probability
that he or she is a first-year student?
A. .40
B. .75
C. .30
D. .10
E. .675
Correct
This problem can be solved with Bayes' Theorem. Applying Bayes' Theorem to this
problem:
P(F | X) = probability that a student is receiving some form of financial aid given
that they are a X year student
P(1 | F) = probability that a student is a first-year student given that the student is
receiving financial aid
P(1 | F) = (P(1)P(F|1))/(P(1)P(F|1) + P(2)P(F|2))

P(1 | F) = (.60 * .50)/((.60)(.50) + (.40)(.25))
P(1 | F) = (.30)/(.40)
P(1 | F) = .75
#21 of 25
An integer from 1 to 50, inclusive, is selected at random. Which of the following ranges
most likely contains the number selected?
A. 5-10
B. 18-25
C. 30-36
D. 42-48
E. 1-4
Correct
The number of outcomes that result in A is the number of integers in the range.
Thus, the largest range will have the highest probability of being selected. In the
problem, the 18-25 is the largest range.
#22 of 25
How many times must a fair, six-sided die be rolled so that there is at least a 1/4
probability that a 4 is rolled?
A. 1
B. 2
C. 3
D. 4
E. 5
Correct
In this case, it is easier to calculate the probability of not rolling a 4. The probability
of an event occurring plus the probability of the event not occurring equals 1. If the
probability of rolling a 4 is at least 1/4, the probability of not rolling a 4 must be at
most 3/4.
The probability of rolling a 4 is 1/6. Thus, the probability of not rolling a 4 is 5/6.
the probability of event B given that event A has already occurred. Since the
probability of not rolling a 4 is 5/6, we must determine how many times to multiply
5/6 by itself in order to reduce the probability below 3/4.
5/6n < 3/4
5/61 = 5/6
5/62 = 25/36
25/36 is less than 3/4. Thus, 2 rolls are required.
#23 of 25
How many times must a fair coin be tossed that so there is at least a 4/5 probability
that the coin comes up tails?
A. 1
B. 2
C. 3
D. 4
E. 5
Correct
equals 1. If the probability of coming up heads is at least 4/5, the probability of not
coming up heads must be at most 1/5.
the probability of event B given that event A has already occurred. Since the
probability of a coin not coming up tails is 1/2, we must determine how many times
to multiply 1/2 by itself in order to reduce the probability below 1/5.
1/2n < 1/5
1/21 = 1/2
1/22 = 1/4
1/23 = 1/8
1/8 is less than 1/4. Thus, 3 tosses are required.
#24 of 25
grade. Of the students in class C, 90% are making a passing grade. If a student is
selected at random, what is the probability that the student has a passing grade?
A. 93%
B. 75%
C. 36%
D. 81%
E. 72%
Correct
The law of total probability can be used to solve this problem. Applying the law of
total probability to this problem:
P(P) = probability that the student chosen has a passing grade

P(P|X) = probability that the student has a passing grade given that the student is
in class X
P(P) = P(A)P(G|A) + P(B)P(G|B) + P(C)P(G|C)

P(P) = (.3)(.8) + (.3)(.7) + (.4)(.9)
P(P) = .24 + .21 + .36
P(P) = .81
#25 of 25
grade. Of the students in class C, 90% are making a passing grade. If a student
selected at random has a passing grade, what is the probability that the student is in
class A?
A. 6/35
B. 3/4
C. 8/27
D. 4/9
E. 7/25
Incorrect
Bayes' Theorem can be used to solve this problem. Applying Bayes' theorem to this
problem:
P(P | X) = probability that the student has a passing grade given the student is in
class X
P(A | P) = probability that the student is in class A given that the student has a
passing grade
P(A | P) = (P(A)P(P|A))/(P(A)P(P|A) + P(B)P(P|B) + P(C)P(P|C))

P(A | P) = (.3 * .80)/((.3)(.80) + (.3)(.70) + (.4)(.90))
P(A | P) = (.24)/(.81)
P(A | P) = 8/27

Delta Course - Probablity - Statistics - Counting (Not For GMAT)

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Probability Overview

In this section we will cover:

All of these problems are probability problems. Probability is a measure of the

Sometimes you may see notation similar to that below:

1. The probability of an event A occurring is the number of outcomes that

3. The probability of event A AND event B occurring is the probability of

4. The probability of event A OR event B occurring is the probability of event

Probability of heads = [heads]/[heads, tails]

Probability of even number = [2, 4, 6]/[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]

Probability of 1st die coming up 6: 1/6

This problem is a dependent probability. Two events are said to be dependent

Probability of drawing blue on first draw: 3/6

Probability of drawing two blue: (3/6) * (2/5)

Example: Of the 100 students at a certain school, 30 students are taking a

Probability and Counting Methods

The probability of an event A occurring is the number of outcomes that

A bag contains 3 green marbles and 3 yellow marbles. 3 marbles are

Using the combination formula, the number of combinations of n objects taken

There are 20 possible outcomes when selecting 3 marbles out of 6 marbles.

We can break this step into two parts:

1. Determining the number of ways to select the 2 green marbles

The number of ways to select 2 green marbles and 1 yellow marble is (3 * 3) or 9.

The probability of selecting 2 green marbles and 1 yellow marble is 9/20.

Probability and Counting Methods

As always, we will be using the basic formula for probability:

The probability of an event A occurring is the number of outcomes that

The number of combinations of n objects taken r at a time is

The probability of exactly 3 coins coming up heads is 20/64 or 5/16.

Probability and Geometry

If a point is chosen at random within a space with an area, volume, or

The area of a circle is pi(r2) where r is the radius of the circle.

The area of the 9 cm circle is

The radius of the 3 cm circle is

Probability and Number Properties

even * even = even

even + even = even

even * even * even

The probability of an event A occurring is the number of outcomes that

Thus, the probability of the above rolls is

= (1/2) * (1/2) * (1/2)

The probability of event A OR event B occurring is the probability of event A

= 1/8 + 1/8 + 1/8 + 1/8 + 1/8 + 1/8 + 1/8

A coin has been weighted so that it is 6 times as likely to come up heads as

A bag contains 3 blue marbles and 3 yellow marbles. If a marble is drawn

.5n < .10

Thus, 4 draws are required.

The Law of Total Probability

P(B) = x P(Ax) P(B | Ax)

Looking at the problem above:

Applying the law of total probability to this problem:

P(G) = probability that the student chosen is wearing eyeglasses

P(G) = P(A)P(G|A) + P(B)P(G|B) + P(C)P(G|C)

Fortunately, the Rev. Thomas Bayes', an 18th century mathematician, developed a

P(Ay | B) = P(Ay)P(B | Ay)/ x P(Ax) P(B | Ax)

Applying Bayes' Theorem to the problem above:

We know the denominator is .15 because we determined it in the Law of Total

P(B | G) = (P(B)P(G|B))/(P(A)P(G|A) + P(B)P(G|B) + P(C)P(G|C))

Example: What is the mode of 3, 3, 5, and 7?

3 is the value that occurs most often. The mode is 3.

Example: What is the mode of 3, 3, 5, 5, 7?

The mode does not always have to be a number.

Example: What is the median of 1, 4, 6, 7, and 10?