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As these phenomena are repeated eyery year, in the same
order, and belong to all the spots that have been perceived upon
the sun's disk, it is concluded, with good reason, that these
spots adhere to the sorfa('.8 of the 80n, and revolve with it, upon
an axis, inclined a little to the plane of the ecliptic. The ap-
parent revolution of a 8pot, from any particular of the
80n's disk, to the aame point again, is accomplished lD 27 days,
7 hours, 26 minutes, aDd 24 second8; bllt during that time, the
apot has, in fact, gone through one revolotion, torther with aD
arc. equal to that described by the sun, in his orbit, in the 8ame
time, which reduces the time of the sun's actual rotation on hi'
axie, to 25 days, 9 hours, and 36 minutes.
THE SUN.
223
, Th!! part of the lon'8 di8k not occopied by lpot&, il far from
bei ng uniformly brigbt. Itl ground ia finely mouled' with an
appearance of minute. dark dota, or p""",' Beracbel remarka
t.l\at theae pores, when attentively wawhed, are found to be in a
constant atate of chaolle. This ia certainly an error, if the change
spoken of ia one visible under the eye; for I have watched theae
minute pores with the greatest serotiny, but nner found while
UDder the eye, the alightelt change.
The elder BeJ'tIChel CODceiveO that the ann'a body waa dark
or opake, and that it waa 8urrounded by' a luminou8 ocean or
atmosphere of vaat extent. Beneath thil and above the aun'l
surface he thought there might exiat a atratum of clouds, and
with thia constitution he proceeds to account for the phenomena
of the epoU. Tbe black core of the spot he rel(8rds 81 the solid
opake body of the lun, _n through an opening in the lumio-
008 atmosphere and ift .the SoatinJ. cloud I below. it, wbile the
parual 'shade or penumbra he attnbntes to the hght reSected
from the cloudy atratum. ' ,
I have watched the lolar spoll for three years with great a&o
tention, and find it quite imposlible to reconcile the phenomena
with any theory which IUpPOseS extreme mohility in th!! particlee
composinlf the exterior surface. The outline of tbe penumbra
is aeen sharp, keenly defined and cutting directly acrolls tb.
small mottlinga or pores, aa though the exterior were a crust,
hard and solid. melted out from under by some internal agent.
Again. the outline of the dark core of the spot eate jnto the penum-
bra sharp and sudden. sometimes in long black filam!!nta of ir-
regular shape, but always without any s'uch gradual shading off'
as might be anticipated in case great mobility existed among the
partieles of matter composing the exterior coating of the lun.
The German astronomer Schwabe, of Dessau, haa discovered
the remarkable fact, that there is a periodical return of the solar
spota. In 1828 a very large number of spota were observed.
Then for five years the number decrl'a8ed regularly. until in 1833
the apota counted reached a minimum; an increase now com-
menctld, and continued yearly up to 1838, when a maximum
Dumh!!r was reacbed. Then a decline commenced, and continued
to 1843, when but few 8pota were 8een. Since tbatlear the
Dumber visible has been gradually on the increase; an during
tbis year. 1848, I have never seen the 8un wilhou,t 8pota. anel
many groups bave been very large.
In exaniining the sun. I have occasionally seen that eurious phe-
nomenon. called by the Germans" Lichtftacken .. lumi_jlalu
They are brilliant points of swiftly moving light seen nellr the
lun. and apparently as bright or even brighter tban the sun its!!lf.
Some auppose them to be motea Soating in the upper regioDs 01
224 GEOGRAPHY OF THE HEAVENS.
the air; while othera resist this without propounding
any more satisfactory one. . ' '
We append, the foltowing table, exhibiting the elements of the
sun as determined for the lst of January, 1801.
Mean longitude,
Longitude of p8figee, , .
Greatest equation of center, -
lbular diminution of center,
Inclination of axis , -
Motiol! in a mean solar day,
Motion of perigee in 366 daya,
Apparent semidiameter, ,
t8()o 39' 10". t
279 30 06.0
16517.3
17 .s
7 3000.0
69 08 .3
1 01 .9
16 00 .0
, 8,8 Mean horizmital parallax, -
Rotation on its axis in sidereal' days,
Time of pBIIIing one degree of mean 'longitude,
. - 25d . 01154
lMh.20m.58&.14
Eccentricity of orbit (radius unity)" '-
Volume earth .. unity, .' - ,;,
M888earth .. unity, - - -
Mean diatanee (96,000,000 miles), earth', rad. unity,
of_ to yolume, - -
True . (883,000 miles), in diametenofeartb,
.01681131
1.384,471
364,938
23,91M
0.2548
11l.454
Arcompanying the sun, there is an extraordinary luminous
appearance, Called the zodiflClJl light, which is seen at certain
seasons ,of the year after su'nset, or before sunrise, like the fainl
tsil of a comet, extending upward from the sun, in the plane of
the ecliptic. Dr. Herschel this phenomenon to be a
nebulous atmosphere, yet uncondensed, and the sun,
whose lenticular shape aroile from its rotary motion. There is
great difficulty in explaining this phenomenon, on the theol)' of
gravitation alone, for gravity will not permit material partlc/ea
to remain' at so a distance from the sun as the extreme
particles constitutmg the zodiacal light.
May not the same power which operates (as we shan here-
after see) to produce the tails or comets, on their near approacb
to the sun, be active in supporting, by repulsion, the particles
of the zodiacal tight in their great elevation above the IIUO'S
lunacel We shall again refer to this subject, whl'o we corol!
to treat of tbe comets.
The direct light of the Bun is greatly diminished by the atmo-
sphere hy which it is surrounded. This is manifest from the
fact that the edJ{8 or disk is far less luminous than the central
portion, which is directly the reverse of what ought to be exbib-
lted in case no cause operates to absorb thp. light.
The Iig-ht of the Run has been estimated to be more than
300.000 timl's greater than that of the moon. 'fhe most inllloRII
artificial light yet discovered, when seeh against the sun, loob
like a black IIpot on its surface,
MEIlCUBY.
MERCURY.
McacuRY ia the neareat planet to tbe aun that haa )'Ilt been dill-
covered; and, with theexceptioD of the .. teroide, IS the' small.
68t. Its diameter is only 3140 miles. Ita bulk, therefore, i,
about 17 timee less than that ,of the earth. It would require
lOore than twenty millions of auoh globea to compose a body
ftJ Ilal to the ,
It revolves .on ita uia, from west to esst, in 24 houre, 5- mi-
outes; and 98 IIeCOnd8; which make8 ita day about 10 minutea
longer than oura. It performa ita revolution about the sun in a
f.w minutes Ie" than 88 day .. and at a mean distance of nearly
thirty-seven millioDl of milea. The length of Mercury'a year,
tberefore, is equal to about three of our montha.
The rntatiou of planet on it aD CODBIitutea its day; its revolutioA
about the BUn COII8titutea itB year.
Mercury ia not only the moat den88 of all the planeta, but J&o
mves frolll the a\ln 88ven time8 aa much light and heat as the
earth. The truth of thi8 88timate, of course, depend8 upou the
npposilion that the intenaity of aolar light and beat, at the
planets, varies inversely .. the &quarea of their distances from
the suu. .
Thialaw of analogy, did it exiat with rigorous identity at all
the planets, would be DO argument against their being inhabited:
because we are bound to preaume tliat the Allwise Creator haa
.ttempered every dwelling-place in his empire to the physical
8ODstitutiou of the beings which he haa placed in it.
From a variety of facta which have been obaerved in relation to the
production of caIoriI:, it dOIlII not appear probable that the degree of Mat
OIl the surfiJoe of the di1Iilrent p1aneta depends on their respective m..
tancea from the BUD. It is more probable that it depends cbietly on the
diatn1>utiou of the IUlMtantt of calorie on the IIIIl'fiIce8, and throughout
the atmospheres of these bodiea, in different quantities, aceording to the
different lituationa which they occupy in the BOlar system; and that these
different quantities of caloric are put into action. by the of the
IOIar rays, sO as to produce that degree of Ie118ibk heat l8qWBIte to the
wants, anil to the greateat benefit of each of the planet&. On this hypo-
theeis, which is corroborated by a great variety of facta and experiments,
there may be no more sensible heat expenenced on the planet Mercury
than on the BUrface of Herschel, which ,is fifty times furthtir removed from
the BUD.
Owing to the dazzling brightness of Mercury, the 8wiftness
ita motion, and ita nearness to the 8un, astronomera have
made bot comparatively few discoveries respecting: it.' When
viewed through a telescope of considerable magolfying power,
226 GEOGRAPHY OF TilE HEA VUH.
it exhibits, at dUrerent periods, all the various phases of the
moon; except that it never appeare quite full, because its tIn-
lightened hemisphere is never turned directly toward the earth,
only when it is beAmd the sun, or eo near to it as to be hidden by
the splendor of its beams. Its enlightened hemisphere being
thus always turned toward the sun, and the opposite one being
always dark, prove that it il an opake body, limilar to the
earth, shining only in the light whieh it reCeives from the sun.
'rhe rotatiop of Mercury on its axls was determined, from the
daily position of its horns, by M. Schroeter, who not onl1 dis-
covered spots upon its surface, bui leveral mountains In its
southern hemisphere, onll ofwhieh was lot miles high-nearly
three times as high as Chimborazo, in South America.
It is worthy of obeervaUon. that the highest mountains which hue
been discovered in Mercury, Vanus, the moon, and, perhepe, we may
add, the earth, are all situated in their _them hemispheres.
During a few days in March and April, and Septem-
ber, Mercury may.be seen fot several minutes, In the morning or
evening twilight, 'when its greatellt happen in those
months; In all other parts of its orbit, .It is too near the sun to
be seen by the nakeel eye. The greatest diStance that it. ever
derarts from the son, on either side, varieB from ISO 12' to 28
48 , alternately.
The revolution of Mercury about the Bun, like that of all the
planets, is performed from weBt to eaBt, in an orbit whil'h is
nearly circular. Its apparent motion, aB Been froUl the earth, is.
alternately. froiD west to eaBt, and from east to west. nearly in
atraight lines; sometimes, directly across the face of the sun,
but at all other times either a little above or a little below iL
Being commonly immersed in the-Bun'B rayB in the evening,
and thus continuing invisible until it emerges from them in the
morning, it Bppeared to the ancients like two distinct stsrs. A
long series of obse"ations was requisite hefore they recognized
the identity of the star which was seen to recede from the sun
in the morning with that which aprroacht'd it in the evening.
But as the one was never seenunti the other dissppeared, both
were at last found to be the lame planet, which thus oscillated
on ear.h side of the sun.
Mercury's oscillation from west to east, or from east to west,
is really accomplished in just half the time of its revolution.
which is about 44 days; but as the earth. in the meantime. fol-
low8 the 8un in the same dirpction. the apparent elongations will
be proionltPd to between 55 and 65 days.
The passage of Mercury over the sun's disk is denominated a
transit. This would happen in every revolution. it'the orbit lay
in the same plane with the orbit of the earth. But it dOt!s Dot;
MERCURY. 227
it cute the earth'. orbit in two opposite pointa, u eellpdc
doee the equa&or, but at.an angle three times 1888.
These pointB of intersection are called tbe raodu of the orbit.
Meteury's aacending nodI! ia in the 16th degreelloC Tauru.; ita
dll8Cending node in the 16th degree of Scorpio. As the earth
passee theae nodes in Novem6er and May, the tranaitB of
Mercury must happen, for many agel &0 come, in Gne of these
montha. .
The fuIlowiug ill a Iiat of all the tranaita of Meroury, &om the time the
firBt was obaerved, by a-ndi, November 6,1631, to the end of the
preEDt
1631 Nov. 6.
1644 Nov. II.
1651 Nov. 2-
1661 May 3.
1664 Nov. 4.
1674 May 6.
1677 Nov. 7.
1690 Nov. 9.
1697 No .. I.
,1707 May 6.
1710 Nov. 6.
1123 Nov. 9.
1736 Nov. 10.
1740 Nov. 2.
1743 Nov. 4.
1753 May S.
17M Nov. 6
1769 Nov. 9.
1776 Nov. 2-
1782 Nov. 12.
1786 May 3.
1789 Nov. 6.
1799 May 7.
1802 Nov. 8.
1815 Nov. 11.
1822 Nov. 4.
1832 May 5.
1835 Nov. 7.
1845 May 8.
1848 Nov. 9.
1861 Nov. B.
1868 Nov. 4.
1878 May 6.
1881 Nov: 7.
1891 M;ay 9.
1894 Nov. 10.
By eomparing the mean motion of any of the pIaneIa With the_
motion of the earth, we may, in like manner, determine the perioda in
which theBe bodies will return to tbe same pointa of their orbit, and the
IBme positions With respect to the slln. The knowledge of these periods
will enable us to detennine the hour when the planeta rille, let, and pus
the meridian, and. in general, all the pbenomena dependent. upon the reo-
lative position of the earth, the planet, and the sun; for at the end of
one of these periodlo they commence again, and all racur in the _ or-
'der. We have only to find a number of sidereal in which the
planet oompIete. exactly, or very nearly, a certain number of revolutious;
that is, to find snell a number of planetary revo1utiona ... wben &aken
together. aball be elladly equal to one, or any number of revolutious of
the earth. In the CIIII8 of Mercury, this ratio will be .. 87.969 ill to
866.166. Whence we find, that-
7 periodical revolutions of the earth are equal to 19 of Mercury :
13 periodical revolutiona of the earth are equal to 54 of Mercury :
33 revoiutious of the earth are equal to 137 of Mercury :
46 periodical revolutions of the earth are eq" to 191 of Mercury.
TherefOre. tranaiIII of Mercury, at the _ node, may happen at interva18
of 7. 13,33.46, &0., years. Transita of Venus, .. well .. eclipsea of
the IIUII and moon, are calculated upon the _ principle.
l'be 8iIkreuI revolution of a planet reapecta ita lIhIoIfM motion, and 18
_ured by the time the p1anet takes to revolve &om aDy fixed liar to
the _ liar again.
The revolutiOR of a planet n!8p8Cla ita reIatit!e motion, and
illDN8Ured by the time that a planet occupi. in coming hack to the
_ position, 'With respect to the earth and the sun.
The Iidereal revolution 'Jl Mercury 18 87 ,d. 23 h. I Ii m. 44 s. Ita
228 OF THE REA VRN8.
reYoIution ia Ceund by dividing the wholecircumfimmce of
8600 by it. reIalitJe motion in teapect to the earth. Thus, the meaD
daily moIioD of Mercury ia 14' .656; that of the earth ia 3548".318;
and their diIlimmA it 11184".237, being Mercury'. relari"., motion, or
what it gam. on the earth every day . Now, by aimple proportion,
11184";237 ia to 1 clay .. 3600 iI to 115 d. 21 h. 3 Ill. 25 ... the period
, a ofMereury. I
The MIlO/ute motion of Mercury in itll orbit, is 109,757 milM
an hour; that of the earth, is 68,288 miles: the difference.
41,469 is the mean reitJtiflfl motion of Mereury. witb
respect to the earth. The transit of Mercury acroll!l the disk of
the sun, which occurred on the 8th of May, 1846. was observed
st the Cincinnati observatory. By the new tables of Levemer.
ita place was predicted. so that the various contacts with the
sun took place to within sixteen seconda df the computed time.
The planet was seen very diatinctly as a round black spot on
the bright aurface of the Bun. The density of the planet, and
its absolute diameter, enable uS to determine the force of gravi-
tation at ita surfallea. A heavy body would fall through 17.7
fpet per second on Mercury. snd a pound of matter removed
from the earth to the planet would weigh 1,106 pounds
. These are the elements of Mercury for mean, noon, Gn>eQo
wicht 1st Jan. 1801.
Mean BidetealreYolution, -
Mean longitude,
Longitude of perihelion,
Annoalmotion of the line of apaid ...
Vitto, referred to the ecliptic,
Longitude of the aacending node,
Motion of ditto, west per annum,
Ditto, east. referred to the ecliptic,
Mean orbital motion in a aolar day,
Inclination of orbit.
Eccentricity of orbit, half major, axis unity
Decrease of ditto, in a century, -
Greatest equation of center,
Increase of ditto, in a century,
A "ieal rotation.
Mean apparent diameter,
True diameter (3140 miles) earth .. unity,
Minimum elongation, - -
Maximum ditto,
Volume earth a8 unity,
)1_ BOn as unity,
87 d. 23 h. 15 m. 43 a. .9
1660 00' 48
H
.6
7421 46.9
5.8
55.9
- 450 37' 30 .9
7.8
4t.8
405' 32.8
- 7 00 10 .0
0.210,5IH.41K
0,000,003,868
23039' 61".0
1.8
14 h. 05 Ill. 28 B. .3
6".9
, - o .398
160 12' 00"
28 48 00
. 0,01\.1
Mean distance (36, 000,000 mi1ea) earthsuonity,
0,000,000,4936
\ Q,387088 I
229
VENUS.
-THII;RJ: are but -few perllonl who have not observed a beauti-
ful elar in the welt, a little -after aunset, called the etJening ,'ar.
Tbis atar" Venua. It ia the aecond planet from the aun. It il
tbe brightelt .. tar in the firmament, and on this account easily
distinguilhed from the other planeta.
_ If we obll8l'V8 thia planet for several daya, we Ihall fi'od that
it doea not remain conltantly at the 88me distance from the lun,
but that it appeara to approach, or recede from him, at the rate
of about three-fifths of a degree enry day; and that it il lome-
times on the 88It aide of him, and eometimea on the weat, thue
continually oecillating backward and forward between certain
limite.. . _
As Venul never depal1ll quite 48 from the lun, it ia never
teen at midnight, nor In oppolition to that luminary; being viai.
ble only about three hourII after aunset, and 88 long before IUn-
riee, accordiug as ita right aacension ia greater or leea thau that
of the SUIl. At first we behold it onfy a few minutea after
sunset; the next evening we hardly diecover any aensible
change in ita position; but after a few days, we perceive that it
haa (allen considerably behind the aun, and that it continues to
depart farther and farther from him, setting later and later every
evening, ontil the diatance between it and the son, is eqoal to
- a little more than half the apace from the horizon to the zenith,
or aboot 46.
It now begine to retum toward the Iun, making the same
daily progrese that it did in separating from him, and to set
earlier and earlier every suoceechng eVl'ning, on til it finally Beta
witb the sun, and is lost in the spfendor of his light.
A few days after the phenomena we have now described, we
perceivp., in the morning, near the eastern horizon, a
itar which was not visible before. This also is Venus, whIch
is now called the momi'!!f atar. It departs farther and farther
from the sun, riaing a hule earlier every day, ontil it is BeP-n
about 46 west of bim, where it appearll ltationary for a few
days; then it reaumes ita course toward I the Bon, appearing
later and later every morning, ontil it risea with the Bon, and
we cease to behold it. In a few days, the eVflning star again
appears in the weet, very near the setting son, and the same
phenomena are again exhibited. Such are the visible appeaJ'oo
anoel of Venol.
Venus revolvel about the lun from west to east in 924f days,
at the distance of about of milee, moving in her
V
230 GEOGRAPHY 010' THE HEAVENS.
orbit at the rate of eighty thousand miles an hour. She tume
around on her axis once in 23 hours, 21 minutes, and 7 seconda.
'l'hus her day is about 25 Jninutes shorter than ours, while her
year i. equal to 7' of our months, or 32 weeks.
The mean di8tance of the esrth from the 8un, i. estimated at
95,000.000 of miles, and that of Venull being 68,000,000, the
diameter of the 8un, all lleen from VenulI, will be to hill diame-
ter a8 aeenfrom the earth, all 95 to 68, and the surface of biB
disk 811 the lICJuare of 95 to tbe lIquare of 68, drst ill, all 9025 to
4626, or 88 2 to 1 nearly. The intensity of light and heat being
, inversely as the aquare. of their distances from tbe aun, VenUl
receives twice aa mucb light and beat 88 the esrth.
Her orbit is within the orbit of the earth; for if it were not,
8he would be seen 811 ot'tt!n in opposition to the lIun, as in con-
Junction with him; but she W811 never lleen rising in the ea.t,
whilll the sun was setting in, the weat. Nor wa, she ever
I88n in quadrature, or on the meridian,. when the 8un waa
either rislng or setting. Mercury being about 230 from the
8un, and Venus 4&0, the orbit of VeDns must be outaide of the
orbit of Mercury. ' .
The true diameter of Venus ia 7700 miles; but her afllJflf'tfll
diameter and brightneas are conatantly varying, accoMing to
ber diatance from the earth. When Venua and the earth are
on tbe aame aide of the 8un, her diatance from the earth ia only
1l6,OOO,000 ()f miles; when they are on opposite sides of the
8un, ber diatance ia 164,000,000 of miles. Were the whole of
ber enlightened hemisphere turned towarda ua, when ahe i,
nearest, ahe would exhibit a light and brilliancy twenty-fin
times greater than abe generally does, and appear IilLe a amall
brilliant moon; but, at that time, ber dark hemisphere ia turned
towards the earth.
When Venus approaches ne8lllllt to the earth, her appart:nl or ,
observed diameter, is 61".2; when lIloat remote it i. only 9".6: _
61".2+11".6==6,. hence when neareet the earth, her apparent diameter
is 6, times greater than when most distant, and the swfaee of her diak
(6,)l or nearly 41 times greater. In this work, the apparent size of the '
Jieavenly bodies ia eatim"ted from the apparent IUrface of tbeir disks, whieb
is alWlY. proportional to the aqUare8 of their apparent diamete ....
When Venua'a right ascension is less than that of the aun, .h.
riaes before him; when greater, ahe aP:reara a&r his aelling.
She continues alternately morning an evening atar, for a
period of 292 dava, each time.
To thoae who are but Iitd" acquainted with astronomy, it will
aeem atrange, at first, that Venua should apparently continue
longer OD the eaat or west e,ide of the aUD, than the whole time
VENUS.
231
of her periodical revolution around him. But it may be eaaity
undellltood, when it ia considered, that while Venua movee
around the auo, at the rate of about 1
0
36' of !ingular motion
per day, the eartb followil at the rate of 59'; so tbat Venua
actually gaina on the eartb, only 37' in a day. .
N ow it is evident that both plaDete will appear to keep OD
the same aide of the IlUD. until Venus hu gain8il balf her orbit,
or 180
0
in advance of the ear;th; and thill at a mean rate, will
require 299 daYlI, since, 292X37'=10804', or lSOO neatly.
Mercury and Venus are In/mar. planets, because
their orbits alii within the earth's orbit, or between it and the
BUD. 'The other, planets are denom,inated Buperiar, because their'
orbits are without or beyond the orbit of the earth. AI the
orhite of Mercury and Venus lie within the earth'l orbit, it ia
plain, that onee in every aynodical revolution, each of these
pll!>oets will be in conjunction on the aame side of the lun. 10
the former case, the planet ia said to be in its irferiar cOfIj_
lion, and in the latter cue, in its auperiar COfIjtmdiOfl; aa io the
following figure.
CO"IU"CTIOJf AND OPPOSITIOJf or TH& PLAJfl:T8.
In almost all works on astronomy, Mercury and Vennl are denominated
fftferi&r planetB. ltnd auplrior. But as the"" are employed,
not to expre the rei alive .. zc of the planeta. but to md,cate tbeir ,""ali""
:;apect to tbe earth, it would be beller to adopt Ibe term. i,,1Mior aud
'232 GEOGRAPHY OF THE HEAVENS.
The pt'riod of VenUll'. Iynodical revolution, is found in the same iDaD-
net 88 that of Mercury; namely, by dividing the whole circumference of
her orbit by her mean relatiw: motion in a day. ThUll, VenUll's abBoiute
mean ,daily motion, is 1
0
86'7".S, the if 69' and their
dilfereuce 36' 69".6. Divide 3600 by 86' 69".6, and 'it gives 683.920;
or nearly 684 days, fill' V mus's synodical revolution, 111 the period in
which abe is twice in cenjunctioo with the IlIlrth. '
Venus pasBes froRl inrenor to ber conjDnction in
about 290J days. At her inferior conjunction, she is i6,OOO,OOO of
miles from the earth; at her superior conjunction, 164,000,000
of miles.
It might be expected that ber brilliancy would be proportion-
ally increased, iD the case, and diminished, in the other; and
so it would be, were it not that her enlightened hemisphere is
turned more and more from DS, as she the earth, and
comes more and more into view as sbe recedes from it. It is to
this cause alone tbat we must attributfl the uniformity of ber
splendor as it usually appears to the naked eye.
Mercury and Venus present to us, successively, tbe varioDs
shapes and appearances of the moon; waxing and waning
through different pha8e8, from tbe beaDtifUl crescent to tbe full
rounded orb. This fact ahows, tbat they revolve around the
8un, and between the sun and the eartb. Let the pupil endeavor
to explain thele phaees on any other suppoaition, and he will be
convinced that the system of Ptolemy ia enoneous, wbile that
of Copernicua ia confirmed.
It should be remarked. however, that Venul is never _ wben she is
entirely full, except once or twice in a century, when she JlIIM5 directly
over the sun'. disk. At every other conjunction, abe is either behind tile
sun, or so near him 88 to be hidden by the splendor of his light.
From ber inferior to ber auperior conjunction, Venus appeall
on the west side of the aun, and is tben our morning star; from
ber superior to her inferior conjunction ahe appears on tbe east
side of the aun, and is tben our evening star.
Like Mercury, she sometimes seems to be stationary. Her
apparent motion, like his, is sometimes rapid; at one time,
direct, and at another, retrograde..; vibrating alterriatelv back.
wards and forwards, from west to east, and from east to west.
These vibrations appear to extend from 45 to 47, on each side
of the sun. '
Consequently abe never appears in the eastern borizon, more than
three hours befi>re sunrise, nor continues longer in the western horizon,
after sunset. A ny star nr planet, therefore, however brilliant it may ap-
pear. which is seen earlier or later than this, cannot be VenUll.
VENUS.
I
. In paNing from her western to her eastern elongation; ber
motion i. from we.t to east. in tile ",.tIer rf'lIe .ip I it is !.hentie
called dirtt:' motion. In paNing from her eastern to her w88terD
elongation. her motion with respect to !.he earth, i. from east to
west, COfIJrary to the order of !.he signs; it is !.hence denominated
retrograde motion. Her motion appears quickest about the time
of her conjunctiona. and she _ma stationary, at her elonga-
tions. She is brightest about thirty.six days before and after
her inferior conjunction. when her light i. so great as to projeel
a visible shadow in the night, and sometimes she is visible eveD
at nooHay.
DIRKCT .urn UTII08UDK MOTIOK.
fa the forqoi .... linre, the outer circle repre ... nta the eanh'a orbit. and the
inner circle, Ihatof V"nue, while abe movea around the aun. in the order o{Ihe
lenera ... b. c, tl, &e. Wben Vellua ia at ... Ihe il in ber inferior conjunction,
belWp.en the earth and lun; and il in a situation umiler to that of lhtl moon al
ber chanp, being tben invilible, becau ... her dark is towards the
earth. At c, abe. appeara half enlightened to the earth. Ioke the moon in her
Ir.t quarter; at d, she appears almolt full, her enlightened aide being then
almoat directly towards llie earth; at . Ihe is in her luperlor conjunction. and
would appear quite full, sbe not dirtctly hAillil Ibe aun, or 00 near him
.. to be bIdden by tbe Iplendor of hia light; atf, ahe appears to be on the de-
ere .... ; and at 6, only half enlightened, like tbe moon in her laBt quarter i .tn,
abe diIBppeara again between the earth and the ann. I .. moving from 6 to ..
Me _rna to go """""'.... in the he. vena, beeau ... ahe movea contrary to the
order of the aigna. In torni .... the arc of the circle from retrograde to direct
motion, or from direct to retrograde) ahe appea,. nearlT atation&ry for a fe ...
oIafs i l>"c81118, in the former c ..... aDe ia goiDg almoat cliJeetly j'rrJIA the earth,
v2
234 GEOGRAPHY OF THE HEAVENS.
and ill lhe latter coming 111-* iL As she describes a Dinah la'll"r portion
or her orbit in SOing from to " than from, to c, she appears much lonll"f
dir-cl Ihan retrograde. At a melLD rate, her relrorrada1ionl are accomplialled
in fonytwo daYI.
Ifthe orbit or Venus lay exactly in the plane of the earth's
orbit, she would pass centrally ailross the sun's disk, like a dark
round lipot. at e'f'fl1 inferior conjunction; but as one half of hf!r
orbit lies about 31 abo'f'e the ecliptic, and the other half as far
below it, she will always J?ass the sun a very little abo'f'e or
below it, except when her lDferior conjunction happens in, or
. near. one of ber nodes; in which case she will make a transit.
This phenomenon, thf!refore, is of 'f'ery rare CK'oCurrence: it
can happen only twioe ill a eentury; because it IS only twice in
that time that any number of complete revolutions or Venus, are
just or nearly equal to a certain number or the earth's revol.u tions.
The principle which W8I i1lutrat.ed in predicting the &ranIIita of Mercmy
spplies equally wen to thoae of Venus; that is, we must find such seIII
of numbers, (representing complete revolutions of the earth and Venus).
as shall be to each other in the ratio of theit periodical times, pr as 365.266
is to 224.7. - Thus; the motion of Venus, in one Julian year, ill
11106591".62. that of the earth fpr the same period being h9627"'45,
the ratio will be HUtV".H. A. the two terms ofthia fraction cannot
be reduced by a common divlaor, we must multiply them by BUch num-
bers as will make one a multiple of the other; accordingly, thirteen tinIIlII
tbe denominator.will be nearly equal to eight times the numerator; and
475 times the denominator will equal 291 times the numerator.
By combining these two periods and their multiples by addition and
aubtrsction, we shall obtain the period of aU the transits that have ever
happened. ThUll: 291--8X7-235. another period; and 291-6Xe
=243. another period. and 10 on. Whence we find that,
8 periodical revolutions of the earth, sre equal to 13 ofVenuL
2311 periodical revolutions of the earth, are equal to 382 of Venus.
243 periodical revolutions of the earth, are equal to 395 of Venus.
211 I periodical revolutions of the earth, are equal to 408 of Venu
291 periodical revolutions.of the earth, sre equal to 476 of Venus.
Hence a transit of Venus may happen at the IIIIJII8 node. after an in-
terval of eight years; but if- it do not happen then, it cannot take place
again. at the same node, in Ie88 than 236 yesra. The orbit of Venus
Cl'0II8ea the ecliptic near the middle of Gemini and Sagittarius; and these
points mark the position of her nodes. At present her ascending node is
m the 14th degree of Gemini, and her descending node, in the same
degree of Sagittarius.
The earth passes her ascending node in the be-ginning of
December, and her descending node. in the beginning of June.
Hence, the transits of VellUS, for ages to "ome, will happen in
December and June. The first transit ever known to have been
Been by any homan being, took plaee at the ascending uode,
rHE SOLAR
. ' .. '
23b
December 4th,!639.. leto this date; we .add 235 years, we
Bhall have the time of the next transit at the 'liamenode, which
will accord!ngly happen in 1874. There will another at the
Bame node In 1882, eight years afterwarda. It IS not more cer-
tain tbat this phenomenon will recur, than that the event itself
w ill engross the attention of all the astronomers then living
upon tbe earth. It will be anticipated, and provided for, and
observed, in every inhabited quarter of the globe, with an in-
tensity of solicitude which no natursl phenomenon since the
creation, has ever excited. "
Thfl reason why a transit of Venus should excite so great an
interest, is, because it may be expected t,o sol ve an important
problem in astronomy, which has never yet been satisfactorily
done:_ problem whose solution wi\) make known to us the
lIlagnitudes and masses of all the planets, the true dimensiona
of their orbits, their rates of motion around the Bun, arid their
respective distances from the Bon, and from each other. b may
be expected, in short, to furnish a universal standard of astro-
nomical measure. Another consideration will render the oh-
servation of tbis transit peculiarly favorable; and tltat is,
astronomers will be supplied with better instruments, and more
lICCurate means of obll8rvstioD, than on former ocoaaion.
This pheaomenoa was In. witneued by HoMOz, a yoang genlleman aboat
yean of age livingl in an obscure village fifteea mile. north of
Liverpool. The tablel ol Kepler, conllruCled upon llie oboervalionl of Tycho
Drabe, indicated a lranlil of Venul in utll. bUI aone WBI oboerved. Horroz,
withoul much Blliltanee from boob and .nllrnmenlll, leI himoelf 10 inquire
inlO the error of the lable., and found thai oaeh a I!henomenoa mighl be ez-
pecled 10 happea in 1639. He repealed hil calcwauonl daring thil inlerval,
with 'all the cafefulnell and enlhulium of a echolar ambiliDul of being the
Irst 10 prediCI and ob .. rve a celeltial phenomenon, which, from the creation
oflhe world, had never been wilnelled. Confidenl of Ihe reoall, he communi-
caled hil e:.:pecled lriumph 10 a confidential friend residing in Mancheller, and
delired him 10 walch tilr the evenl, and to take ob .. rvation.. 80 anltioul WBI
Borroz DOl 10 fail ofwitneuiDg il himoelf,lhal he COJ1Imenced hiB oblervallonl
the day before il was ezpecte<f, and reBamed them al the rilinr of Ibe Ion 00
the morrow. Bul the "'" "tIUf' when his calcnlationl led hiin 10 ezpecl Ihe
yiaible appearance of Venus upon the lun'l dilk. """' ."" /he 1IJII'Oi""" hour
fiw /he 1IUblu. tIIOJ'IAip 'II GoD ... /he 8GoIIIlGM. The delay of a- few minules
mighl Deprive him forever of an opponunilY of oblerving the tranlil. If itl
yery commeacemeat were nol aoticed, cloudl millhl interven., and conceal it
9I1tillhe lun lliould 181: and nearly a cenlury ana a half would elaple betilre
another 0p\K>rtunity would occur. He had been wailing tilr the evenl with th"
Iboal ardenl anticipation tilr eight yearo, and the ... ull promiled lIIuch benefil
10 the ocience. .u lliu, III1mtz 1Ieiec....,.....,." Au oN"""';""',
.. ntl.wit:e rep ..... 10 1ft. """". God,the Greal Aothor of Ihe b' I worldl he
delighted 10 conlemplale. en h.B duty WBI IItnI perform:t and he bad
relurned 10 hi. chamber,lhe oecond time! hiB love of oeieace was rratiAed with
fnil BUCcellj and he law whal no mortal eye had ob .. rved before !
Ii any Ihinr can add inlerell 10 \hiB incidenl, it illhe modeBly with which
the yoong Bllronomer apolDlrizes 10 the world, tilr ",.....u ... hil oblelvBtionl
at all
I observed il," oayl he
t
" from IUUri ... till nine o'clock, agaia a little betilre
len, and IBllly al noon, anC! from one 10 Iwo o'clock; Ihe rell oilhe day beina
devoted 10 higher dutie .. wblch mipl nol be aeglected for theI8 putimea.-
236 GEOGRAPHY OF THE HEAVENS.
So important, aay. Sir John He1'8Chel, have these obaenationa appeated
to utronomell, that at the last transit of Venus, in 1769, etpeditioDB _
fitted out, on the most efficient acale, by the British, French. RIIfIIian, and
other governments, to the remotest corners of the globe, for the
'purpoee of making them. 'fbe celebrated expedition of Captain Cook 110
Otaheite, WIllI one of them. The general result of all the observations
III8de on this IIlOIlt memorable' OIlC8IIion, giveS for the BUD'.
horizontal parallax.
The phenomena of the Beasons, of each of tbe planete, like
those of the earth, depend' upon the inclination of the axiB of
the planet. to the plane of ils orbiL The inclination of the axis
of V f'nUB to the plane of her orbit, though Dot precisely known,
iB commonly estimated at 75: 'wbich is more than tbree times
as great as the inclination of the eartb's axis to the plane of the
ecliptic., The north pole of Venus'R axis inclines towards the
SlOth degree' of Aq uarlUII; the eartb's, towards the beginning of
Cancer; consequently, the northern parts of Venus bave summer
in tbe signs where those of the earth have winter, and vice versa.
The declination of the sun on each side of her equator, must
be equal to the inclination of ber axis; and if this extends to
'15, her tropics are only 15 from her poles, and her polar
circles 15 from her eq uator. It follows, also, that the sun
must change his declination more in one day at Venus, than in
fi,ve days on the earth; and consequently, tbat he never shines
vertically on the same places for two days in succellsion. This
may perhaps be providentially ordered, to pre,vent too great effect
of tbe sun's heat, which, on the supposition that it is in inverse
proportion to the square flf the distance, is twice as great on this
planet as it is on the earth. . .
At each pole, 'the sun nontinues half a year. without setting
in .,ummer, and as long without rising in winter; consequently,
the polar inhabitants of Venus, like those of the earth, have only
one day and one night in the year; with this difference, that the
polar days and nights of Venus are not quite two-thirds as long
as ours,
Between ber polar circles, which are but 15 from her f>quator.
there are two winters, two summers, two springs, and two
autumns, every year. But because the sun stays for some time
near 'the tropics, and pasHes BO quickly over the equator, the
winters in tbat zone will be almosl twice as long as the
summers.
When viewed through a good telescope, Venus exhibits not
only all the moon-like phases of Mercury, but al80 a variety of
inequalities on her, snrface; dark spots, and brilliant shades,
bills, and valleys, and elevated mountains. But on account of
8That ia, MV 'II v".",',,-, or aiXIeeD week .. ,
VENU8.
237
the great density of her atmosphere, these inequalities are per-
. ceived with more diJIiculty than those upon the other planets.
The mountains of Venus, like those of Mercury and the moon.
are highest in the southern hemisphere. Aeeording to M.
Schroeter, a celebrated German astronomer, who spent more
than ten yeare in observation upon this planet. some of her
mountains rise to the enormous hight o( from ten to twenty-two
miles. The observations of Dr. Hersehel do not indioate so
great an altitude; and he thinks, that in general they are con-
Biderabll overrated. He estimates the diameter of Venus at
8,649 miles; making ber bulk more than one-aixth larger than
that of the esrtb. Several eminent astronomere affirm, that they
have repeatedly Been Venus attended by Il satellite, and they
have given circumstantial dataila of ita size and ita
periodical revolutiou and ita distance from her. It ia said to re-
eemble our moon in ita phases, ita distance, and ita magnitude.
Other astronomers deny the existence of such a body. becaus8
it was not seen with Venus ,ou the sun's disk, at the transits of
1761, and 1769.
The general elememe ohbis planet (or the epoch lat January.
1801, are as follows: . ,
,Mean sidereal revolution, 224 d. 16 b. 49 m. 081.00
Mean synodical revolution in BOlar day.. - 683.92
Mean'longitude, - - - 11
0
33' 03".110
Mean daily motion in orbit, 1 36 07 .80
, Longitude of perihelion, 128 43 63 .10
W. motion ofapaides per annum, " ' 02 .70
E. .. .. referred to the ecliptic, 47 .40
Inclination of orbit, 8 sa 28 .6
increue of do., 00 .6
Longitude of ucending node, 74 64 12 .9
W. motion of do. per annum, 17 .6'
E. .. "referred to the ecliptic, - 32 .5
Eccentricity of orbit, half maj. axis 88 unity, ' 0.00686074
.Decrease of do. in a century, 0.000062711
Greatest equation of center, 47' 10".00
Annual decreue of do., 00 .25
Rotation on axis, 23 b. 21 m. 07s.2
Mean apparent diameter, - 16".9
Diameter at superior conjunction, (I" .6
Diameter at inferior conjunction, l' 0 I ".2
True diameter (7700 miles) earth'. 88 unity, - o. r,7e
Volume earth'. ft. unity. 0.927
)fa. suo's 88 unity, - - O.o0000246:i8
Mean from the sun, (611,000,000 miles). earth'.? 0.723:1316
88 UDlty. 5,
let, I!U16 mile. j lid, 18.9'7 mile. j 3d, 11.44 mile. j 4th, 10.84 mile
GEOGRAPHY OF THE HEAVENS.
THE EARTH.
Tn earth is the place from whicb all our observations of the
beavenly bodies must necessarily be made. The mo-
tions of these bodies being very considerably sffected by her
figure. motions, and dimensions, these bold an important place
in astronomical Icience. It will, therefore, be proper to consider,
fint, some of the methods by whicb tbey bave been determined.
If, atanding on the sea-shore, in a clear day, we view a Ihip
leaving the coast, in any direeiion, Ute bull, or body of tbe ves-
sel, lint disappean; afterward the rigging, and, lastly, the top
of the mut vanishes .from our sight. Those on board tbe ship
observe that the coast lirst linka below .the horizon, then tha
buildings, and, lutly, the tallest spirea of the city, which they
are lesving. Now these phenomena are evidently caused by
the convuity of the water which is between the eye and the
object; for, were the surface of the _ merely an extended
plain, the largest objectd would be viaible the longest, and the
amallest disappear fint. -
Again, navlpton have aailed quite around the earth, and thus
proved ita convexity.
Fentinaud Mage1Ian, a Portug\Jee, _ the ftnd who carried this eo-
terprise into execution. He embarked from Beville, in Spain, and
ted biB courae toward the west. .After a long voyage, he descried the
ClOIItinent of America. Nat finding an to enable him to continue
Ilia courae in a W8IIterly direction, be aaiIed along the coast toward the
1OUth, until, coming to ita IOUthem extremity, be aaiIed vound it, and
found himIeIf in the great Southern Ocean. He then reawned his COJII8B
toward the weal After aome time, be arrived at the Molucca Islands, in
the EfJlltem HemirpAere; and, BBiling continually toward the west, be
made Europe from the eut,-anmng at the place from which he set out.
The next who circumnavigated the earth, 11'88 Sir Francia Drake, who
ailed from Plymouth, December 13, 1677, with five smaIl veasels, and
arrived at the _ place, September 26,1680. Since that time, the
cireumnavigation of the earth baa been perlimned by Cavendish, Uord.,.,
N oort, Sharten, Heremitea, Dampier, Woodea, Rogers, Sehovten, Rogge-
.-ill, Lord AII8OII, Byron. Carteret, Wa\Iia, BouP,inville, Cook, KiDg.
Clerk. Vaneouver, and many otbeJa.
Magellan I&Iled 110m Se"iIIe. in Spain, Auguat 10, 1519, in a ahip called tile
Victory) accompanied by four olher "e .... I . 1n April. ISIll, he _a killed in
a .kirm,ah with Ibe nauve., al Ihe i.land of &lite. or Uv, 80metimea called
Malan, one or Ibe Philippine.. One of hia ve_l., however. arrived at 8t.
J Ilcar, near Seville, 7. 11!119.
THE EARTH.
These navigatore, by Bailing in a westerly direction, allow-
ance being made for promontories, &0., arrived at the country
they Baileil from. Hence, the earth muat be either cylindrical
or globular. It cannot be cylindrical, beQause,' if BO, the meri-
dian distances would all be equal to each other, which is COB-
trary to observation. The figure of the earth is, therefore,
.pherical.' "
The convexity of the earth, north and BOUth, is, proved by the
altitude of the pole, and of the circumpolar stare, which is
found uniformly to increase aa we approach them, while the in-
clination to the horizon, of the circles described by all the stara,
gradually While proceeding in a southerly dire.,.
tion, tbe reveree of this takes place. The altitude of the pole,
and of the circumpolar stare, continually decreaBes; and all the
stare describe circles whOle inclination to the horizon increases
with the distance. Whence we derive thiB general truth: TIN
altifude 'I. 0fIe pole, and tIN depreNion rf tIN otlNr, at any place OR
the earth , iB equal to lIN latitude rf that place.
Another proof of the convexity of tbe earth's surface ia, that
the higher the eye ia raised, the furtber is the view extended.
An obaerver may Bee the Betting SUD from the top of a house, or
any cODsiderable emhience, after he haa cealed to be visible to
those below.
The eurvatale of the earth for one mile is eight inches; and this cUr.
vature inc:re&E8 with the aquare of the distance. From this general law,
it will be easy to the distance at which any oi!ject, whoeehight
is given, may be -. or to determine the bight of an object, when the
,
1. To find the bight of an ol!iect when the distsace is given.
RULK. Find tIN MJ1.II1In of dW_ in mi/u, and talu two-tAiTd8
of that number for tIN higlat in fed.
Ell. 1. How high muat the eye of an obaerver be raised, to 888 the
IIUIface of the ocean, at the distance of 3 miles ! ,Ana. The square of 3
feet is 9 feet, and f of 9 feet is 6 k
Ell. 2. Suppose a penon can juat 888 the top of a spire, over an ell-
tended plain of 10 miles, how high is the ateeplel .Am. 'fhe square of
lOis 100, and ., of 100 is 661 feet.
2. To find the distance when the bight is given.
Run. Itu:rea.e tIN h!gh/, in fed 0M-h0Jj, and tIN MjfM1I"t root,
tIN rli8tan, in miIi6.
Ex. 1. How filr can a penon 888 the IIIU'fiIce of It plaintowhoae eye is
elevated 6 feet above it! .AM. 6, increased by ita is 9, and the
square root of 9 is :I: the distance is, then, 3 mil ...
Ell. 2. To what distance can a penon 888 a light-bouae wboee hight ill
96 feet &om the level of the ocean ! ,Ana. 96, increased ita ill
1, and the square root of 1 is 12: the distanceia, therefOre, 121Oilea.
3. To find the cumature of the earth when it exceeds a mile.
RULL Multiply the MjfM1I"t olllie dW_ by .000126.
240 GEOGRAPHY OF THE HEAVENS .
Although it appears. from the preceding. facts. that the earth
is spherical. yet it is not a perfect sphell!. lC it were, the length
of the degrees of latitude. flom the equator to the poles, would
be uniformly tbe same; but it has heen found, by tbe most care-
ful . measurement, that, as we go from the equator toward the
pole8, the length increiJlu with the latitude.
TheIle measurements have been made by the IDOIIt eminent mathemll-
ticiaos of di8innt counIriee, _ in varioua pWiea, from the equator to
the arclil; circle. They have found that a ,degree of latitude at the aretic
circle WIUI nine 3i:.cIeentluJ of a . mile longer than a degne at the equator.
and that the ratio of inc:resse, Cor the ink!rmediate WIllI nearly
the squares of the sines of the latit]l@. Thus the theory of Sir ...
Newton WIUI confirmed, that the bod)' of the earth was more rounded
and convex between the tropics,. but. C9l18iderably ftattened toward tbe
poles.
ol.':::J!... lAIiIi..r.. i or-......
Peru, Equator j 68.732 Bouguer,
Pennsylvania, 390 12' 00" N. 68.896 M8IIOIl and Dixon,
Its1y, 43 01 00 ..i 68.898 Boeoovieh and LemsUe
France, 46 00 00 . I 6JMIM Delambre and Mechain
England, 51 29 Ii4I 69.146 Mudge,
Sweden. 66 20 10 69.292 Swamberg.
These measurements tbe earth to be an oblate .pl&eroitl,
whose longest or equ'tonal diameter i. 7924 milea, and the p0-
lar diameter. 7898 mil8ll. The mean diameter is. therefore,
about 7911. and their di1rerenee 26 miles. The French Academy
have determined that the mean diameter of the earth. from the
45th degree of north latitude. to the opposite degree of south la-
titude. is, tJCetWGtelY. 7919 miles. .
If !be earth were an exact sphere, ita diameIP.r mipl Fig 10 .
be determined by ita curvature, from a lin,le mea.ure- A B
menl. Tbn .. in the adjoininK Ipre. _ bave A B equal CllJ' D
to 1 mile, and B D equill to 8 incbe .. t.o find A or B Eo
which doe. nol oenliblf dill'er from A Eo lillce B D i.
only 8 inch.... Now, illl a pro{'O"ilion of Euclid, (B. 3,
prop. 38,) that, wben, from a poml wilhoul a circle, IWO
Iinel be drawn, one cutting and the other touching it, the .
line AI i. a mean proportioDal between the
ine ( EI and thaI part of it (B DI without the
B D: B A:: B A: BEor A Every nearly.
That il. I mile beiD equal to 63380 !nchel. E
8 : 63300 : ,63300 : 501811110 incbes. or 79UO mil ....
This is nearly what the ID08C elaborate ealculatioDB make the
earth's equatorial diameter.
The earth, conaidered as .a/lanet, occupies a favored rank in
the solar system. It plesse the all wise Creator to assign ita
poailion 8IJlong the heavenly bodies where nearly all the sisll'r
planets are visible to the naked eye. It is situated neXI 10
Venua, aDd is the third planet from the SIlD.
241
To the IICboIar who, for the lint time, taItea up a book 0Jl 1IIItronom1.
will doubt "Z?F?Fge md th" "?Frth ?FiSn the d:avekk&n
n"::,,llies. kk'or Wm" can "}dleBJ' un lin" th"" s"e wi", f,,;r
and seemingly immeasurable extent, and the stars, which appear but 118
change of place, as we view them at dilferellt hoUrs of the day or night,
or at dUli!rent __ of the year. '
It f"""es f'",md sun, ]'fOm ",est tQ }Ist, in 36n "aYI, 5
hours, 48 minutes. and 48 Becond" ; 'and turna. the same way,
its "dis, in ho"'14,56 m!kkutef"kknd 4 14",00"", '1'&'14 form"f
call'''l its ,fw,nual t14otiot" 14nd ""kkBeI t"e vicilsitudes of the
season8. The latter i8 called ita diurtUli motion, Iliid produces
8U""14t8iokk 14f da,1 14nd
The ",ean di"tan"" she sun i8 ahQUt 95,000,000
'of miles; it, consequflntly, moves in its orbit at the mean rete of
hd,OOO "ilAS hd"t, It" equr;t,;,rial diamew,,,r 79h,h
miles, turn" ;,n its uis at the rate of ltt40 miles an hour.
Thus, the earth, on which 1\'e stand, and which hal 8enred
aa"" ',;1 th" ;mshw,k"n {o,mdatioo rEf th:: firm::::: Itrueturss.
i evp.ry moment rurning swiftly on its center, and, at the same
time, moving onward with great rapidity through the empty
"t'ace.
, This compound motion il to be understood of tbe wlwk eariJa,
with all that it holds within it8lubstance, or sustains, upon ita
"mrfact;-->{)f lolid mast of tht; oem'Ll: whier:
around it, of the air that rl'sts upon and of the clouds which
float abovA it in the air.
Th;:; the kk';rth. comm::n with !Ill tr:e plEi;:ets, ,,,volvffi
around the sun as a center, is a fact which resta upon the clear-
est demonstrations of philosophy. That it revolves, like them,
d+,on own t,tis. it t tru,h ,,;hicr: every titing tttd seHi"g Sttt
iIlulltrates, and which very many phenomena concur to establish.
the earth around its axis every tJu
,;tttvertft movr;t aro,mrr It thA tm",. r ""re IS thlttil
opinion that can be formed on this point. Either the earth must
revolvA on its axis Avery 24 bours, to produce the alternate, SU,,=
,:ftSSiM' r,f dc'+, and ,fight, tht fLUn, mOOD, ,l"nets, tt,met"
fixed stars, and tbe whole freme of the uDivers!! itself, mUlt
movl' around the earth, in the same time, To thtt
!%tUer ;ttt,e tit r,e thft fact, ;t"tJuld to a "n tittil
wisdom of the Surreme Architect, whose laws are universal
harmony. As wei might the beetle, that in a moment t"ms
baH, ima"ine tht, r:eave;tEi aDd ea,,+' bad made
in the same It evident, that iD proportion to
distance of the celesual bod II'S from the earth, musi, t'D thAd
,mPPOtiiion, ilie "',pidity their mOvetdDts. The thett,
W
242 GEOGIlAPIIY OF 'l'IIE IlEA VD8.
woold moyeat the Jate of more tIwa roar hundred thousand mil.
in a minute; the DRrest B1ara, at the iDconcei .... ble velocity of
foorteen bundred milliOO8 of miletl ia a ___ ; ;mel the moet
distant luminaries., with a degree of .wiftness whicb DO numben
coold eJ:preu._d aU this to saTe tbe little globe we tread
opon from turning .fely OD hs uia 0_ ia M hCRDII.
The idea of Ibe heaveDtl revolriDg about die earda, ia eucom-
bprPd with innumerable other difficulties. We will meDtion
only 008 more. It is e81;imated on iood authority, that there
are risible, by __ c( gIaaaea. DO leIIII than one ItvndrctJ
.. Ili_ tf.,.., ICaUered at all poeaible diataDces in the beaRDS
above. beaeath, and around 118. Now. ia it in the least degree
probable, that the velocitietl of all th_ bodiea should be 80
,..golated. tha&, thoogh deacribing circlea so very diff'ereDt In
dim_ions, they .hootd complete their reYolutioD8 in enctly
the lame 1ime'
In short, there is DO more reaSOD to suppose that the heaRDS
r ~ v o l v e around the earth, thaa there is to 10Ppose that they
revoln around each of the other plaDell, separately, and at the
BalD& time; linee the same apparent revoluaoD is common liD
them all, for they all appear to revolve UPOD their axea, in
differeDt period ..
The rotatiOD of the earth determiDel the length of the day,
and may be regarded as ODe of the mOlt importaDt elementl iD
astronomical science. It serves as a uDivenai measure of time,
and forms the .tlDdard of comparisOD for the revolutioD of the
celetltial bodi8l, for all ages, past and to conie. Theory allll
observation CODcur in proving. that among the iDDumerabfe
vici.simdee that prevail throughout ereatioD, the period of tbe
earth'l diumat rotltion i. immutable.
The earth performs one complete revolutioD OD itl WI in
. 23 boun, 56 minuteB, and 4.09 secoDds, of lolar time. This is
called a ~ day. bl!('1luse, iD that time, the ltan appear to
complete ODe revolutioD Iround the eartb.
But as the earth advancee almOlt a degree ealtward iD im
orbit, iD lbe time tbat it tllrDl eutward arollnd itl axia, it i.
plain that jU11 ODe rotatioD Dever briDgs the lame meridian
arouDd from the lun to th(\ IUD agaiD; so that the earth r&o
quires as moch more than one comprete revolutioD OD itl nis to
complete a lOW day. as it bas gODe forward iD tbat time.
Hence in every natural or 101ar day, the earth performs one
complete revolution OD its axis, and the 365thpart of another
revolution. Consequently, in 365 dayl, the earth tuma 366
timel around itl axis. And as every revollltioD of the earth OD
itl axis completes a sidereal day. there mllSI be 366 sidel'f'lll
daya iD a year. And. gt'nerally, since the rotation oCany planE't
about itl axis il tbe leDgth of a sidereal day at that planet, the
THe EARTH
. number of sidereal day. will always exceed &he number of solII'
days, by one, let thllt number be wbatit may, one revolution
being lost in tbe course of lin annual revolution. Tbis difference
between the sidereal and solar days may be Uh,lstrated by
referring to a watch or clock. When botb hands eet out to-
getber, at 12 o'clock for instance, the minDte band muat trav!'l
more tban a wbole circle before it will overtake &he hour hand,
tbat is, before they will come into conjunction again.
In tbe same manner, if' a man travel around the earth. east-
wardly, no matter in what time, be will reckon one day more,
on his arrival at the place whence he aet out, than they do who
remain at rest; while tbe man who travel a around the earlll
fDeatwardly will have one day Ie... From whieh it is
that, if two persona start from the same at the same time,
but go in contrary directiona, the one traveling eaatward and
other westward, and eacb goes completely around the
although they ahould both arrive again at tbe v.ery same bour
at the same place from wbicb I.bey let out, yet Ihey will dill-
gree two whole days in their reckoning. Should the day of
their return, to tbe man who traveled westwardly, be Monday,
to t.he man who traveled it be
wbJle to those who remalDed at tbe place' Itself, It would, be
Tuesday.
Nor ia it neceeaary, in order to produce the gain or los8 of a
day, that the journey be performed either on tbe equator, or on
any parallel of latitude; It is sufficient for the purpose, that all
tbe meridians.of the eartb be passed through, ea8tward or west-
ward. The time, al80, occupied in the journey, is equally
unimportant; the gain or 108s of a day being tbe same, whetber
the eartb be traveled around in 24 years, or in as many bours.
h is al80 evident, tbat if the eartb turned around its axia
but once in a year, and if the revolution waa performed tbe
aame way a8 its revolution around tbe aun, there would be per-
petual day on one aide of. it, and perpetual night on the other.
From tbeae &eta the pupil will readily comprehend the principles in-
volved . in a curious problem which appeared a few ylllml ago: It W8I
gravely reported an American IIhip, that, in sailing over the ocean, it
chanced to find /lIZ Sundays in F elwulJry. The jw:t W88 insisted on,
and a solution demanded. -There is nothing abaurcl in this.-The man
who travels around the earth, eastwardly. will _ tbe sun go down 8
IiUle earlier every succeeding day, than if he bad remained at rest; or
earlier lhan they do who live at the place from which he let out. The
fuller he travels toward the rising sun, the sooner will it appear above the
horizon in the morning, 110 much the sooner will it set in the evening.
What he thUII in time, win bear the aame proportion to a solar dHY.
88 the distance traveled does to the' circumference of the earth.-A. the
Fobe is 3600 in circumference, the sun will appear to move over one
PU4 GEOGRAPHY OF ',.HE HEAn;!"!!.
t.rent:Y-bIrth put m ita '8Ulface, or 14
0
every hour, which is four
minutes to otAe ,the IUD will rise, come to the
meridian, and set, INr minutes BOOner,,, a pLace 10 east of us, than iI
"ill with ua; al .. clilltance of 20, the BUD will rUe and IBl eight min-
utes aocmar; altlle cIiBtIplce of a.o, twelve minutes BOOner, and 80 on.
Nqw tho! man who t .. "els one degree to U1e eaR, the lint day, wi.
have the .. un on bii lDeridian four minutea BOODeI' than we do who ...
at rest; Hnd the aecond day, eight minutea BOO'-, and on the third .y,
twelve .minutea aooner, and 80 on; each lucte..aive, dal being compleltd
i>ur minutes earlM-l' than the I'l'I'ceding, until he amvea again at the
place from which he etarted; w hen this ,,,-'D1inual gain of four minu ....
a day will have amounted to a whole day in advcmce of our timr; he
having "'en the SUn rUe and Bet once more than we have. Coosequently,
U1e day on Which he at holDf', day of the wet'k it may
be, is one day in ad'varice of 0Ul'B, and he must needs li"e that o,'er
.m. by calling that day by the same name, in order to make the
IIIlCOWlta hannoniIIr. '
If this eboold be the last day of Pebnmry in a biMenile year, it would
aJ.o be the __ day of the week that U1e Jir81 was, and be six timea
repeated; and if it ahould happen on Sunday, be would, under th_
cin:umtltlDcee, have .u in Pehruuy. ,
Again :-Wh __ the man who trayel. at lhe rate or one degreP to the
eut, will all biB daye four minutes Mort". tbaD oum, St.,' on the
contrary, the man who travels at the same rate toward the 'W"', will
ha\'8 all biB day. four minutea longer than 01lI'l, When he hu,finisbed
the circuit of U1e earth and arrived at the pL&ce iiom whirh he &st .. ,
oUt, be will have eeen the .un rUe and IBl onee _ than we have.
Comequently, the day he Fte home will be om day aft". the lillie of
that place: tOr which reuon,'if he amvee at home OD Saturday, actordo
ing to biB own account, he will have to call the next day Monday;
Sunday having gone by before he reached home. Thus, on whatever
day of the week JlIIluary should end, in commOD yeam, he would find
the __ day repeated only three timeII in Pebruary. It JlIIluary ended
OIl Sunday, he 'Would, under these cireumBlaDcea, find OIlly three &.
day. in Ftbruory. "
The earth's motion about its axis being perfectly equable and
lIIiform in e"fery part of its annual revolution, the sidereal, day.
are always of the .ame length, but the solar or natural day.
rarr very considerably at dltrerent times of the year. This
fllnation is owing to two distinct causes: the inclination of the
earth's axis to its orbit, and the inequality of its motion around
41e Bun. Prom these two causes it is, that the time ,shown by
well regulated clock, and that of a true sun-dial, are Bcarcely
,v .. r the same. The difference between them, which sometimllll
.Dlounts to minutes, is called the Equation rf Time, or the
"'iuation of solar days.
The difterence between _ and apparent time, or, in oUier word.,
Ifltween Equinoctial and Ediptil; may be further Ihown by the
245
Igure which repeaiuta the circle.of the &pbere. Let it be fiJBt premieed,
that tquinodial time is clock time; and that ecliptic ti me i, IIOIar or
apparent time. It appears that from Aries to Cancer, the SUD in the
ecliptic comes to the meridian before the equinoctial ."n; from CIUlCt'T
to Libra, after it; from Libra to Caprlcl.m be/we it; alld lrom Capricorn
to .-\ riN, after it. J f we what months the SUD.is in these oevenll
quarter&, we ehall 6nd that Ii'Om the of lJect'mher to the I lith of
April, and from the 16th of June to the lilt of September, the clock I.
fa.tUr than the lIIJIlodial; and that, from the 1 Ath of April to the 16th of
lune, and from the 1 lit of September to the 26th of Decemher, tbe "'No
dial is futer than the clock. .
EQUATION C!r TIME.
If
..
It is a universal fact, that, while nona of the planets are
perfect spheres. none of their orbits are perfect circles. The
planets all revolve about the sun. in ellipses of different deIJreea
of eccentricity; having the Bun, not in the center of the elhpse,
t, Ilt in one of its foci.
The figure AD B E is an",...,. Tbe line
A B i. called the trans.ene axis, and the
line drawn tbrougb the middle of this line,
and perpendicular to it, i. tbe conjDgate
axis. The point C. tbe middlr. of the Iran ..
B
verle axi .. \I tbe .... ,.,. of the ellipse. Tbe
A...L-_,...---C>--t""-t points F and f, equallr distant from C, are
called the fori. C F, the distance from tbe
eenter to one of the foci, is called the eccen-
tricity. The orbito of the plaueto beinl( el.
Ii ...... having the lun in one of the foCI, If
A B DEbe the orbit of a planet, with the
IU 10 the foelJ.l F, when the planet it ..
w2
246 GEOGRAPHY OF TJlE HEAVENS.
tIIe poiat A, it will be.m ile ,.;Aolioit, Or _ the _ j and .... lien lit tJie
point B, in ita qAJiool, e>r at ita greatelt diatance tiom the lall. The dil'el'8llat
in theoe ,liltancel il evidently equal to F f, tbat iL equal to twice tbe ecC811-
tricity o( ita orbit. In evel'J revolation, a planet paaoe. through ill perihelioD
and aphelion. The eccentricity of tbe eartb'l orbit i. about one and a half
millionl of milel: hence Ihe is three millionll of mile. Bearer the aun in hot
than in her aphelion.
Now, all Ihe lun remains fixed in the (OCUI of the earth'l orbit. it iI
.uy 10 pareeiTe that a line. paRling centrall)" through the lIun at right angle,
with the lon .... r axil o( the orbit. will divide it illto two \uleqnal aegrnenlL
PrteUtl, fA'" U .. divi40tJ ." tAr .. inocML J
That pol1iOD of the earth'. orbit which lies abooe the sun, or
nortA of the equinoctial, contains about 184 degrees; while that
portion of it which lies be/QW thll sun, or _tA of the equinoctial,
contains 176 degrees.. 'I'rus fact showl why the lun coo-
tinues about eight days longer on the north side of tbe equator
in sumaler, than it doea on the BOUth sidein wintar.
. .
The points of the eanh', oibit which correspond to its greatest and
least dietaDceiI from the BUn, are former, the and the
latter, the perigee; two Greek worda, the former of which lignifies.fn1m
1M eortA, and the latter, abtJut tile earlh. Tbeae points are also desig-
netad by the common liliiii8 of apridu.. .
The earth being in ita perihelion about the let of January, and
in its aphelion the 1st of July, we are three millioDs of miles
nearer tbe slln.in winter than in midsummer. The reason why
we have not, as might be expep.ted, the hottest weather WhPD
the earth is nearest the sun, is, becau.se tbe sun, at that time,
having retreated to the southern tropic, shines so obliquely 00
the nortbern hemisphere, that its rays have scarcely half the pf-
feet of tbe summer sun; and, continuing but a short time above
the horizon, less beat is accumulated by day than is dissipated
by night. .
As the earth performs ita annual rnolution around the IUn,
the position of Its axis remains invariably the same,-always
pointing to the north pole of the heavens, and always maintain-
mgthe same inclination to its orbit. This seems to be provi-
dentially ordered for the benefit Of mankind. If the axis of the
ea rth al ways pointed to the center of its orbit, all external obo
jp.ct8 would appear to whirl about our heads in an inexplicable
maze. N olhing would appear permanent. '.l'he mariner could
no longer direct hill Clourse by the stars, and every index in na-
ture would mislead uil.
The following is a summary of our knowledge of the earth,
as a planet; epoch, 1st January, 1801:
Mean dill$ance from the IUn (95,000,000 miles), itll radius U(lity, 239M
Distance at peribelion, mean distance unity, - . - 0.09832
Distance at aphelion, mean dietaDC!! unity, 1.0168
Mean aideml revolu&iDn, in IOIar day., 386.2663612
THE EARTH.
M.n troPaI J'imJlution, in
Mean a.nomalistic revOlution, in solar daya,
Entire revolution of the SUD '8 perigee, in solar day ..
Mean longitude, conected 20" fur aberration,
Motion in perihelion, in a mean solar day,
Mean in a mean solar day,
Mean motion in a sidereal day" -
Motion in aphelion, in a mean solar day,
Mean longitude of perihelion, -, '
E, motion of line of aptsides, per annum,
Ditto, refilned to the ecliptic,
Complete tropiclal revolution of apei.dea in years,
Obliquity of eeliptic,' _ -
Annual diminution ofdiUo,
Semi axis,major of nat,lion;
Annual lunHoIar pn!Cl8IIBion, -
Genera1 pMCeaion in 1ongitude,
revolution of equinoxes, in yeara,
Lunar nutation in longitude, , _
Solar nutation in longitude,
Eccentricity of orbit, semi axis major as unity,
Decrease of ditto in 100 yean, -
Diurnal acceleration of sidereal or mean solar time,
From the vernal equinox to the summer solstice,
From the summer sohttice to the autumnal equinox,
Prom the autumnal equinox to the winter solstice,
From the winter solstice to the vernal equinox,
MaE, sun as unity, - '
Volume,
Density, sun as unity,
847
886."124"
866.1696981
7.645,798
1000 89' 10".2
1 01 09 .9
o 1i9 08 .83
o 68 68 .64
o fl7 11 .5
99 30 05 .0
11 .8
1 01 .9
20,98.
ISO 27' 116".6
0;457
9.4
60 .
60 .1
2111!68
17".679
1 .137
0.016783588
, 0.00004163
S' 66".91
92 d. 21 h. 50 m.
9lt IS 44
89 16 44
89 01 33
Denllity, water as unity, - - -
Mean diameter (equatorial, 7924, polar, 7898), in miles,
Centrifugal 'fee at the equator,
0.0000028173
1.0
8.9326
6.6t47
7916
0.00346
8 m. lS ... 3
110".26
'I'ime of paaage of light from tbe sun,
Motiop of earth, in orbit, in the same time.
THE MOON.
THERe il no object within the'scope of astronomical oble"a-
lion which aWords greater variety of interesting .investigation
than the various phases and motions of th" moon. From them,
the astronomer ascertains the form of the earth, the vicissitudes
of the tides, the caURes of eclipses and the distance
of t\le sunf and, consequently, the magnitude of tpe solar, system.
l'hese phenomena, which are perfectly obvious 10 theuDllJsisted.
248 GEOGRAPHY 01' THE HEAVENS.
eye, Ben'ed as a ltandard of meaillrement to al nations, until
the adnoeement of science taught them the advantages of solar
ume. It is to these phpnomtina that the navigator is iudf!bied
for thatlrecision of knowledge which guides him with well-
grounde confidence through thll pathle8B ocean.
The Hebrews, the Greeks, the Romans, and, in general, all
the ancients, used to assemble at the t.ime of new or full moon.
to discharge the duties and gratitude, for her unwenried
attendance on die earth. Bnd all her manifold use
When the moon, after having been in oonjunotion with the
lun. emerges from his rays. she appears in the evening, a
little aner SUl\8et, lib a fine luminous crescent, wiili its convex
lide toward the sun. If we observe her ilie neltt evening, we
find her about 13 further east of ,the sun than on the preceding
evening. and her crescent of light eensiblyaulmented. Repeal-
ing thesll obsl'rvatioD8. we pl'reeive that sbe departs further and
further from the sun, liS her enlightened surface cornea more and
more Into view, u'ntil she arrivAs at her jlrJl quarter, and comes
to the meridian 'at sUlIset. She has then finished her COUfliS
from the new to the full, and half her enlightened hemisphere il
turned toward the earlh. -
After her first quarter, she appears more and more giblJou.,
as she recedes further and further from the sun, until she 'hal
completed just half her' revolution around the earth, and is seeD
rising in the east when the sun is setting in the west. Sba
then her enlightened orb full to our view, and is said
to be In oppositiOflI because she is then on the opposite side of
the earth with respect to the sun. ,
In the first half of her orbit, she appears to paIS over our
heads through the upper hemisphere; she now descends below
the I'8ltern horizon. to pass through that part of her orbil which
lie. in the lower hemisphere.
After her tOil, she wanes through the same chllnges of appear-
ance as before, but in an inverted order; and we _ her in the
morninlt like a fine thread of light, a little west of the rising
sun. For the next two or three days, she is lost to our view,
rising and setting in coojumtion with the sun; after which. she
passes over, by reason of her daily motinn, to the taBt side of the
sun, and- we bllhold her again a new moon, as before. In
changing sides with the slln. she changes al80 the direction of
her crescent. Before her conjunction, it was turned to thtl east;
it is now turned toward the west. '1'hese ditrerent appearances
of the moon are called her pluuta. They prove that she shines
nnt by any light of her own; if she did. being globular. WII
should always her a round, full orb. like the slln. _
The moon Is a satellite to the earth, about which she revolves,
in an elliptiCal orbit, in 29 days. 12 honrs, 44 minutes, and 3
TIlE MOON. 249
eeeonds: the tiDle which elapsetl between one new moon, and
anoth .. r. Thi8 i8 called her ayfllJdic revolution. Her revolution
from any fixed star to the same star again i8 called her periodit.
or "idereIJl revolution. It is accompli8hed in 27 daY8, 7 hoors,
43 minutes, and 111 seconds; but, in this tiJIle, the earth has
advanced nearly as .many degrCtl in hor orbit, con8equently, the
moon, at the end of one complete revolution, mUBt go al mall,.
df'grees further, before she will COUIII again into the same P,"",I-
tion with respect to the Ion Ind the earth.
'rhe moon i, the neuest of all thlheavenly bodies, being 30
times the diameter of the eartb, or 240,000 miles, distant from
Ull. Her mean daily molion, in her orbit, is nearly 14 times Sl
great as the earth'B; Bince she not only accompsnies the earth
around tbe 8un every year, bot, i ~ the Dleanlime, performs nearly
13 revolutions aboot the earth. '
Although the apparent motion of the moon, in her orbit, is greater
thlln that of any other heavenly body, since she pa.- over, .t a mean
rate, DO Ieee than ISO 10' 36
H
in day; ret this is to be understood ..
aI/gular motiort-motion in. ama1l orbit, and, therefon!, embracing a
great Dumber of tJesr-, and but comparatively few miles.
'rbe moon, though apparently as large a9 the 8un, is tbe
8malle8t of all the heavenly bodie8 that are visible to tbe naked
eye. Her diamettor is but2162 miles; consequently, ber surface
.is 13 time8 less than that of the earth, and her bulk 49 times
leas. It would require 70,000,000 of such bodies to eqoal the
volume of the sun. The reason why she appears as large a9
the sun, wben, in trotb, sbe is so much less, IS because sbe is
400 times nearer to us than the sun. '
The moon revolves onee on her axis, exactly in the time tbat
she performs ber revolution around the earth. 1'his is evident
from her always presenting the same Bide to the earth; for if
she bad no rotation upon an axitl, every part of her surface woold
be pre.ented to a Ipectator on the earth, in the course of her
synodical revolutiop. It follows, then, that there ia but 0fIe day
tmd fligAt in Aer year, containing, both together, 29 day., lla
hours, 44 minutes, and 3 seconds.
A. the moon, while revolving aboot the earth, is carried with
it at the 1Iame time around the sun, her path is extremely irregu-
lar, and very different from what it seems to be. Like a point
in the wheel of a c a r r i a ~ , moving over a convex road, the moon
will deacribe a succe8Slon of epicycloidal curves, which art' al-
ways concave toward the Bun, not very onlike their presentation
in the following figure. ,
~ l ) O GEOGRA PHY OF THE HEAVENS.
THII: MOON'S MOTIUN.
Lel.ltU B repre.eDI a portion of the earth ... orllil; and ell. tbe Inoar
orbiL Wheo Ih& earth ia a' t, Ibe now mooo il al .; and while \he earth .1
moviog from 10 illl"'"ilion .1 reprelODled in Ihe figure, the moon baa moved
through h.lf ber orbit, {rom. 10 e, where ohe io full; 10, while Ihe earth i.
moving {rom ita pre ... nl poaitioO.lo II, Ihe mooo describes lbe olber bal{ of ber
orbiL (rom e 10 .. wbere sbe i. agaio in conjunction.. .
As the moon turns on her axis only as sbe. moves around the .
earth, it is plain that the inhabitants of one balf of the lunar
world are totally deprived of the sight oftbe earth,.UDless they
traYel to the opposite hemispbere. This we may presume tbey
will do, were It only to view eo sublime a spectacle; for it ill
certain that, from the moon, tbe earth appears len lima larger
than any other body in the universe. .;
, As the moon enlighten!! the earth, by reftecting the liJ.bt of
the sun, 80 likewise the earth illuminates the moon, exhibiting
to her the same phases that she does to 08, only in a contrary
order. And, as the surface of the earth is 13 times as large as
tbe surface of the moon, the earth, when full to the moon, will
appear 13 times as large as the foil moon to os. 1'hat side of
thtl moon, therefore, which is toward the earth, may be said fo
have no darkness at all, the eartb constantly shining opon it
with extraordinary splendor when tbe sun is abeent; it therefore
enjoys successively two weeks of illumination from tbe sun,
and two weeks of !lartb-Iight from the 8ftrtb. The other side
of the moon bae ahemately a fortnigbt's light, and a fortnight's
darkness.
As the earth revolves on its axis, tbe several continents, spas,
'PID MOON.
251
aad iet.ad., appear &0 &he lanar inbabhauw like .0 many IPOtl,
of dilferent forlDa aod bllightlHlllt alternately moving over ita
.lurf4C8. being more I)r leal brilliant, as they are leen through
intervening cloudl. By thlllle Ipo\l, the lunarianl can not only
determine the period of the earth'_ rotation, JUlt as we do that
of' the -1lBo bnt they may aI_o dad the longitude of their places,
as we dod the latitude of OUll. ,
As the full moon alway. happ8D8 when the moon il directly
oppoaite the Iun, all the full mOO8l in our wimer, mUlt happen
when the moon ie on the norlA lide of the equinoctial, beCause
tI&m tbe lun' is on the IOIIlA lide of it; coDBequently, at the
north pole of the earth, there will' be a fortnight's moon-light
and a fortnight's darko ... by toms, for a periocl of lix monthl,
aod the lame will be the fact during the IUO'_ abll8DC8 the other
six months, at the lOuth pole.
The moon's axis being inclined only about lio to her orbit,
ahe can have no 8Ilnsible diversity of _sons;' rom which we
may infer, that her atlnosphere il mild and uniform. The quanti-
ty of light wltich we derive from the moon when full, ia an888t
three hundied Lltouland times less than that of the sun.-
When viewed through a good te18BCOpll, the moon presents' a
moat. wonderful and interesting aspect. Heaides the large dark
spo\l, wbich 8J8 visible to the nakec1 eye, W8 perceive extensive
valleys, Ibelving rocks, and long ridp of elevated mountaine,
projecting their shadows on the plaIRs below. Single moun-
lains occasionally rise to a great hight, while circular hollows, .
more than tlaree milea deep, seem excavated in the plainl.
Her mountain scenllry bears a striking resemblance to the
towering sublimity aud terrific ruggedness of the Alpine reogions,
or of the Appenine after which some' of her mountains have
been uarned, and of the Cordilleras of our own continent.-
Huge massel 'of rock rising precipitously from the plains, lift
their ppaked summits to an immense higbt in the air, while
s\lapeless crags hanl{ over their projecting sides, and 888m on
the eve of being preCipitated into the tremendous chasm below.
Around the base of these frightful eminen08l, are _trewed
numeroul loose and unconnected fragments. whicb time seema
to have detached from their parent mass; and when we exallline
the rents and ravines wbich accompany the overbanging clilfs.
the beholder expects every moment that thel are to be torn from
their base, and that the proces!! of destructive separation whicb
ht!' had onl:ycontemplated in ita effecta, is about to be elthibited
before him in all its l8Ility.
-Thil Monl. Boaqaer'. infefl'lllce. from hi. . at1tted h, , ..
Plo.ee, in hil work, II. 019. The nolult or Dr. WolJlllton'. eoml.'utHtlnn. Wft.
dill'erenL proreuor Leahe makfll the litrht of the mnnn 1110 000 IImPlle .. 'thai
IhaI of \he IU'.: it .... u formerly reckoned 100,000 time. 1_
'158 GEOGRAPIlY 01' TIlB HEAVENS
. The ra. of nlouDtUu nlled the ApfHlRines. "hietI travell8l
a portion of the .. -'a disk. from north-eut to aoath,-west, ._
of which some pug are .visible to "'e naked eye, rise with a
precipitout aDd cram froIK from the level of tbe Mare Imlwiu""
or Sea of sbowera. - ID abie extensiYe range are _era) ridget
wbose summits" ha" a perpeadicufar elevation of feur miltltl,
aud more; and though tbe), often deacend to 8 much lower h!vel,
they prelent an ina..,.ble barrier on the north-east, while on
"'e sooth-weet they "nk,in pa\le 4eeliYity to the plaiM.
There is one reIIlukabie featare in the moon'" lurface, whieb
bears no analogy ,to any tbibg obeervable on the eartb. This
is the cireular CBftlies which 11ppesr in every part of ber disk.
Some of these immense cavens are nearly folJl' miles deep, and
forty miles in diamet.er. They lire most numeroul in""tbe south-
western part. At they reBect the 8un'I rays more copiollsly.
ahfe, reader this put of her lurface more brilliant thaD any other.
They present liD DI JUIIlily 'he same appearance as our earth
millht he .upposed to present to the moon, if all our great lakea
and seu were dried .p. '. .
The number of, spets on the moon, wbose latitude
and lougit.ude have been accurately determined, nceedl two
hundred. TIle nllllfher of aea.e and lakel. al "'ey were formerly
considered, whose and breadth are known, il between
twenty and. thirty; whale the number of peake and mountaina,
whose perpendicuIJr elevation varies from a fourth of a mile to
five miles in hi,ht, and Wh088 bases are from one to leventy
miles iD length, II uot Ie .. "'an one hundred and fifty. t
,
Graphical views. of these natural appearance&, accom= with miIJ.
ute and familiar de9Criptioos,eonstitute wbatiscalled . apAy;u-
two Greek words, whicb mean the li8liiii thing in mprd to the IDOOD,
Geography does in regard til the earth.
An idea of lome of these scenel may he formed by conceiv-
'lng a plain of about a hundred miles in circumference. encircled
by a range of mountainti, ofyarious forms. three miles in pl'lr'
pendicolarhigbt, and having a mountliin near the center, whose
top reaehel a DiHe and a half above the level of the plain.
From the top of' "'is central mountain. the whole plain. with all
Its scenery, would be distiuctly visible, and the view would be
bounded only by a lofty amphitheater of mountains, rearing
their to the Iky.
The D8!D" oe a luuar IpOI.
t Brewoter'a The beat mape oe the _n hitherto publiahed,
are thOle by Mldler and Beer; bUI the mOllt curlou. and eomplete repreoenl ..
lioD of the leleocollic and natlll'lli oe the moon. i. 10 be IOen 011
au.'-" T"n,- 'J'e'" !:tee a1ao BIfmoIropMa, by C. PIUDL .
TIlE MOON.
253
Tbe bright apota of the moon are tbe mountainous ",gions ;
while the dark 1fI0ta are the plainl, or more level parts of her
lunace. There may be rivera or small lakes on this planet;
but it is generally thought, by astronomftra of the present day,
that there are no seas or large collections of watt-r. al was former-
ly lupposed. Some of these mountains and deep "Heys are
viaible to the naked eye; and many more are visible through a
telescope of but moderate powers.
A telescope which magDlfies only 8 hundred times, will show
a s:l'0t on the moon's surface, whose diameter is twelve hundred
an twenty-three yards; and one which magnifi .. s a thousand'
times, will enable us to perceive any enlightened ohject on her
surface whose dimension. are only a hnndred and tWllnty-two
yards, which does not much exceed the dhnensionl of some of
our public edifices, as for instance, the Capitol at Washington.
or SL Paul's Cathedral. Professor Frauenhofer, of Munich,
recently announced that he had discovered a lunar edifice. re-
sembling afurtijko.tion. together with .etlerallinu tf road. The
celebrated astronomllr Schroeter. conjectuff's the existence of a
great city on the east side of th.. monn. a little north of her
equator, an extensive canal in another plac ... and fields of vege-
tation in another. But no reliance is to be placed on these con-
jectures.
BOLAR AND LUNAR ECLIPSES.
Or all the phenomena of th" heavens. there are none which
engage the attention of mankind more than ecl.ips!'!s of the sun
and moon; and to those who arll unacquaint!'!d with astronomy,
nothing appeara more wonderful than the accuracy wj.th which
they can be predicted. In the early ages of antiquity th!'!y wllre
regarded as alarming deviations from the established laws of
nature, presaging great public calamities, and other tokens of
the divine displeasure.
In China, the prediction and obaemmee rI ecIit- are made a mattet
rI lltate policy. in order to operate on the fears of the ignorant, and im
pose on them a superstitious r e ~ a r d for the occult wisdom of their ru\era
In Mexico, the natives fast and a1Bict thl!Dlselve8 during eclipses, unde!
an apprehension that the Great Spirit is in deep sutJerance. Some of the
northern tribes rllndisnl have imagined that the moon hed been wouncJ.
ed in a quarrel; and others, that &he was about to be _allowed by a
huge fish.
It 11'88 by availing himself of these superatitious notionR that Culumbu.,
when shipwrecked on the island of Jamaicp, extricated himself and crew
fiom a most embarrassing condition. Being driven to great distress for
want of proviIioua, and the natives refuaiDg him any IIIIistance, when all
.'
26;' GEOGRAPHY OF THE HEAVENS.
hoPe .emed to be ent 'be himIeIf m their IIIIpI!nICiticm ill
regard to eclipaee. Having a.eJIIbJed the principal men of the iaImd, be
remoillltrated against their inhumanity, .. being oJImsive' to the Great
Spirit, and told them that a great plague waa even then ready to fiill upon
them, and aa a token of it, they would that night _ the moon hide ber
fiu:e in anger., and put on a dreadfully dark and threatening aapec:t. ThiB
"artifice' had the desired eftIItt; for tIie had no 1I0OII8I' begun than
the frightened barbarians came running with all kind. m proviaicma, and
thrOwing tllelJlllllv88 at the at of Columbus, implored his furgiV8Jl8llL-
AIrna"."fJJI. vol. I, 65 c., v. 2.
An eclipse of the aun takea place, when the dark body of the
moon. passing directly between the eartli and the sun, intercepts
his light. This can happen only at the instant 0(-.0 mOOD, or
when the moon is in conjunction; for it ia only theD that abe
passes between us and the sun. ' ,
A,n eclipse of the moon takes place when tbe dark body of the
earth." coming ,ber and tbe sun, ,intercepta bis ligbt, and
throws a shadow on tlte moon. Thia ran bappen only at the
time of full moon, or whE'n the mOOD ia in opposition; for it ia
only then that the eartb is between ber and tbe lun.
Aa every planet belonging to the aolar aystem, both primaty
and secondary, derives its light from the aun, it muat cast a
ahadow toward tbat part of the heavens whicb is opposite to the
sun. This sbadow IS of course nothing but a'privation of ligbt
in th" splice hid from the slln by tbe opake body, and will
be proportioned to the magnitude of thl' lIun and planet.
If tbe aun and planet WE're both of the same magnitude, tbe
form of the shadow cast by the plan!"t. would be that of a cJ lin-
del;, and of the same diameter as th!" Bun or planet. If the
planet were larger than the sun, the shadow would continually
diverge, and gtp.w larger and larger; but as the sun is much
larger than aOJ of the planets. the shadows which they cast
must converge to a point in the form of a cone; the lengtb of
which will be proportional to the size and distance of the
planet from the sun.
The m the IOn is lOch, that the shadow east by each of the
primary planets always CCIJlverge& to a point before it reach8B any other
planet; 80 that not one of the primary planets can eclipse another. The
shadow of any planet which is accompanied by .tellitea, IIIIIY, on certain
occasions, eclipse ita .tellites; but it is not'Iong enough to eclipse any
.fther body., The shadow of a .tellite, or moon, may alao, on certain
OCcasions, fall on the primary, 'and eclipse it.
When the sun is at hi!! greate.t distance from the earth, aDd
thor moon ,at her letut her IIhadow is sufficiently long to
lI'ltch the, earth, and extend 19,000 miles beyond. Wben the
lun is at his letut diatanc6 from the earth, and the moon Ilt her
ECLIPSES.
trealal, ber Ihadow will not reach the eartb'a lunace by 20,000
Dliles. So that wben the aDn and moon are at their _
distances: the cone of the moon'a sbadow will terminate a liule
before it reacbea the earth's surface.
In tbe former caae, if a conjunction take place when the
center of tbe moon comes in a direct line between the centera of
tbe aun andeartb, tbe dark shadow of the Rloon will fall cen-
trally upon the earth, and cover a circular area.of T75 mileS iii
diameter. To all places lying within thia dark spot, the aUD
will be totally' eclipsed, aa illustrated by the figure. .
ICLIP8l1:a OJ' TRI aUJ'"
In COIIII!qU8IlCl8 of the earth'. motion during the eclipse, this c;ircuIar
_ becomeI a continued belt over the earth'. 1IIIrlice; being, at the
broadeII&, 175 miles wide. This belt is, bowever, mely 80 broad, and
often dwindlea to a mere nominal line, without total darb_.
In March, this line extends- itself from 8. W. to N. E., and ill Sep-
tember, from N. W. to 8. E. In June, the central line ia a curve, going
tirat to the N. E., and then to the 8. E.; in December, on the contrary,
tirat &0 the 8. E., and then to the N. E. To all places within 2000
miles, at leut, of the central line, the eclipse will be vUa"ble; and the
nearer the lliace of oblervation ia to the line, the larger will be the eclipse.
In winter, if the central trace be but a little northward of the equator
l
and in 1J1IIIIID8J', if it be 21)0 N. latitude, the eclipse will be visible all OVIll'
the northern hemi8pbere. A. a general rule, though liable to many modi-
fications, we may observe, thet pJacea from 200 to 250 miles from the
central line, will be 11 digita eclipsed; from thence to 500 uilleB, 10 digita;
and 80 on, diminiabing one digit in about 2.'10 milea. .
If, in either of tbe otber casea, a conjunction take place when
tbe moon's center is directly between the centera of the sun and
earth, aa before, the moon will then be too distant to cover tbe
entire face of the aun, and thpre will be aeen, all around ber dark
body. 8 slender nbg of dazzling light. . .
258 GEOGRAPHY OF THE HEAVEN8.
Tbi8 may be iJI1JIImted by the ingoing figure. 8uppoae C D to reo
p-t a put of the earth'. orbit, and the moon'. llladow to terminate
at the vertex V. The IIIIIIIIllI(l8ce between e f win represent the breadth
of the IWIIinowI ring which will be -riaibIe all &round the dadr. bod,. of the
moon.
Such ... the edipae of February 12, 1831, which J--.I over the
from.8. W. to N. E. It was the I!lIIl aunu1sr eclip..e
ever m .the Umted SIateL Alcmg the path of thia eclipae, the lumie-
_ rmg remained pedi!ct and unbroken tOr the .pace of two minutes
From the IDOII& elaborate calculation .. with a long aeries of
observations, the length of the moon'. shadow m eclipaes, and her distsnl"ll
&om the Bun at the IIUIIII time, vary within the limits of the foUowing
table:
of BhadoW,/ Length of Bhatlow in 1 Length 1 Di.tance in / Di ... ...;ce
DilL of mooD. semidiameters. in IDllel. semidiameteu. in milel.
Mean 118. 110. 1138.300
Leut 1 fiT.. 1228.(99 1
55
'53056= 1 211.148
Ore.telt &9.' 236._ 63.862 1152..638
Thus it appears that the length of the eone of the moon's llbadow, in
eclipses, varies &om 228,499 to 236,292 miles; being 7.793 miIea Icmger
in the one case, than in the other. The iqequality of her distsnces from
the earth is much greater; they vary &om 221,148 to 262,638 miles,
making a difJimmce of 31,490 miIea.
!lthough central eclipSft of the lun can never be total to
any Ipot on the earth more than 175 miles broad; yet the space
over which the sun will be more or less partially eclipsed, il
Dearly 5000 milel broad.
The section of the moon'. shadow, or her at the earib'. BUJIo
lace, in eclipaes, is tar &om being alway. circular. If the conjunction
happen when the center of the moon is a little ahooe or a little 1ieIow the
60e joining the centers of the earth and Bun, as is moat frequently the
case, the shadow win be projected over the earth's aurfilce, and
thus cover a much larger apace.
To produce a partial it is not neceBlry thet the lIbadow should
reach the earth; it is sutlicieilt that the apparent diatance between the
Bun and moon be not greater than the BUm of their aemidiameten.
If tbe moon performed her revolution io the same path in
which the sun appeara to move; in other words, if her orbit lay
ezactly in the plane of the earth's orbit, the .Iun would be
eclipsed at the time of every new moon, and the moon at the
time of every full. Bot one half of the moon's orbit lies about
50 on the north &ide of the ecliptic, and the other half as far on
the south side of it; and, consequently, the moon's orbit only
croSBeS the earth', orbit in lwo opposite pointa, called lhe
moon's Dodel.
ECLIPsEs.
257
When the mOOn is in ooe of these points, or nearly so. at the
time of the fleW moon, the aon .will be eclipsed. Wben she ia
in one of them, or nearly ao, at the time of full moon, the moon
will be eclipsed. But at all other new moons, the moon eitber
passes above or below the Bun, as 888n from tbe earth; and, at
all other full moons. Ibe either passes abo.e or below the earth'a
shadow; and, consequently, there can be no
If the moon be _tl!l in one of her nodes at the time of her
change. tbe lun will. be centrally eclipsed. If Ihe be 11 from
her node at the time of her chanr, tbe lun will appear at the
equator to be about 11 digits ecllpled. If sbe be 3 frolD her
node at the time of her cbange. tbe lun will be 10 digits eclipsed,
and 10 on; a digit being tbe twelftb part of the sun's diameter.
But when tbe moon is about 18 from ber node. she w:lll just
touch the outer edge of the lun. at the time of ber
witbout producing any eclipse. Tbese are called the ecliptic
limiu. Between these limits, an eclipse is doubtful, and re-
quires a more exact calculation.
The mean ec1iptieJimit for the IUD ill 161
0
on esch aide of the ilode;
the mean ecliptic limit for the moon ill 1001
0
on esch aide of the node.
In the former cue, then, there are sao about esch. node, making, in aU,
66
0
out of 3600, in which eclq- of the IOD may happen: in the latter
caae, there are 21
0
about each node, making, in all, 420 out of 360
0
, in
which eclipM of the moon OIUally 0ClCIIJ'. 'l'he proportion of the lOW
to the lunar ec\iples, therefore, ill u 66 to 42, or u 11 to. 7. Yat there
are more Yiaible eclipM of the moon, at any given place, than of the
BUn; beca1llll a lunar ec1ipee ill visible to a whole hemisphere, a eo1ar
eclipse only to a amall portion of it. . .
The greatest possible duration of tbe annutar appearance of a
aolar ecliple, il 12 minutes and 24 seconds; and tbfl greatest
poslible time during wbich the sun can be totslly eclipsed, to
any part of tbe worlil, is 7 minutel and 58 secondl. The moon
fIlay continue totslly eclipsed for one hour and tbree quartan.
Eclipsel of the sun always begin on hili weltern edge; and
end on bis ealtern; but all eclip881 of the moon commence on
her I'astern edge, and end on her western. .
If the moon. at the time of !ler opposition. be exactly in ber
Dode. she will pass througb tbe center of tbe earth's Ibadow,
and be totelly eclipled. If. at tbe time of her opposition; ahe
be witbin 6 of ber node. Ibe will still P8lS tbe earth's
shadow. thougb not centrally, and .be totally eclipsed:. but if
ahe be 12 from ber node, she will only jl1st toucb the eartb's
sbadow, and pass it witbout being eclipsed. . .
The duration of lunar ec1it-. therefore, dependa upon the dIJIi,renc.
between the diameter of the moon and that IIBC&ion Of the earth'. Bbadow
x2 .
258 GEOGRAPHY OF THE REA VEN8.
duougb. which abe . When an eeIi}le of the moon is both total
and central, ita duration is the 10Dplt poaible, IIIJIOIItlting nearly to .-
hoan; but the duration of all eelipees not central qriat with her cIiBIaQce
60m the node.
aCLI .. a. or TWa 11001'.
The tlitImder of the earth'. shadow, at the distance of the
moon, ia Dearly three times as large aa the diameter of the moon;
and the length of the earth's abadow ia nearly four times Sf:!
8S tbe di8tanCII of the mOOD; exceeding it in the same ratio thllt
the diameter of the eartb d088 the diameter of the moon, which
is aa 3.663 to 1.
''''''lqtb of .... _ .. _ ..... \fo ..... _ at ..... _ of I DIam_.,1IIo ILoooth ., 'be
... ...,o, .... lIItdeet .. tbe .. r .... ezhihlterl ia lbe .,UowlDtlable, """0.. ....1""" ill...,.
Son allhe peri... Moon al dialanc. 6.7&.1 &12,217
1
Moon at the apogee J
Moon at Ihe per'g.oe
Son at hi. mean diltance Moon at ber m.all dlltalle. 5.7\)9 8Ii6 5:17
1
I\I00n at Ihe 5.270 f
Moon at the perigee 8.3'8
I
Moon aL tbe apogee 6.308 J
Moon al her meBj.diIlRnc. &.gj6 !Q1,9119
Moon at the per:gee 6385
Son at the apogee
The firIIt column of figures the diameter of the earth'. sha-
dow at the moon: and 88 the diameter of the moon is only. 2162 milea,
it is evident that it can alway. be comprehended by the shadow, which is
more than twice 88 broad 88 the disI! of the moon. .
The time which .elap888 between two succ888ive chaDges of
the moon. is called a Lunation, wbich, at a mean rate, is about
291 dayR. Ir 12 lunar months were exactly equal to the 12 so-
lar months, tbe moon's node8 would always oecuP1 the same
points in the ecliptic, and all eclipses would bappen ID tbe 8ame
months of tbe year, 8S i8 the Ca8f' with the transita of Mercury
and Venua: but, in 12 lunations, or lunar months, tbere are only
3M day!!; and in this time the moon has passed tbrough both
her nodes. hut has not quite accomplished her revolution around
the 8un: the consequence is, that the moon's nodes fall back iD
the ecliptic at the rate of about 19jO annually; so that the
eelipslIl! happen sooner every year by about 19 day
As thl! moon pa8ses from onA of hllr nodes to the otber in 173
da18, there i. just thi. period between two succ88sive eclipaea
ECLIPSES.
259
of tbe sun, or of the mooD. In wbatever time of tbe yesr, then,
we have eclipses at eitber Dode, we may be sure tIIat in 173
day. afterwards, we shall bave eclipses at the other node.
:\s the moon'. nodes fiaII back, or Ntrograde in the ecliptic, at the rate
of 19!0 every year, they will colllJllet& a backWard revolution entirely
around the el'liptic to the IllUDe pumt again, in 18 yean 2t1i day.; in
which time there would alway. be a regular period of ec\ipBes, if any
compJete number of lunations were finished without a mnainder. But
this neYer happens; for if both the sun and moon mould start from a
line of conjunclion with either of the nodes in any point of the ecliptic,
the IIUIl would perform 18 annual revolutions and 2220 of another, while
the moon would perform 230 InnatioQa, and 86
0
of another, before the
node would come around to the same point of the ecliptic again; so that
the IIUIl would then be 1380 from the node, and the moon 86
0
&om
the san.
But after 223 lunations, or 18 years 11 day .. 7 houra, 42 minutes,
and 31 seconds, the aun, moon, and earth, will return so nearly in the
.. me po<ilion with respt'Ct to raeh other, that there will be a regular
retum of the /tame eclipae.. for many ages. '1'hia grand period waa
diacovered by the Chaldeaoa, and by them called 8aroB. If, therefore,
to the mean time of any eclipE, either of the sun or moon, we add the
Chaldean p'riod of 18 yean and 11 days, we shall have the return of
the same eclipse. This mode of predicting e c l i ~ will hold good for a
thousand years. In this period there are uauaIIy 70 ecliJ-; 41 of the
aun, and 29 "fthe moon.
The number of eclipses in anyone year, cannot be less than
two, nor more than Benn, In the former ease, they will both
be of the sun; and in the latter, there will be five of tbe 8un,
and two of the moon-those of tbe moon will he total. There
are sometimes six: but the usual number is four: two of tbe
aunt and two of the moon.
The cause of this variety ia thus IlCC01UIted for. Although the sun
usually paaI8II by both nodes only once in a year, be may Jl888 the
same node aguin a little befilre the end of the year. In consequence of
the retrograde motion of the moon's nodes, be will come to either of
them 173 day. after passing the other. He may, therefore, return to
the same node in about 346 days. having thus pused one node tIJJi
and the other _, making each time, at each, an eclipae of both the sun
and the moon, or Biz in all. And, since 121unationa, or 8M day. nom
the fir,t eclipse in thf' beginning of the year,leave room for another
new moon before the close of the year, and llinee this new moon may
tall within the ecliptic limit, it ia poaaible for the sun to be eelipaed again.
Thus there may be Be11e1I ecIi.- in the same year.
Again: when the moon changes in either of hf'r nodes, abe caHoot
come within the lunar ecliptic limit at the next full, (though if she be
If there are f- leap yean in thI. intef'f.al, add 11 day.; bllt if there .,..
",.., add only teD daYL
280
GEOGRAPHY OF THE HEAVENS.
foil ill one 01. her DOdea, ahe may come into the ... ediptic limit Ii
her next cAange, and llix montha afterwarda, she.will change near the
other node; thus making only two eclipaea.
The following is a 1m of all the BOlar eclipees th .. t will be visible in.
Europe and ADBica during the remainder of the century.
TN.
-
1IaJ ... -.
Il\sit.
Year. I Mrdh.
m' .... _.
o;po..
T
-.---
1848 Mar. I! 7 III A. M.
111711 Mar. 25 411 P. ltl.
1861 July 148 A. M ;It
1878
July
4 &6 P. M.
ISM May ttl 4ll1l P. M.
11t 1879 July 111 II
OA.M.
1858 Mar. 1& 614 A. M.
a
1880 Dec. 31 ? 30 A. M.
III
IH511 Jl11y 29 I! 3Il P. M.
1>-81
May
17 1
OA.M.
18110
July 18 193 A. M lass Mar 16 035 A.M.
8l
1861 Dec. 31 730A.M
4t 18116 Aug. 29 630A.M.
Ill.
1863
May
11 lOP. M.
1887 Aug. 10 o P. M.
1885 Oct.
19 10 A. M. 3. .
1890 June 11 3 o A.M.
1866 Ocl.
I> 111 A. M'I 0
June S 0 o Mer.
81
1867 Mar. S 0 AM.
1-112 !
Oo.t.
0111 P. M.
1868 l'eb. 2810 0 AM. 1891i .
I\lar. 4 o A.M.
1869 Aug. 7 II 21 A. M. 11Il
lriU6 I
Aug. 9 0 0 Mer.
1870 Dt-c. 22 II 0 A. M'
I
1M July
1111 9 8 A. M.
4l
1873 May 30A.M.
1899 \
June 13 DOMer.
11174 . Ocl. 10 4 0 A. M
1900 May
128 8 9 A. M.
11
1875 Sept. 19 II 116 A. M. III
The ecHJ- 01 18M, 1869, 1876, and 1900, will be very large. In
th088 of 1868, 1861, 1873, 1875, and 1880, the wn wiN rise ec/ipiltd.
Th088 of 1854 and 1876, will be annuiur. The dolar can coo-
tiDue this table, or exteDd it backward, by adding or subtracting the
CbaIdean period of 18 yeara, 11 days, 7 hours, 54 miDutea and 31
second.. .
'!'he lunar elements fur the lit of Jan. ISO I, are .. folloWl:
Mean distance (237,000 milea) earth eq. diam. .. unity, 29.9.76
Mean sidereailevolution, BOlar days, 27 d. 7 h. 43 m. 11.6 L
Mean tropical" "" 27 7 43 04.7
Mean synodical" ".. 29 12 02.87
Mean longitude, 1180 17' 08".3
Mean motion in a mean BOlar day, 13 10 36 .0
Mean long. of perigee, 2660 10' 7".4
Mean motion ofapsides, in a ao1ar day, '.. 6' '1".0
Sidereal rev. 01 apsides, ill mean BOlar days, 3232.6763
Tropical revolution of ditto, 3231.47'() 1
Mean anomaly, 2120 6' 69".9
Motion of ditto, ill a mean ao1ar day, 130.064991
Mean linomaliatic revolution, ill BOlar days 17 d. 13 h. 18 m. 37,4 L
Inclin.tion of orbit, 50 8' 47".9
A_nding node, 13 63 17.7
Motion of ditto, in a mean BOlar day, 3 10.8
revolution of nodes, 6793.39108
Synodical revolution of ditto, :U6.6198!;l
Revolution from node to node, 27 d. 6 h. 6 m. 36 ..
Et'CBntricity of orbit, . 0.06'8442
Greatest equation of center, 60 17' 12".7
tncIiruI&ion of axis.
Madmum evectioa,
Maximum ftriation,
Maxim1Jlll lJlllual equation,
Minimum horizoDtai parallax,
Meandiu.o,
Maximum ditto,
Maximum app. diam..
Mean ditto,
Minimum ditto,
ECLIPSES.
Mean diameter (about 2160 miles) earth'. u unit,.,
VoIulDll,earth88unity, - -. -
M ....
DeDaity,
261
1
0
30'10".S
1 20 29 .9
36 42.0
11 12.0
6S 48.0
67 00 .9
01 24.0
33 31 .1
31 07 .0
29 21 .9
3.ti6:1
I
''T
0.01252
0.61.')
MARS is the first of the exterior planets, its orbit lying im-
mediately without, or beyOfld, that of the earth, while tbole of
Mercury and Venuaare witAi... .
Mllfs appears to the naked eye, of a fine ruddy compll'xion ;
reaembling, in !lolor, and apparent magnitude, the atar Antares,
Dear which it frelJuently passes, It exhibits its greatest .bril-
Iiancy ahout the time that it rill88 when the sun sets, and sets
when the sun rill88; because it' is then nearest the earth. It is
lea.t brilliant when it rill88 and sets with the aun; for then it i8
five times farther removed from U8 than in the former ease.
I ts distance from tbe earth at its nearest approach is about
fifty nlilliona of milea. Its greate.t distance from us is abollt
two hundred and forty millions of miles. In the former case, it
appear8 nearly twenty-live timealarger than in the latter. When'
it ri8e8 before the Bun, it is our morning atar; when it sets after
the 8un, it ia our evening atar.
The distance of all the planets from the earth. whether they be interim
or exterior planets, varies within the limits of the diameters of their orbits
ror when a planet is in that point of its orbit which is nearest the earth,
it is evidently nearer by the whole diameter of ita orbit, than when it is in
the opposite point, on the other side of its orbit. The appDI't.f1t diamekr
of the planet will alao vary for the IRme l8IIIIOD, and to'the _ degree.
Mar8 ia aometimel leen in opposition.to the sun, and 8ome-
times in superior conjunction with him; sometimes gibbous, bllt
DOver horned. In conjunction, it is never seen to paBB over the
262 GEOGRAPHY OF THE HEAVEN&.
lun'l dilk, like Mercury and Venul. Thil not only that
ita orbit is u:ltrtor to the eartb'l orbit, but tbat it i8 an opue
body, Ibining only by tbe reflection of the lun.
The of Mari through the COD8tellationl of tbe zodiac
is but little more .tban laalf 81 great as that of the earth.; it being
trenerally about fifty-seven days in passing ovpr one lIilJll, which
IS at the rate of a little more than half a degree each day. ThuI,
if we kfloW wbat conltellation Mars entera to day, we may con-
clude diat two monthl hence it will be in the next cODtiteliation ;
fourmontlJl heol,e, in the next; six months, in the next, and 80
On.
Mars performs hil revolution around the sun in oile year and
ten and a half months, at the di8tance of a hundred and forty-
five million8 of milel; moving in ita orbit at the mean rate of
fifty-five thousand miles an hour. Ita diurnal rotation oli ita axil
II performed in twenty-four hours, thirtyseven minutes, and
twenty-one and a third seconds; which makea itl day about
forty-four minutes longer than ours.
Its mean Bidereal revolution is perfcmned in 1186.9796458 BOlar day.;
or in 686 day., 23 hoora, 30 minutes, 41.4 IIIICOJlda. Its Iynodical revo-
lution ill performed in 779.936 BOlar days; or in 779 day., 22 hows, 27
minutes, and 60 aeconda.
Ita form is that of an oblate spheroid, whose folar
is to ita equatorial, as fifteen is to sixteen, near y. ItB mean
diameter is 4222 miles. Ita bulk, therefore. is seven timel leu
than that of the earth; and being fifty millions of miles farther
from the 8un, it receivea from him only half 88 mucb light and
heat.
The inclination of ita axi8 to the plane of ita orbit, is about
28fo. Consequently, ita BeaBons mUlt be very 8imilar to those
of the earth. Indeed, the analogy between Mars and the earth
is greater than tbe analogy between the earth and any other
planet of the lolar system. Their diurnal motion. and of courae
the length of their daYB and nighta, are nearly the Bame; the
obliquity of their ecliptiCB, on which the sealons depend, are
not very different; anil, of all the superior planet8, the distance
of Mars from the Bun is by far the nearest to that of the earth ;
nor is the length of ita year greatly different from ourB, when
compared with the years of Jupiter, Saturn, and Herschel.
'ro a spectator on this planet. the earth will appear alternate-
ly, as a morning and eveni!lg star; and will exhibit aU the .
phases of the moon, just as Mercury and Venus do to U8; and
sometimes, like them, will appellr to pau over the lIun's disk
like a dark round spot. Our moon will never appear more than
II qtlGf'Itr qf II degree from the earth, although her distance froul
263
it is i40,OOO mil.. If Mars be attended by a satellite, it is too
small to be seen by the moet powerful telescopee.
When it is COIIIidered t!lat Vest&, the ImaUeat of the IIIteroida, which
ie _ mid " !&all times the cIiatance of Man from UB, and only 169
miles in diameter, is peroeivable in the open apace. and that without the
of a more COD8piCUOUB body to point it out, we may reuonably
oooc1ude that Man is without a moon.
The progn!IIi 01 Man in the heavens. and indeed of all the IUperior
plan .. will, lib Mercury and Venna, IOmetimea appear direct, aome.
timea and IOmetimea be will _m ltationary. When a su-
perior planet first becomes mible in the welt 01 the sun, a little
after its conjUDdion, its mOOon is direct, and a110 IIIOIt rapid. When it
iB first _ eut 01 the lUll, in tbe evening, IOOD after ita opposition, its
motion is rehvJ&mde. The. retrograde IIICm!IDentI and stations, III they
appear to a apectBtor from the earth, are common to all the plane ... and
demonIItrate the truth of the Copernican lYatam.
The telescopic pHenomena of Mars aft'ord p8C.'uliar intereat to
astronomers. They behold its disk diversified with numerous
irregular and variable apots, and ornamented witb zones aDd
belta of varying brilliancy, that form, and diRappear, by tuma.
Zones of intenae brightnllss are to be seen in its polar regiona,
subject, however, to gradual changea. That of tbe aouthern
pole ia much tbe moat brilliant. Dr. Herscbel 8Upp0888 that
tbey are produced by tbe reftection of tbe aun'a ligbt from the
frozen regioD8. and that the melting of tbese maa888 of polar ice
ia the caule of the variation in tbeir magnitude and appearance.
" He waa the more confirmed in these opiniona by observing,
tbat after tbe expoaure of the IUIDinoua zone about the nortb"
pole to a 8ummer of eight montbs. it waa conaiderably dureued.
while that on the BOuth pole, wbich had been in total darknes8
during eight months. had conaiderably i_tilled. "
He observed, further. that when this spot was most luminous,
the disk of Mars did not exactly round, and tbat the
brigM part of its aouthem limb seemed to be swollen or arched
out beyond tbe proper curve.
The extraordlDary hight and density of the atmospbere of
Mars. are luppoaed to be the caule of the remarkable rednesa of
its light.
It has been found by experiment, that when a beam of white
light paa888 tbrough any colorle.. transparent medium, ita
color inclines to red; in proJ?omon to the density of the medium,
and the space through WhlCb it has traveled. Thua the 8un,
moon, and stara, apllear of a reddish color when near the hori-
zon; and every luminoua object, seen through a mist, i8 of a
rnddy bue.
264 GEOGRAPHY OF THE HEAVENS.
This pbenomeoon may be th11l explainech-Tbe momentum of the
red, or Ieut refrauaibIe ra,., being greater than that of the violet. 01' IDOI&
refrangible raya, the former will make their way through the rtlI!i.atinc
medium, while the latter are either re8ected or abeorbed. The color of
the betJm, thendOre, when it JI!IIChes the eye, mWlt partake of the c:olor
of the Ieut reIia,ogibIe raya, aod this color muat mer- with the w.
taDce. '!'he dim light, therefOre, by which Man ia illuminated, haviug
to pa.- twice through ita ~ e r e before it JI!IIChes the earth, mWlt be
deprived of a great proportion of ita violet raya, aod COIIIIIMI.lkmtly then be
red. Dr. Brewater IUPJIOIIeII that the diflerence'bf color among the other
planeta, and even the fixed stara, ia owing to the diflerent bights aod
denaitiea of their atmospheres.
The elliptical e1ementa of Mala, for Jan. lilt, 1801, are as follows:
Mean distance (142,000,000 miles), earth'. as unity, 1.6236923
Mean aid. 1e9.,. . . . . . . . . . . . 686 d. 23 h. 30 m. 41.4 L
Mean &yo. do., in BOlar days, 779.936
Long. of perihelion.. . . . 332
0
2:)' 66".6
Motion cir apaidea, E. per. an., .' 16".8
.. Rpparent for preceasion, I' 05".1f
Inclination of orbit, 10 51' 0 6 " . ~
.-\nl1ual decrease of do., 0".014
Long. of ABC. node.. 480 0' 03".5
Motilln of do. w. per annum, 13" .It
.. .. E. refilrred to the ecIiptic,. 26".tI
Eccentricity of orbit. Semi maj. axia unity, 0.0933070
Secularincreaae of do., 0.00090176
Greate- t equation of center, 10 40' 60"
Annual decTe&Be of do., 0".37
Rotation on axia.. 114 h. 37 m. lID.6 ..
Inclination ofaxia. 300 18' 10".8
Mean app. diam... 8".19
Diam. at conjunction, .3".80
.. .. oppoaition,. 18.J8
True diam. (4100 miles). earth as unity, 0.617
Volume, earth as unity, 0.1386
M .... IIUD as unity, 0.0000003927
THE ASTEROIDS, OR TELESCOPIC PLANETS.
AacC!m11l'8 higher in the solar system, we find, between the
orbite of Mara and Jupiter. a cluster of nine small planete. which
present a variety of anomalies that distinguish them from all the
older planete of the system. They were all discovered withia
the present centufJ.
THE ASTEROIDS.
The dalell of their diIcovery, IIIIIl the __ of their ani
fOllow.: .
Veres, January 1, 180 I, by M. Piazi, of Palermo.
Pallas, March 28, 1802, by M. Olben, of BJeD1811.
Juno. September 1,1804, by M. Harding, of Brelllllll.
Vesta, March 29, 1807, by M. Olben, of BJeD1811.
Astrea, 8th December, 1846, by Heneke, of I>nD-a.
Hebe, 6th July. 1114,7, .. .. .. ..
Iris, 13th Auguat, 1114,7, by Hind, of LoodoD.
Flora, 18th Oct., 1114,7, .. .. .. ..
Metis, 26th A pri1, 1848, by Graham, of 8ligo.
The scientific Bod". entertained the . opinion. that the plane-
tary distanl'M, above formed a geometrical aerietl, each
exterior orbit being double the distance of its next interior one,
from the sun; a fact which obtain. with remarkable exactness
between Jupiter, Saturn, and Herschel.. But this law seemed
to be interrupted between Mars and Jupiter. Hence he inferred,
that there wa. a planet wanting in that inteT\'al; which is now
happily supplied by the discovery of the four .tar-jorm planets,
occupying the very space where the unexplained vacancy pr,,"
aented a strong objection to his theory.
These bodie. ere muc1& trmIJller in size than the older planets-
they all revolve at _IV t1ae _ diltaru:u from the sun, and
perform their revolutionslD _Iy t1ae_ perioda.-their orbits
are mucb more and bave a mue1& greater ifll!lifltJlion to
the ecliptic.-and what is altogether singular. except in the case
of comets-nearly aU crOll _1& oJ1acr I so that tbere IS even a pol-
li/Jjlity that two of these bodies ma1' some time, in the court18
of tbeir revolutions, come into colliSion.
The orbit of Veata is .0 eccentric. that sbe i. sometime. far-
ther from the sun than either Ceres, Pallas, or Juno, although
ber mean distance is mallY millions of mile. less than tbeirs.
The orbit of V IISta crossetl the orbits of all the other three, in
two oppOIite points.
From these and otber eireumstancee, many eminent astrono-
mers are of opinion, that these four planets are the. fragments of
a large celetlual body which once revolved between Mars snd
Jupiter. and which burst asunder by lOme convul-
a AceordinglO him, the diltance.oCthe planeta may be ezprelled nearly ..
6:>lIowI: the eiU'lh'a cliltanC" &om the IUD being ID.
Mercury " d I Alteroidl '!m)(!l c:=28
Venul, ':mJl =7 Jupiter .4 'x'lll =62
The Earth, ...... 1=10 Salurn .... .. .... =1110
Man, ................ =111 Henchel ............ 4+3XIll .... ..
Comparing 1M ..... alael with the actaal mean dillancel DC the planell froIB
tbe aan. we eanuot but remark the near agreement, and can eoareely helitate
10 pronounce tbal the relpeetive distancel of Ihe from the sun, were
aaoigned according to R law. althou(rh we are enurel, ignorant of the exact
law, and oflbe reatOn Cor that Illw.-Bri..w.,, EIImeitII. p. 88.
Y
_ GEOGRAPHY OF THE HEAVENS.
aion, or BOrne external nolenee. The discover, of Ceres hy
Piazzi, on the first day of the preaellt century, drew the atten-
tion of all the astronomers of the age to that region of the sky,
and every inch of it was minutely explored. The consequence
was, that, in the year following, Dr. OIbers, of Bremen, an-
nounced to the world the discoyery of Pallas, situated not many
from Ceres, and very much reaemblinl1 it in size. .
From this discovery, Dr. Olbers first concelyed the idea that
these bodies might be the fragments of a former world. and if
80, that other portions of it might be found either in tbe same
neighborhood. or elae, baving diverged from the same point,
they ought to have two common points of reunion, or two
nodes in opposite regious of the heavens throu1h which all the
planetary fragments must sooner or later pass.' . .'-
One of these nodes he found to be, in the constellation Virgo,
and the opposite one, in the Whale; aDd it is a remarkable co-
incidence that it was in the neighborhood of the latter constel-
lation that Mr. Harding discovered the planet Juno. In order.
therefore, to detect tbe remaining fragments, if allY existed, Dr.
Olbers examined, tbree times eyery year, alf the small stsrs in
Virgo, and the Whale; and it was actually in tbe constellation
Virgo, that he discovered the planet Vesta. .some astronomers
think it not unlikely tbat otber fragments of a similar description
may hereafler be dlscoyered. Dr. Brewster attribute& the fall
of meteoric atones to the smaller fragments of these bodies hap-
pening to come witbin tbe sphere onhe earth's attraction.
Met.eoric atones, or what are generally termed aerolite3, are atofl.ee
which IOID8I;imes fiill from upper regions of the here, upon the
earth. '!'he substance of which tbey are composed, IS, for the most part,
metalIit: I but the ore of which it consista iB not to be fuund in tM aatne
_titumt in any known substance upon the earth. Their
fiill ia generally by a luminous appearance, a hlaaing noise, and
a low! explosion; and, when fuund immediately after their descent, they
are al_yehot, and UBUaIly cxmnd with a black crust, indieating a IItaIe
of exterior tu.ion.
Their size variee from that of ama1l fragments of inconaidmable weight,
to that of the most ponderous _ . They have been fiIund to weigh
from 300 pounds to ae'feral tons; and they have descended to the earth
with . furce lIIllBcient to bury them many feet under the sur&ce. . .
have supposed that the, are projected from volCan08ll in the
moon; others, that they proceed from volcanoes on the earth; while
othel1l imagiRe that they are generated in the regions of the atmosphere ;
bat the truth, probably, iB not yet ucerlained. In lOme inatances, these
atonea 00""' penetrated through the roo& of houaes, and. prom deatnloo
ti'fe to the inhabitants.
If we carefully compute the foroe of gravity in the moon, we shall find,
tbBt if body were projected tiom her surliloe with a momentum that
TH& AST&ROIDII.
'Would ca_ it to move at the rUe of 8,!l!)O ht in the &at II8COIId of
time, and in the directiOli of a line joining the cent.era at the earth and
moon, it would not fall again to the surface of the mooD; but would be-
come a aatellite to the earth. Such an impulae migh" indeed, cause it,
even after many revolutiona, to fall to the earth. 1'he faU, therefore, of
tbMe IItmea, from the air, may be IUlOOWlted for in this manner.
Mr. Harte calculates, that even a velocity of 6000 feet in a _d,
wooId be nfticient to carry a body projected from the surface of the
DlOOIl beyond the power of her at&ndion. If 110, a prQjectile force three
timeII grea_ than that at a cannon, woald carry a lioJy from the moon
beyaad the point of equal attraction, and _ it to reach the earth. A
fOrce equal to thia ia often elerted by oar volcanoeI, and by mbtenanean
Iteam. Hence, there ia no imJlOllllibility in the -auppoaition of their
coming from the moon; but yet I think the theory of aerial cooaolida-
1ion the _ plaulible.
Of the old .steroids we ptM8nt the following noticea:
Vea&a appears like a lltar of the 5th or 6th magnitude, shining
'With a pure steady radiance, and is tbe only one of the aater-
oids which can be diacemed by the naked eye.
JUlfO, the next planet in order after Vesta, revolves around
the san in foar years, four and a half monthe, at the mean dis-
tance of two hundred and fifty-foar millions of miles, moving
in her orbit at the rate of forty-one thouaand milea an hour.
Her diameter ia estimated at 1393 milee. This woold make her
magnitude a hondred and eighty-three tim .. I ... than the earth's.
The light and heat which ahe receiv .. from the sun ia Beven
188a than that received. by the earth.
The eccentricity of ber orbit is 80 great, that ber greateat dis-
!apce from the sun ia nearly double ber least distance; eo that,
wben ehe is in ber perilNliort, she ia nearer the sun by a bundred
and thirty milliona of miles, tban wben she is in her aplNliun.
This great eccentricity has a corresponding effllCt upon her rate
of motion; for being so much nearer, and therefore ao macb
more powerfally attracted by tbe sun at ODe time thaD at Bnother,
abe moves through that half of her orbit wbich is nearelt tha
aUD, in one balf of the time that Ibe oecupiea in comp\etinjf tbe
otber half.
According to Schroeter, the diameter of JWlO ia 1425 miIea; and abe
is arrounded by an atmospbenl more denee than that of any nf the
other planetI. 8cIuoeter alIO remarb, that the ftriatioo in her
ia chie8y owing to certain changes in the denaity of her atmoIpbere; at
the 88IJle time be thinb it not improbable that the. chaagaI may ariae
from a diurnal revolution on her axiL
. ellRIIS, the planet next in ordAr af'ter Juno. re.,ol., ... about the
Ian in four years, seven and a tbird monthe, lit tbe mean distance
of two hundred and sixty-three and a half willious of milll",
26M GEOGRAPHY OF THE HEAVEN8.
moving in ber orbit at tbe rate of forty-one thouaand milpa aD
bOllr. Her diameter ia eatimated at 1582 milea, wbicb makes
ber magnitude a bundred and twenty-five times leas tban the
eartb's. The intensity of the Iigbt and beat wbich she receives
from the alln, ia about Beven and a balf times 1888 than that of
those received by the eartb.
Cerea shines witb a ruddy color, and appears to be only abou'
the size of a atar of the eighth magnitllde. Conseqllently she is
never seen by tbe eye. She ia aurrounded by a species
of cloudy or nebulous light, wbich gives her aomewbat the ap-
pearance of a comet, forming, according to Scbroeter, an atmo-
sphere aix hundred and Beventy-five milea in hight.
Ceres, as has t-n IBid, _ the tint diacovered of die uteroid&. A&
her diacovery, aatronolDtll'l congratulated themselvea upon the hlU'lDODY
of the lIYatem being II!IIIoJed. TIley bad long wanted a planet to tiD up
the great void between Man and Jupiter, in order to make the .,....
complete in their own eyell; but the auooesaive diaeoveries of Pllll .. and
Juno again introdoced confusion. and presented a difficulty which tbey
were unable to 101"." till Dr. Olben auggestod the idea that these BIIIaII
anomalous bodiee were merely the liagmente of. larger planet, whieh
bad been exploded by aome Among tht- most able
and decided advocates of this hy . is Dr. Brewster, of Edinburgh.
P ALLAa, tbe next planet in order after Cerea, performs her re-
1'0lution arollnd the alln in four years. &eYen and two-third months,
at the mean distance of two hundred and sixty-follr millions of
miles, moving in her orbit at tbe rate of forty-one thouaand miles
an bour. Her diameter ia eatimated at 2025 miles, which is but
liul", less than tbat of our moon. It ia a singular and very re-
markable phenomenon in the solar syatem, that two planets,
(Cerel! and Pallas.) nearly of the same aize. ahollid be aituated
at equal distancea from the sun, revolve about bim in tbe aame
period. and in orbita tbat intersect each other. The diffeJ'PDC8
In tbe respective diatances of Ceres and Pallas is less than a
million of miles. The difference in their sidereal revolutions,
according to aome aatronomera, hi but a single day!
The calculation of the latitude and longitude of the BlltProids, is a
labor of extreme difficulty, requiring more than four hundred equation.
to reduce their anomalous p"rturbations to the true place. This an-
from the want of auxiliary tables, and flom the filet Ihat the elementa
of the a&arform planets, are very imperfectly determined. Whether any
of the asteroids baa a rotation on its axis, remains to be ascertained. The
tDlIowing table exlnDits the present .... te of knowledge with reference to
the aateroids. The longitudes are referred to the mean equinox, JIIII. 1.
UM8, except Metis, which iB fur April 30, 1848.
Name .
I Flon,
'Vella,
3 bia,
4 Metia,
II Hebe,
6 Albea,
7 JUlIO,
8 llereB,
II pan.,
NameL
I Flon,
S V8I&a,
3Iria,
01 Mea.,
5 Hebe,
6 AIIIlea,
7 Juno,
8 c-,
9 PaIlu,
TBB ABTBROID8.
BeY. ill Sid. da,. ..
1198.16
18S5.st
1346.16
13016.010
1876.26
11110.75
1694.68
1880.96
1686.66
Bpoob.
1MB Jan. 1.0
1847 April, 01.0
18017 Sept. 1.0
1848 April, 80.0
1847 July, 10.0
1847 March, 16.0
1847 July, 9.5
1848 March, 12.0
1848 March, 4.0
Aph. Dial.
loM7l16
1.671997
1.936886
1.908567
8.060943
8.349368
1.979798
3.438811
M"an -air.
36058' 32".0
810 46 101 .7
198 18 87.2
loll 601 11 .82
1701 601 01.8
63 80 49 .3
158 0602.1
21 MOO.6
24 57 sa.4
u .... n,-ContiRued.
Peri. DiaL
1.86&244.
1.150346
1.884262
1.986888
1.092456
1.998166
1.658746
I.I068CK
Lour. uc. node.
1100 18' 50".8
103 II 01 .8
269 015 19 .6
68 29 40.4
138 01044 .8
141 29 19 .1
170 53 51 .0
80 47 17 .9
171 012 II .8
Name ..
.1 Flon,
2 V8I&a,
3 Iria,
Long uc. ROdeo-Long.
0( Perihelion. Inclinalion.
50 52' 65".9
70880.3
6 IS 10.9
6 36 t4 .0
Aug. or Bccelllrioil,..
go 01' 36".9
01 Mea.,
6 Hebe,
6 Aatrea,
7Juno,
8 Ceree,
9 P.uu.
'f7O 26' ol9".1
tl2 16 It.4
118 1836.6
4 to t7.7
123 36 42 .1
6 00 31 .4
116 35 04 .11
298 28 14 .7
61 26 35 .1
Name .
1 Flora,
IVeata,
8 Iria,
01 Mea.,
6 Hebe,
6 AII&leao
7 Juno,
==
101 44 to .3
5 19 17 .1
13 OS 39 .3
10 37 18 .1
301 37 31 .1
6 07 II .6
13 10 60 .1
7 1836.9
11 81 11 .4
10 019 65 .8
101 012 19 .6
01 t4 66 .8
13 601 48.9
111_ d.aily Sid. -.
1086".1100
977 .948
963 .4498
962 .6660
941.37601
867 .8498
811 .7011
770 .9868
768 .8868
From theee eiemlmtll and data, IOIIlfJ curioua result. may be obtained
10
There are where the orbits are entirely encIoaed the ODe
within the other viz.
Flo:", &n
Iris and Flora in Juno.
A.trea and Vesta PaiIa
In., FLora, I'Flas, Vesta Cergg
The following orbite interlock like the links af a chain,
He"", and Ftrea.
Juno and AIItnla.
V,Fgg and
Flo"" and tsFrea.
Iris and Astrea.
PalFb in lkFb
H,L" and
Vesta and Iris.
FI,gg, and
PFbb and "ggko.
V est&. and Juno.
H,L,., and "",,0.
Ceres an" Juno.
Pall .. and Hebe.
V ggb and Hebe.
Cergg and Hebe.
Pallas in Flora.
V,,,,L,, in Fk,la.
In those cases where the orbits interlock with each other, .. the nocIe.
one orbit on any other are perpetually shifting, the tum, COb",
Fhen actuH inter",k:uon the mal" take suck
iime the two planets should be found at the same in this now COOP
mon point of their orbits, a collision would tske in
:zuen'" "f the "robahl" rotark ",oUon the :m,ving ,'r,jjes, muld k:':A
,Yuee a sudden terrific shock. The very1lear equality of the orbital
motions would eecure the from any severe collision from their
",e:IOciH", in
If kke knowk,rillge or lheee minute planeta was perfect, it would not be
impossible. 10 compute backward or forward and ascertsin the time
e:f ::::'eA!D
. times ?f !'e with the periods of
be "kmrnds U,eIl' ou::ts, It mould ",mp:m' the
mhen ,::lIisi'r: c,f thll hiane 10 pla:r:.
By computstions Encke found that about the year A. D. :ll!97, the
::!! "c! of
been attempted.
Th:: of Ortul'll gahz'l'II 8,;ngth new
mfl\'ered. ll}thoL,;h the that the alcillmlion Flora than
of Ceres, preaenta a difliCuity which had not before existed.
f fTPITEfTts
JUPITER is the largest of all the planeta belonging to the solar
system. It may be readily distintsdsh,d from the 6","C starll,
It:y ita kkple21:':TILr and magfLi:TIL,de;. to nak21:Y
JUPITER.
271
eye almost as retlplendent as Venus, although it II more than
Beyen times her distance from the sun. .
When his right aacension il less than that of the lun, he is
onr morning star; and appeara in the eastern hflmisphere before
the sun rieel; when greater, he il our evening star, and lingers
in the western hemisphere after the lun sets.
Nothing can be easier than to trace Jupiter among the can-
stellationlof the zodiac; for in whatever constellation he il seen
&ooclay, one year hence he will be seen equally advanced in the
na:I conltellation; two yeara hence, in the next; three years
hence, in the next, and 10 on; being just a year, at a mean rate,
in paning oyer one constellatioD.
The exact mean moIion of Jupiter in iii orbit, ill about' OIIe twelfth of
a degree in a day; wlW:h IIIIOUI1tII to 0DIy SOO 10' W' in year.
Jupiter il the next planet in the solar IYltem aboTe the ute-
roidl, and performl hi' annual reyolution around the lun in nearly
lSi of our yearll, at the mean distance of millionl of milea;
maTing in hil orbit at the rate of 30,000 an bour. .
The exact period of Jupiter'.1idareal re't'OIution 1111 yean, 10 months,
17 day .. 14 houra, 21 mutel, 261118C011d-. HII exact _ diItance
from &be Bun is U5,533,837 ume.; COIII8CIuently, &be exact rate of
motion in his orbit, is 29.943 ume. per hour.
. He reyolvfll on an axil, which is perpendicular to the plane
.of his orbit. in 9 houra, 55 minutea, and 50 secondl; so that his
year contains days and nights; each about 5 houralong.
His form il that of an oblate spheroid. whoee polar diameter
il to its equatorial, 81 13 to He il therefore considerably
more !attened at the polel, than an'y' of the other planets, excep"
Saturn. This is cauaed by hil rapid rotation on his axil; forh
il a univeraal law, that the equatorial parts of every body reyolv-
ing on an axil, will be !"Wollen out in proportion to the denlit1
of the body, and the rapidity of its motton.
The di8immee between the polar IDII equatorial diametmw of Jupiter,
6000 miles. The difference between &be polar ad equatorial
diametera of &be earth, ia oa1y 26 miles. Jupiter, eVen on &be IDOIt _
_ view through gpod teJeacope, aD'Dl!llrll be oval; &be loager diaJne.
tel being parallel to the direction of which are aIao parallel to
UJ..e ecliptic.
-B, this rapid whirl on his Uil, his equatorial inhabitants are
earned around at the rate of SI6.5M miles ao hour; which is
1600 miles farther than the equatorial inhabitants of the earth
are carried, by its diurnal motion, in ltJmIty.J'our Aourt.
the true mean diameter of Jupiter il 86,255 miles; which il
Il88rly.ll times greater than the earth'l. Hil volume ii, there-
GEOGRAPHY OF THE HEAVENS.
fore, about Iltirlaft AfHIIlretl pli1es luger tban dlat oC the earth.
On account of hi8.great di8tance Crom the lon, the degree of
lif{bt and hest which he receive8 from it, il 117 Woes lea dian
thal received by the earth.
When Jupiter is in conjunction, he liaes, ..ita, and comes to the meri-
dian with the sun; but is never obeerYed to make a transit, or paas OYer
the aun's disk; when in opposition, he n-when the 8\Dl ... BellI when
the Bun riaee, and comes to the meridian at midnight, which never hap-
pens in the _ of an interior planet. This plOY. that Jupiter nmJI_
m an orbit which is t:IJIerior' to that of the earth.
A8 the variety in 'the seaions DC a planet, and in the length of
its daY8 and, nights, depends upon the inclination of its axia to
the plane of its orbit, and a8' the axi8 of Jupiter has no inclina-
tion, there can be no difference hi hi8' 8ea80ns, on the same par-
allel8 of latitude, nor any ftriation in the length of his days and
nights. hil not to be o:odentood, howeyer, that one tmiJarra
_1m preYaill from hi8 equator to his poles; bot that the __
parallel. rf laHlutk on each aide of hil equator, oniformlyenjoy
the same sealon. whatever lea80n it may be.
Aboot his equatorial regions, there is perpetoalsummer; and
at his poles, everlasting winter; but yet equal day and eqoal
ntght at each. "his arrangement seems to have been kindly or-
dered by the beneficent Creator; for had bis axis beeo inclined
to his orbit, li,ke that of the earth, his polar wintelR woold bue
been alternately a dreadfull,light ,of rill: !I_' tltw/mul.
Jupiter, when viewed througb a teleecope, appean to be
rounded by a number pf luminoos sones, usually termed bella,
tbat frequ,ently extend qoite around him. These belts are parallel
.not.ouly to each otber . bot, in general, to his equator, which i
allo neerly parallel to the ecliptic. They are subject, howeyer.
to considerable variation, both in breadth and .Dumber. Som ..
times eight hays been seen at once; sometimes only one, but
more usually three. Dr. Herachel once perceived bil wbole
disk covered with small belts.
Sometimel these belts continue for month I at a time widl
little or no variation, and sometimel a new belt hal been II881l
to (orm in a Cew houn. Sometimes they are interrupted in their
length; ,and It odler timea, thet appear to spread in widtb, and
run into each other, until their readth exceeds 5,000 miles.
Bright and dark IpOts are also frequently to be leen in tile
belts, whicb uaually diaappear witb tbe belta themselyes, though
not alwaYI. for C8IIini obserYed that one ooeupiedthe same
position more than 40 yean. Of the _ oC tbese nriable
appearancel. but little ia known. The, are gtinera\ly IUppoaed
to be nothing mon than resulting from.
or combiDed widl. abe rapid mouoll oCdle planetupon i&8' axia..
.JUPITER. 278
DiftiDent opinioDl haft been enIIeJ1ained by utrooOlDell I'8IIpIIding the
ta1lle of th_ belli and _ they have been regvded ..
c1ouda. or RI openinp in the of the planet, ... hiIe other8 ima-
gine that they are of more permanent nature, and are the nwIuI of
pat phyaieal revoIutiouI, which are perpetually agiw.ting and changinf
the IIUIface of the planet. The &r.i 01 opiniOlll IlUfticiently ex-
pIainII the ftriatioDl in the form and magnitud'e of the 1pOU, and the
of the beltl. The apot firat qbaerved by CIIIIIIini, in 1666,
Which hal both dilappeared and' zeappeared in the __ form and
lion for the Bpace 01"4 a yean, couhr not potIIibly be occuioned by any
I&moIphericai variatioDl, but EeIIIII evidently to be connected with the
IIUlfiu:e of the planet. The l"onn of the belt, according to _ utrono-
men, may be accounted for by IUppoeing that the almotIJIAtn reftectl
, more light than the body of the planet, and that the cloud. which float in
it, being thrown into palaIIellltrata by the rapidity of ill diurnal motioo,
bm regular inttndica, through which are _n ita opeke body. Ol any
f1I the permanent .. which may ex.. within the JaIIIJII of the openins.
Jupiter ia alao attended by four latellilea or moon., lOme of
which are visible to him every hour ofthe night; exhibiting,oa
a amall acala and in short periods. moat of the phenomena of'the
BOlar aystem. When ,iewed through a teleacop .. the.. satel-
litea present a moat interesting and beautiful appaarance. The
firat aatellite, or that nearest the planet, is 259,000 milel distan&
from its center, and revolves around it in 42i houra; and appeara,
at the surface of Jupiter, four times larger than our moon doee
to 118. Hia second satellite, heiug both smaller and farther dis-
&ant, appeara about the'lize of oura; the third, IOmewhat less;
and the fourth, wbich ia more than a million of miles from him,
and takes 16l days.to revol,e arodnd hiDl, appeara only abou&
one tAird the diameter of our moon.
These satellites luifer frequent eclipses from paaaing through
Jupiter'. sbadow; in the aame manner 88 our moon il eclipaed
in paaaing through the earth's shadow. The three nearest aa-
tellitel faU into hia abadow, and are eclipaed, in e,ery revolu-
tion; but the orbit of the fourth ia 10' much inclined, that it
p88888 by its opposition to bim, two yeara in lix, without fall-
Ing into his shadow. By meana of tbese eclipaea, altronomers
haye not only diacovered tbat light is 8 minutes and 13 second a
in to us from the sun, but are also enabled to determine
tbe longitude of places on the earth with greater facility and
exactness than by any other methode yet known.
It was long since found, by the moat careful obIIervatiOlll. that when
the earth is in that part of her orbit which is nearelt to Jupiter, the
eclipeea appear to happen 8' IS" _ than the tables predict; and
when in that part of her orbit which is fartbeat from him. 8' IS" later
&ban the tableB predict; making a total diffimmce in time, of 16' 26".
From the mean of 6000 ecnp- ot.ned by Delambre, thia di-.greement
A4 GEOGRAPHY OF THE HEAVENS.
and esIt:uItztiDn. __ tUfactiorily.uled at 8' 13",
while both _ COJIlIidered equally corNC&. NIIW,. wbeo the eeliJ-
happen _ than the mbIee, Jupiter i. at hie --' approach to the
eill1h-when 1ater, at hill greateBt distance; 10 that the tIi&reDee in m.
dlBlance8 from the earth, in the two -. i. the &olIole diomder of
earth', orbit, or about 100 millions of miles. Renee, it i. concludeil that
litrht iI not itutontaneow, but that it occupiell 16' lMI" in puaing IClOIe
the earth'. orbit, or 8' 13" in coming from the IAIIl to the earth; being
nearly 12 milliona of milea a minute.
The revolutions of the sstellites about Jupiter are precisely
similar to the revolutions of the planets about the SUD. In this
respect they are sn of the solar exhibiting, on
a smaller scale, the various change. that take place among the
planetary worlds.
Jupiter, when I88D from hi. D88reat 18tellite, al?paara a tlwtr
14M ti_larJcer than our moon does to us, exhibiting OD a &Csi.
of iDoonceinlilfl magnificence, the varying forms of a crescent,
a half moon, IL gibbous phase, and a full moon, every fo">"two
hours.
El __ of Jupiter and bi. .. te16tes b Jan Iat, lSOI.
PLUln.
Mean aid. JeVolu. (nearly 12 y_), aoIar da"...
Mean I)'noWc leY. IOlar daya, "
Mean longitude,
U8Sd. 14b. OSlO. OS.1iI.
898.867
1120 15' sa".O
Mean orbital mo. in a IOlar day,
Do. per annum,
Longitude of perihelion,
... nnwd mo. of apsidea eastward, "
Do. refeIred to the ecliptic.
Inclination of orbit to the ecliptic:,
Annual d_ of 'do.
Longitude bf -mmg node
Mo&ion at do. west per .nnum,
Ditto east, refeIred to the ecliptic:, "
EccenVicity of orbit, half aD nnity,
111CI'8IIII8 of ditto in a centuty,
Greatest equation at center,
Annual increaaa of ditto,
Rotation on axis,
Inclination of axis to ecliptic,
Mean apparent eq. diam.
".
Ditto at conjunction,
Ditto at opposition . ""
True diam. (00,000 milea_l.J) earth'. cliam. unity,
Volume, earth'. l1li unity, " " "
BUD'S:- unily'l " " " "
DeD81ly', BUn l1li UOlly', " " "
Mean distance C 485,000,000 mllea), earth'. l1li unity,
4 69 .26
80 20 82 .0
11 08 M .6
6.06
67.06
1 18 In .3
o .128
88 18 18 .9
16 .8
84 .8
0.0481621
0.000169860
rP 81' 13".8
o .634
Db. 56m. 49.71.
8005' 80".0
86.74
30.00
46 .88
10 .860
1280.0
0.000934 1 ,:n
0.99239
6.102776
JUPITER.
275
8.lTUoLITU.
1:'":"_-.-_---:---,,--1 Finl. second. Third. Fourth.
Sid. rey. in .. 18h.l8m. 3d. ISh. 14m.1d.8h.43iD." Ukl. ;!:IIII.
D.\lo for comp'lIation, .'111913'18 3 MIBIOI 7 .1M.W2S 16 6"*1,61,
M.an app. dlam. ()I'.IIII 1".273
Ditto in miles. !508 bJ8 33?7 ll800
M. .... Jap. as one. 0.0000173 0.0000lI3I 0.0000885 O.OIlOOt27
M. dill JIlp. eq. nod. ul. .0t863 Ut:J47 15 350:/4
Dilloin degreee, 1'&7".92 0"3'07".64 0"04'59".320"8'
Ditto in mile., I1lO,OOO 420,000 6711,000 . 1.100.000
A IDOIt curiOUI phenomenon with rdmmce to on8 of the satellites of
Jupiter, lull _aly been at the Cambridge ob8e"atory, and
aIao at the (,'int:inuati oberYatory. In Jllllling IICl(8 the diJIk of 'he
p\aDe&, it bu been __ to 10lIl illl ligbt .. if undergoing ecIipae, until it
finally becomeI a 6/Qek apot on the diIk of the planet; after pIIIIIiDs otf
the disk it __ ita liah&.
SATURN.
SATUU is situated between the orbita of J upher and Herschel,
and Is the moat remote planet from the earth of any that are
visible to the naked eye. It may be easily distinguished from
thfO fixed stars by ita pale, feeble, and steady light. It resembles
the star Fomalhaut, both in color and size, differing from it only
in the steadiness and uniformic,y of ita light.
From the slowneea of ita monon in ita orbit, the pu pil, through-
out the period of hia whole life, may trsce its apparent course
among the atars, without any danger of. mistake. Having once
.found when it entera a particular constellation, he may easily
remember where he is to look for it in IIny subsequent year;
because, at a mean rate, it is just two and a half years in Palla-
ing over a single sign or constallation.
Saturn's mean daily motion among the stan is only about 2',
the thirtieth part qf II degree,
8atum entered the COIlIIIIllation V"ugo about the beginning c{ 1833,
Ind COIltinued ill it until the middle of the year 1835, when he paseed
into Libra. Be will continue in that coll8teDation until 1838; and 10
on; occupying .bout 21 yeam in each COJl8telladon, or nearly thirty years
m one JeYOlution.
The mean distanee of Saturn f"rom the IUD il nearly double tbal
of" Jupiter, being about nine bundred and nine milliOfts or miles.
Hil diameter is aboG 82,000 miles; his volume therefore is
ekven Atmdred timu greater than the earth's. MoYing in his
orbit at the rata of 22,000 mil .. an bour, he requires twenty-
Dine and a hair y.... &0 oomplete Iris circuit around the sun :-
278 GEOGRA.PHY OF THE HEA.VENS.
but hi. diurnal rotltion on hi. axil i. in ten and a
" hlalf houl'l. Hill Yflar, therefore, i. Dearly thirty tim81 as long
as ours, while hill day is shorter by more than ODe balf. Hi.
year cantlin. about il5,150 of ite own day., wbicb are equal SO
10.759 of our days. ' '
surface of Saturn, like tbat of Jupiter, is diversified with
belts and dark apote. Dr. Herschel aometim81 perceived five
belts on hia aurface; three of wbich were dark, and two bright.
The dark belts have a yellowiah tinge, and' generally cover a
broader zone of the planet than those of Jupiter.
To the inhabitente of Saturn, tbe aun appears ninety timea
l8Is than he appears to tbe earth; and they receive from him
only one nimtidA part as much Iigbt and beaL But it is com-
p'uted that even the part of the sun'. light exceeds the
IIlumiuating power of 3,000 full moons, whicb would be abun-
danti y sufficient for all the purposes of life.
The telescopic appearsnce of Saturn is unparalleled. It is
even more interesting than Jupiter, with all his moon. and beltL
That which eminently distinguisbes this planet from evef1 other
in the system, is a magnificent zone or ring, encircling It with
perpetual light.
The light of the ring is more brilliant than tbe planet itself.
It turns around hs center of motion id the same time tbat Saturn
tuma on ita axis. When viewed with a JOod telescope, it is
found to consist of two concentric rings, diVIded by a darl!. band.
By the Ia_ of mechanica, it is impoaaible that the body of the rinp
should retain ita position by the adhesion of the particIeB alone; it mWlt
necell881'ily revolve with a velocity that will generate centrifugal force ...
Scient to balance the attraction of Satum. Obeervation' eonfirma the
truth of th_ principles. showing that the ringa rotate about the planet
in 10! hOOD, which is considerably Ie. than the time a ";'wllite would
tak" to revolve about it at the aame distance. 'fheir plane is inclined to
the ecliptic in an angle of 310. In CODIIIlqUllllCe of this obliquity of
poaition, they always appear elliptical to us, but with an eccentricity ..
variable 88 to appear, ClCCaBionally, like a IItnIight line drswn a<."l'Oll8 the
planet; in which _ they are visible only by the aid of superior instru-
ments. Such _ their pooition in April, 1833; for the BUD W88 then
paRSing from their .. uth to their north Bide. The ringa intenleCt the eclip-
tic in two opposite point&, which may be called their node&. Tht-...e pointa .
Ill\! in longitude 1700, and 3500. When, therefore, Saturn is in either of
these point&, his rings will be invisible to WI. On the contrary, when
his longitude is 800, or 2000. the rinp may be _ to the greatest advan-
tage. A. the edpt of the rinp will pteleDt ,lhelllolelvea to the SUD twice
in each revolution of the pIanet, it is ObviOUB that the disappearance of
them will occur once in about 15 yeara; aubject, however, to the varia-
tion dependent on the poaition of the earth at that time.
The ful10wing are the dBte8 during the ensuing revolutioBB of the
planet, wben ita mean /JeIioantric lonaitude is IIUch that the rings will (if
1838 July,
1847 Dec.
1A55 April,
1863 NOt'.
soc III 8eorpio,
10 of AquariUl,
SOC of Gemini,
SOC of Virgo,
North Iide illaminated.
In_ble.
South Bide illumillated.
lnviBible.
The distance between Satum and his inner rintf, is only
11,000 miles; being leas than a tmlla part of the dtlltanee of
our moon from the eartb. The breadtb of the dark band, or the
interval betweentbe rings, is bardly 3,000 miles.-The breadth
of the inner ring, is 20,000 miles. Being only about the same
distance from Saturn, it will preBent to bis inhabit,ants a lumin-
ous zone, arcbing tbe wbole coneaye vauh from one hemisphere
to the other with a broad girdle of light.
The obrious use of this double ring i8, to reSect light upon
the ,Planet in tbe absence of the suni what other purpose8 it may
be m .... nded to subBerve, is to 118 unknown. The 8un, aa ba8
b .. en shown, illuminates one side oC h during 151ea", or one
half of the period of tbe planet's revolution i an duriug the
next 15 years, the othl'r 8ide i8 enlightened in its tum.
Twice in the courae of 30 1ea", there is II sbort interval of
time when neither side is enhghtened, and wben, of course, it
O88BeS to be visible i-namely, at tbe time when tbe sun I!eaaea
to shine on one side, and is abont to sbine on tbe other. It
revolves around ,its axis, and conseqnflnt.ly, around in
101
0
hours, which is at the rate of a thousand miles a minute,
or 58 times swifter than the revolution of the earth's equator.
When viewed from the middle zone of tbe planet, in tbe
absence of the sun, tbe rings will appear like vast luminou8
arches. exte!lding along the canop), of heaven, from tbe eastern
to the western borizon, exceeding In breadth a bundred times the
apparent diameter of our moon.
Besidea the rings, Saturn is attended by Beyen satellites,
.. hich revolve about bim at difFerent periods and distancea, and
reciprocally reSect tbe aun's rays on eacb otber and on the
plan .. t. Tbe rings and moons illuminate tbe nigbts oC ,Satum ;
\he moona and Saturn enlighten the rings, and tbe planet and
reSect the sun'8 beam8 on the aatellite ..
TblJfuurtla oftbee Iatellitea (in the order III their diatance) -ftnt
diIeoYeIed by Hun-. 011 the 16th of Mareh, 1856, ad, in bOIlor III
Tbil bap,JM!u, .. _ han alreu., 1howD, whllll 8a1arll1. either in the lIOIh
deJree of PilCe&, or the lIOIh of Viqo. When he i. between the ..
pomta, or in the lIOIh d.".. either of GeminI or of Saciuariu, hi. rill( appeara
moel open 10"., and _ in the form of !Ill OYaJ, whOle kmpat diaDilller II 10
the IhOnelt ... 10 '- ' ,
Z
278 GEOGRAPHY or THE HEAVENS.
&be cJi8coorenIr, _ C8lIecJ the 8tJIelIiIL TbiJI aateIIite, being
the largest of aU, is E8D without much difficulty. CIIIIIini discovered the
1st, lZeI, 3d, and 6th aateJJiteII, between October, 1671, and Maroh, 1684.
Dr. Henchel.discovered &be 6th and 7th in 1789. These are nearer to
Saturn than 'any of the rest, though, 0 avoid confullion, they are IIIlIDI!d
in the order of their discovery.
The sixth and seventh are the smallest of tbe whole; the first
and second are the next smallest; the tbird is greater than the
first and second; the fourth is the largest of them all; and \he
fifth surpasBeB the rest in brightness.
Their respective distances from their primary, vary from balf
the distance of our moon, to two millions of miles. Their pe-
riodic revolutions vary from 1 day to 79 days. The orbits t1f
the six inner satellites, that is, the tat, 2d, 3d, 4tb, 6th, and 7th,
an lie in the plane of Saturn's rings, and revolve around their
outer edge; while the 6th satellite deviates so far from the plane
of tbe rings, as sometimes to be seen t!trough the opening between
them tbe planet.
Laplace imsginBl that the accumulation of matter at Batum'. equator
retainI the orbilB of the ftnJt llix satellites in the plane of the equator, in
the IllUDe maJIIIer u it retains the rings in that plane. It hu been ...
factorily ucertained, that Batum hu a greater accumulation of matter
about biB equator, and consequently that he is more 8att.ened at the
poles, than Jupiter, though the velocity of the equatorial parts of the f0r-
mer is much leas than that of the latter. TbiJI is aufticiently accounted
for by the filet, that the "11gB of Batum lie in the plane of biB equator,
and act IIIOJe powerfully upon thoae parts of biB IIIU'fiule than upon any
other; and thus, while they aid in diminishing the gravity of these parts,
also aid the centrifugal force in Battening the polea of the planet. Indeed,
had Saturn never revolved upon biB axis, the action of the rings would,
of itaeU; have been aufticient to give him the form of an oblate spheroid.
Satumian elements, January 1, 180 1 :
Mean distance (about 890,000,000 m.ilBl), earth's u one, 9.538786
Mean sid. rev. (lZ9,456 yeara), mean BOlar days, 10759.1198
Mean synod. rev. in mean BOlar da,... 378.090
Mean longitude, 135
0
20' 06".5
Mean orbital motion in a mean BOlar day, t' 00".6
Do. in a BOlar year, 120 13' 36".1
Longitude 890 09' 19".8
Ann. mo. ofapsicf8leutwud, 19".4
Ditto refened to ecIi.pIic, l' 09".5
Inclination of orbit to ecliptic, to 29' 36".7
Annual deereue of ditto, 0".156
I.ong. of ucend. node, 111
0
66' 87".40
Motion of do. per an. west, 19".4
" " .. .. .. " eat, ret: to ecliptic, 30".7
Eccentricity half maj. aD 1IIIity,.. 0.0561606
Decreue of do. in a century,
Greatest equation of center,
Annual decreaae of do.
Rotation on axis,
Inclination of axis to ecliptic,
App. diam. at mean dist. from the earth,
1'rue diam. (about 7fi06R milea), earth' ... unity,
Volume, earth's as unity, - - -
Mass, sun's as unity,
Denaity, SUB'S as unily,
Outer diam. of eXterior ring, 40",096
Inner
.. .. .. ..
36.289
Outer diam. of inner ring, 34 .476
Inner
.. .. .. ..
18,688
Equal diam. of planet -
17.991
Breadth of division between the riDgB, 0.408
Dial of ring from the planet, 4.339
279
0,000312402
60 16' 12".00
1".279
10 h. 29 m. 16.8 L
31
0
f9'
16".20
9.982
99f . OO
0.0002847380
0.650
Mile .
178.418
166.271
161.690
117.339
79.160
1.791
19.090
The multiple division of Saturn', rings hu be8n a matter of _ '.'
dilpute. There now _mil little doubt that the exterior ring is divided
into two rings. Prof. Encke laW the diviBion distinctly, April 26, 1837.
On the 25th of May he obtained theae approximate III8UIUIl8 :
oUter diam. of ellt. ring,
.. II II new division,
Inner diam. of outer ring, -
Outer diam. of inner ring,
Inner diam. of inner ring, -
40".4116
- 37.471
-. 38.038
34 .749
26,766
Theae are the only meuures which I have aeen. The third division
_ distinctly obaerved on the 7th September, 1843, at Mr. Lassell'.
obaervatory, near LiverpooL Since the erection of the Refractor of the
Cincinnati Obaematory, the planea of Saturn's rings have been too much
inclined to the vieual ray for exact examination. I have never been able
to mek8 out the triple division of the ringL
It hal been found that the laws of perfect equih'brium require that the
center of the rings should not coincide with the center of the planet.
Exact Dl8UUrea have shown that this discovery of theozy is verified in
nature. There is a alight dillimmce in the 1'8IIpIlCti.ve diste1lCllB from the
planet to the inner edge of the ring on the right and left, amounting
to about two-tenthll of a eecond of arc. .
Saturn is one of the moat magnificent ~ in the heavell8, when
_n with a powerful telescope, and never WIB to excite the moat pr0-
found admiration in the beholder.
The aatellitea of Saturn are by no __ .. weD !mown .. thOll8 of
Jupiter. The two inner aatellitell are among the moat difticult objectII to
be ~ in the heavenL The following elementll may be regarded u a
near approximation .. to the truth.
'.
_ GEOGRAPHY or THE HEAVENS.
IlalelHte. Sidereal 11l1&li DiIlaDOe.
BnolutioD DiICOTerer and
'=0Id
La mean
=--.
.&liii0-
Dale.
80lar Day.
-
aIIr
.......
---- ---
..
d. h. m.
,
I 7
0" 38
3.3111 19.15 120,000 w. Herachel, 1789
n 8 10853
.300
31.19 1110,000
.. .. ..
m 1 1 11 IS Ii.IS4 .5.13 190,000 D. CUIIini, 1684
IV
I I I 17 .11
8.819 1 0093
243.0011 ..
..
..
V 3 11 25 9.1124 124.S8 340,000
.. .. ..
VI 4 1111 II 41
22.0S1 3 26.60 788,000 C. Huygens, 16511
!-VB
1179 07 56 6U511 918.00
D. CaBni, 1671
URANUS OR HERSCHEL.
URANUS is the planet next beyond Saturn; to the naked eye.
it appears like a stat of only the sixth or seventh magnitude,
and of a pale, bluish white; but it can seldom be seen, except
in a very fine. clear night, and in the absence of the moon.
As it moves over but one degree of its orbit in eighty-five days,
it will be MIen yean in passing over one sign or constellation.
When first seen by Dr. Herschel, in 1781, it was in the foot
of Gemini; 10 liuJt it Aa8 not yet completed one revulution ainu it
_ diacotIered 10 be a pJaflel.
It is remarkable that this body was obaerved u liar back u 1690. Ia
__ three IimeII by FIamatead, once by BmdIey,once by Mayer, IIIId
eleven timea by Lemonnier, who registered it BIIlOIII the 1Itar8; bot DOt
one of them supected it to be pIaneL
The inequalities in the motions of Jupiter and Saturn, which
could not be accounted for from the mutual attractions of these
planets, led astronomer. to suppose that there existed another
planet beyond the orbit of Saturn, hy whose action these irregu-
Jarities wflre produced. 'rhis conjecture was confirmed March
13th, 1781, when Dr. Herschel discovered the moliOflB of this
body, and thus proved it to be a planet.
Herschel is attended by six moons or satellites, which revolve
about him in dift"erent periods, and at various distances. Four
of them were discovered by Dr. Herschel, and two by his sister,
Misl CarolillE' Herschel. It il p088ible that others remain yet
to be discovered.
UranuI' mean distance from the lun il 1828,000,000 of miles;
more than twice the mean distance of Saturn. His sidereal
URANUS.
281
reTolatiou is performed in 8' years and 1 month, and his motion
in hi' orbit is 15,600 miles an hour. He is supposed to have a
rotation on his axis, in common with the other planets; bat as-
tronomers have not yet been able to obtain any oceular proof of
such a motion.
His diameter is estimated at 3',000 miles; which would make
his volume more than 80 times larger tban the earth's. To his
inhabitants, the sun appears only the "2"1-. part as large as he
does to us; and of course they receive '"rom him only that small
proportion of light and heat. It may be shown, however, that
the !fit part of the 8un's light exceeds the illuminating power
of 800 full moons. This, added to the light they mllst receive
from their 8ix sa&ellitel, will render their days and nights rar
from cheerless.
But three of the six IIltelli&ee reported by Henchel, have been obeened
by those who have followed him.
The following elements are for the epoch let January, 1801, reckon-
ing from the mean equinox:
Mean Bid. rev. (84.02 yeara),1OIar days,
" wynocl. rev. " " ""
Mean longitude,
Mean motion in orbit in a _ BOlar day,
Do. per annum, .
Long. of perihelion,
Annual mo. of aprides east,
Inclination of orbit,
Long. of ascending node,
Ann. mo. of do. eastward,
Eccentricity of orbit. Semi axis maj. W1ity,
Greatest equatiou of center.
Mean app. diam. (35,000 miles scarcely),
True mam., earth's as unity,
Mass. sun as unity,
V olume, earth as unity. -
Density, sun's as unity,
30686.821 d.
369.61'>6 "
177
0
48' 23".0
. 42".37
4
0
17' 45".16
16'1 31 16 .10
52.60
0046' 28.44
72 69 36 .30
14 .16
0.04667938
6
0
20' 5'7".00
4 .00
4. 344
0.0000658098
82
1.100
19.182390 Mean di.;tance (I,SOO,OOO,OOO miles), earth's as unity,
Henrht'l'JI
Sidereal Revolution.
Mean
SatcHilea. dillmeter == 1 of PJnnet.
-----
d. h. m. s.
I 5 21 26 20
13.120
II 8 16 57 47 17.022
III 10 23 02 47 19.845
-
IV 13 10 !is 29 22.752
V 38 01 48 00 45.607
VI
107 16 39 66 91.008
Renchel'. perioda, of t.wo of IIltellit.es, have been eonfirmed by
z2 .
_ GEOGRAPHY OF THE HEA. VUB.
Ilia lIOII, and by Dr. Lemom, of MUDieh; a third CIII8 baa mcently beea
ot.erved by 8tri;. ve of PuIkcRa. .
From an exteDllive aeriea of II*IAlI8I, a flattening at the polea, and a
protuberance at the equator of tbia .pIanet Iw t-1 det.ectecI, delDOlllltrat,.
mg a rotation upon an axis, in IICDOldance with the pneral analogy of
the phmetI. .
NEPTUNE (naft C.A.LUJI LKnallUa).
THIs is the most remote and the latest discovered of all the
large planets. The extraordinary circumstances attending its
disp.overy, have given to this object an interest which does not
attach to any other heavenly body. After the discovery of U ra.
nus, in 1781, efforts were made to reduce ita motions to the
known laws of gravitation, and an orbit was computed, which,
in the outset, it was thought would represent all the obsened
places of Uranus, and by which ita future places might be pre-
dicted. In a abort time tbis orbit was found to be at fault: tbe
planet W\UI gradually leaving it, anll seemed to be under some
unknown influence, wbicb involved ita motions in mystery.
After tbe lapse of many Tears from the discovery of Uranus,
M. Bouvard resumed the Investigation of ita orbit, and finally
reached the conclusion that it was impossible to represent at the
same time, by any orbit, the old observed places of the planet
and the new ones, or those taken after the star was discovered
to be a planet. He, therefore, rejected the ancient observations
aa more likely to be in error, and adoptinJ tbe recent ones, com
puted an orbit and tables for Uranus, whlcb it was hoped might
repl'IIII8nt the future places of the planet.
A few years sufficed to show tbat this orbit and these tables
were defective. Tbe computed and tbe obsened places of the
planet did not agree, and the' difference increased from year to
year, until it attracted the attention of many distinguished as-
tronomers. Some were disposed to attribute these irregularities
to a relaxation of the AgOroUS laws of gravitation in those re-
mote rel[ions of space; others conceived that Uranus might be
attended by some large estellite wbicb was swaying it from its
computed orbit: wbile another class conceived the possible ex.
istence of a remote unl\iscovered planet, under whose infiuence
Uranus was made to break away from ite computed track
. Under these circumstances, a young astronomer, M. LeTerrier,
of Paris, as early as 1846, at tbe request of M. Arago, under-
took a thorough discussion of the irregularities of Uranus, with
a view to understand their cause; and in CBse tbis cause sbould
be an u.terior planet, to determill8, from the known irregularities
NEPTUNE.
of U ranua, tbe actual place of tbe unknoWll dieturbing planet at
a given epoch.
M. Levemer commenced by determining, witb all accuracy,
tbe disturbing influence on Uranus, exerted by all the knotcm
bodies of the aolar aystem, and ~ o r e eS)lecialJy the etrects of
the large and nearer planets Saturn and Jupiter. His memoir
on this subject was presented to the Academy of Sciences of
Paris, on the lOth Nov., 1845. On the first of the following
June, he read a second memoir before that I ~ m e d body, in which
he demonstrates that the irregularities of Uranus cannot be ex-
plained by any known cauaea; and concludes. that they are due
to an unknown planet revolving in an orbit exterior to tbat of
Uranus, and as far from Uranus as it is from the sun; and whose
place, as ronghly determined, was, on the 1st January, 1847, in
longitude 325
0
On the 30th August, 1846, a third memoir wa.
read, in which the author fixes the approximate elemE'nts of his
theoretical planet, its mass, and its cf0sition for theIst January,
1847, in beliocentric longitude 326 39'. On the 5th October,
J846, a fourth and last memoir was presented to the Academy,
in which M. Leverrier discussee tbe pOsition of the plane of the
orbit of hie unknown planet.
These wonderful accounts excited tbe greatest interest among
astronomers, yet such was the difficulty of the problem, that few
were willing to b"lieve that Leverrier's computation would ever
lead to the discovery of his imaginary planet. These misgivlnge
were soon dissipated. On the Ist of Sept., 1846, M. Leverrier
wrote to bis friend Dr. Galle, of Berlin, requesting him to direct
his telescope to the place in the heavens which his calculation.
had indicated as the place of his planet at that date. This re-
quest was immediately complied' with; and on the very first
evening of examination, the planet was actually discovered
within less than one degree of the place pointed out by M.
Leverrier!
In the mean time, the publications of Leverrier had brought to
lillht the fact, that Mr. Adams, a young geometer of Cambridge,
Eng., had discussed the vert same problem, and had reached
reaults almost exactly coincident with those of Leverrier. In-
deed, Mr. Adams had obtaint>d his results some months previous
to M. Leverrier, but having failed to publish them to the world,
thus gave to his distinguished rival the priority and right of dis-
covery. The wonderful coincidence of the results obtained by
Leverrier and Adams, Sfll!med to fix absolutely the fact of the
discovery of the planet from calculation. The news of ite dis-
covery was soon spread throughout the world, and excited every
where the deepest mterest. The intelligence rear-hed Cincinnati
on the 28th Oct., 1846, and on the same evening the planet was
284 GEOGRAPHY OF THE HEAVENS.
readDy detected by its flUTe with tile great refractor. Ite diame-
ter waa immediately measured.
The new rlanet was now followed with IIreat intere8t at all
the principa ObSe"afOries in the world, with the view of dis-
coyering how nearly the coml!uted elements before discovery
would agree with those determined from actual observation after
discovery. As the planet moved extremely 810w, this would
hue required a ,long series of years, but for a most important
dieeovery made by Mr. S. C. Walker, then at the Washington
observatory. After computing an orbit of the new planet from
the besl data then in eXl8tence, he traced it backward for fifty
or lixty yeara, in the hope of finding that its place had been
fixed fong since by lome astronomer who had obse"ed it, be-
lieving it to be a fixed 8tsr. His research wal rewarded with a
brilliant discovery. Two plaee8 of the planet were obtained
from thecatelogue of Lalande, a8 fsr back a81795, which, com-
bined with recent places, gaVE' sufficient date to determine with
comparative a"curacy the elements of the orbit of the new planet.
A difficulty herf! arose, from the fact that a great dieerepancy tlll.-
isted between the periodic time of the planet and that computed
by M. Leverrier. His computed period was about 217 yeara,
- while the periodic time of Neptune i8 about 164. This discre-
pancy has induced 80me astronomers to assert that the discovery
of the planet, after all, was aecidenlal. Thi8 Leverrier denies;
and here. for the present, the matter rests.
Prof. Pierce of Cambridge, after an elaborate research, finds
that all the irregularities of Uranus are most perfectly accounted
for by the inftuence of the new planet; 80 that in case this re-
sull may be relied OD, thi8 great problem is DOW absolutely
exhau8ted.
The following are the elements computed, before discovery,
by M. Leverrier:
Periodic time, yean, 117.387
Mean distsnee, esrth unity, 36.1639
Mean loogitulie, lat Jan., 1847, 81SO .r
Longitude or perihelion, 1M ," S
Mean anomaly, - M 01 68
Equation of center, - 7 .9
Helioeentric longitude, lat Jan., IM7, 316 31
Radius ftCtor, earth'. unity, 33 06
M-. of the BUD'. -. .
Adams' computed before disco'Yery :
Mean longitude, Oct. 6th, IM6,
Longitude of perihelion,
Eccentricity, -
M-. BUD' unity,
313 Ot'
199 II
0.1t0616
.0.00018000
NEPTUNE.
286
The elements obtained since the diBcoyery of the planet by
Mr. Walker, and by using &he place of &he planet observed by
Lalande, 1795, are as follows. These will be gradually im-
proved as ob88rvatione are multiplied.
Long. perihelion poiat,
Long. ucending node, -
IAclination,
Eccentricity.
Mean daily lid. muton, -
Long. Ii epoch, -
470 12' 56".73 m. eq. II1l Jan., 1848.
- ISO 06 11.04 m. eq. llIl Jan., 1MB.
1 4668.97
0.00871946
:U".1tM48
_ s300 "' 41".at S m. noon, Greenwieh,
l II1l Jan., 1848.
Mr. L8_II, of Liverpool. discoyered a satellite to Neptune,
on which a snfficient number of obserYBtions haYe bel'n made to
determine, with considerable accuracy. the maS8 of the planeL
,'his has been computed by Prof. Pierce, of Cambridge, and i.
found to diff'er considerably from that obtained by Leverrier be-
fore .Jhe discoYery. From observations on Lassell's satellite by
Mr. Bond, of Cambridge, the mass of Neptune is determined to
be r..lu of the sun's mass.
With this mass Prof. Pierce accounts for all the irregulariti81
of Uranus, and closes, at least for the present, the investigation.
COMETS.
COIRTI, whether viewed as ephemeral meteore, or as substan-
tial bodiN, forming a part of the 80lar .ystem, 8re objects of no
ordinary interesL .
When, with uninstructed gaze, we look upwards to the clear
sky of evening, and behold, among the multitudes of heavenly
bodies, one, bJazing with its long train of light, and rnshing on-
ward toward the center of our system, we inaensibly shrink
back 8S if in the presence of a supernatural being.
But when, with the e:re of astronomy, we follow it through
its perihelion, and trace It far off', be,ond the utmost verge of
the solar system, till it is 10lt in the Infinity of space, not to re-
turn for centuries, we are deeply impressed with a sense of that
power which could create and let in motion loch bodies.
Comets are diltinguished from the other heavenly bodies, by
their appearance and motion. The appearance of tbe planets is
globular. and their motion around the sun is nearly in the lame
plane, and from weat to ellat; bot the comets have a variety of
forma, and their orbits are not confined \0 any particular part of
the heavens; nor do they obsene anyone general direcuon.
286 GEOGRAPHY OF THE HEAVENS.
The orbitll of tbe planets approacb nearly to cirell'lI, wblle
,110118 of tbe comets are very elongated elipses. A wire boop,
for.flxample, will represent the orbit of a plsnet. Ir two oppo-
site sides of the same boop be extended, so tbat it sball be long
and nanow, it will then represent tbe orbit of a cornel. The
sun is always in one of the foci of the comet's orbit.
There is, howeYer, a practical difficulty of a peculiar nature which em-
bal'l'UE8 the solution of the queetion as to the furm of the cometary or-
bi... It 10 happens that the only part of the coune of a comet which
can ever be viaible, ia a portion throughout which the ellipse, the para-
bola and hyperbola, 80 closely reeemble each other, that no observations
can be obtained with lIIIfficient accuracy to enable UB to distinguish them.
In &ct, the obeerved path of any comet, while visible, may belong either
to an ellipae, parabola, or hyperbola.
That part whicb is usually brigAUr, or more optJIce than tbe
otber portions of tbe comet, is caned tbe nuckua. Tbis is aur-
rounded by an etltJe/op, wbich bas a cloudy. or Aairy appeara,lICt'.
Tbese two ,arts constitute tbe body, and. in many inauuicea,
the wbole 0 tbe comet.
Most of them, however, are attended by a iong train, called
the tail; thougb some are without this appendage, and as seen
by the naked eye, are not easily distinguisbed from tbe planets.
Others, again, bave ito apparent nucleus, and seem to be oo)y
globular malses of vapor.
Nothing is known with certainty of tbe compoaition of these
bodies. Tbe envelop appears to be nothing more tban vapor,
becoming more luminous and transparent wben approacbing tbe
lun. As tbe comets pass between us and the fixed staTS, their
envelops and tails are so tbin, tbat .stars of very small magni-
tudes may be seen througb tbem. Some comets, having no nu-
cleus, are transparent throughout tbeir whole extenL
Tbe Ducleus of a comet sometimes appears opake, and it
theD resembles a elanet. Astronomers, \lowever, are Dot agreed
upon tbis point. Some affirm that the Ducleus is always trans-
parent, and that comets are in fact Dotbing but a mass of vapor,
or less condensed at the center. By others, it is maintained tbat
tbe nucleus is sometimes solid and opake. It seems probable,
however, tbat tbere are three claBses of comets, viz.: 1st. Thoee
whicb have no Ducleus. being transparent tbroughout their wbole
extent; 2d. Those which bave a trsnsparent nucleus; and, 3d.
Tbose having a nucleus whicb is solid and opake.
A comet, wben at a distance from the sun, viewed througb a
good telescope, bas the appearance of a dense vapor surrounding
the nucleus, and sometimes flowing far into tbe regions of spllce.
As it approacbes tbe sun, ita ligbt becomes more brilliant, till it
reaches Its perihelion, when ita light is more dazzling than that
COMETS. 287
of any other celestial body, the sun eJ:oepted. In tbis part of
ha orbit are Been to the beat adYl.tage the pbenomena of this
wonderful body, wbiob baa, from remote antiquity, been the
specter of alarm and terror.' .
Tbe luminous train of a comet usually loltow. it, as it ap-
proacbea the sun, and goa 'b(ore it, wben the comet recedes from
tbe SUn; sometimes tbe tail IS considerably curved towards the
region to wbich the comet is tending, and in some instances it
baa been observed to form a rigM angle with a line drawn from
the sun througb tbe center of the comet. The tail of the comet
of 1744. formed nearly a quarter of a circle; that of 1689, was
curved like a Turkisb sabre. Sometimes the same comet bas
several tails. Tbat of 17 bad, at one time. nO less than liz,
which appeared and disappeared in a few days. The comet of
1823 bad, for several days, two tails; one eJ:tending toward the
sun, and the other in the opposite direction.
. Comets, in passing among and near tbe planets, are materially
drawn aaide from their courses, and in some cal88 have thf>ir
orbits entirely changed. This is remarkabl, true in regard to
Jupiter, wbicb seems by some strange fatahty to be constantly
in tbeir way, and to serve as a perpetual stumbling block to
tbem.
,-
" The ~ k a b l e comet of 1770, which W$8 fOund by LenD to reo
.mve in a moderate ellipae. in a period of about five yean, actually gat
entangled among the II8Ielliles of Jupiter, and thrown out of its orbit by
the attracliona of that planet," and bas not been heard of lin_Her-
.eM1, p. 810. By this extraordinary rencounter, the mouona of .!:t:::1
_telliles IIUffered not the leut pereeptible derangement ;-a . t
proof of the aeriform nature of the comet'. -.
It is olear from obserYltion, that comets' contain very Iittle
matter, for they prodoce little or no eft"ect on the motion of tbe
planets when passing near those bodies. It is aaid tbat a comet,
In 1.5., eclipsed the moon; ao that it must bave been very near
the earth; yet no sensible eft"ect waa observed to be produced by
this cauae upon the motion of the earth or the moon.
Tbe observations of pbilOIOphera upon comets, have aa yet
detected nothing of their nature. TJcboBrabe and Appian
aupposed their tsils to be produced by the rays of tile sun, trans-
mitted through the nucleua, wbich they supposed to be transpa-
rent, and to operate aa a lena. Kepler thougbt they were occa-
sioned by the atmosphere of the comet, driven oft" b>: the fmpulse
of the sun's rays. Tbis opinion, witb some 'lDedlfication, W'6
also maintained by Euler. Sir Isaac Newton conjectured tbat
they were a thin vapor, rising from the heated nucleus, aa smoke
ascends from the eartb; while Dr. Hamilton supposed them to
be streama of electricity. .
188 GEOGRAPHY OJ' THE HEAVENS.
II Tbal the Iuimnoae put of a ..... " aJII Sir Joim BencheI,".
in die JIIIlure of a IIIIOke, Cog, 01' cloud, IIU8p8IIded in a tram-
panmt ill evident tiom a filet wbicll hu been often no&iced,
m.: that the portion of the tail where it ClODleII up to, and lIIIlJOunda the
bead, ill yet 88pIIIIded tiom it by an interval Ie. luminous; as we often
_ one layer of clouds laid CYfer another with a considerable clear space
between tbem." And again-- It fullowa that the. can only be reganled
.. great _ of thin ftpor, au:eptible of being penetrated through
their whole aubltance by the 1IIlIlbeame. ..
Cometa haYe always been considered by the ignorant and su-
perstitioul, as the harbingers oC war, peatilence, and famine.
Nor has thi, opinion been, eyen to this day, confined to the un-
learned. It was once uniyersal. And when' we examine the
dimensions and appearanees of some or these bodies, .we cease
to wonder that they produced univeraal alarm.
According to the testimony or the early writers, a eomet,
which could be seen in daylight with the naked eye, made ita
appearance 43 years herore the binh or our Sanour. This date
was just after the death of Cesar, and by the Romans"the comet
was belieyed to be hi., metamorphosed soul, armed with fire and
Tengeance. Thil comet is alrBin mentioned aa appearing in 1106,
and then resembling the IUD in brightne8B, being or a great aize,
and haTing an immense tail.
In the year 140i, a eomet wu aeen, so brilliant as to be die-
earned at nocm-day.
In 1456, a large eomet made ita appearance. It spread a
wider terror than was eyer known berore. The belief was Tery
general, among all elassel, that the eom"t would destroy the
8arth, and that the Day or Judgment was at hand!
This comet appeared again in the yeare 1531.1807,1682, 1758, and
1835. It pa-.l ita perihelion in NCYfember, and wil18'1ery 751
yeare thereafter.
At the time or the appearance or this comet, the Turks exten-
ded their nctorioul arma across the Hell""pont, Bnd seemed des-
tined to OTerrun all Europe. This added not a little to the gen-
eral gloom. Under all these impressions, the people seemed
totally regard leas or the present, and anxious only for the
The Romiah Church held, at this time, unbounded away oyer
the liYes, and fonunes, and consciences of men. To prepare
the world for ita expected doom, Pope Calixtus III ordered the
Ave Maria to be repeated three times a day, instead of two.
He ordered the church bells to be rung at noon, which was the
origin of that practice, so univerBBl in Christian churches. To
tbe Ave Maria, the prayer was added-" Lord, saTe us from the
DITil, the Turk, and the comet:" and once each day, these
&breI' .,bntlxia1!s personages sull'ered a regular excommunicaton.
COMETS' ~ 8 9
The pope lind clergy, exhlhiti'ilg 'ul'hl'ear, it R not II. matter
or wonder that it became the ruling passion of the multitude.
The churches and conventa were crowded for confession of
ains; and treasures oncoonted were poured into the Apostolic
chamber.
The comet, after sufferinl some months of daily corsing, and
escommonioaUon, began to show signs of retreat, 'and SOOD
dieappeared from those eyes in which it found no favor.
Joy and tranquillity soon retumt'd to the faithful subjects of the
pope, but not so their money and lands. The people, however,
became eatisfied that their Iius, and the safety of tbe world, had
been cbeaply purchased. The pope, who bad achieved eo
aignal a victory over the monilter of the sky, had checked the
progress of the Turk, and kep.t for the preBent, his Satannic
majesty at a safe distance; wbl!.e thl! church of Rome, retaining
her unbonnded wealth, was enabled to continue that inftuence
over' her followers whicb she retains, in part, to this day.
The comet of 1680 woold bave befOn still more alarminc than
that of 1456, had not acience robbed it of its terrors, and hIstory
pointed to the signal failure of its predeceBsor. This comet
waa of "-larI8lt size, and had a tail whose enormous .length
W88 more tbaD mmty-aiz millUlN rf milu.
At ita greatest distance, it is 13,000,000 of miles from the
aun; and at its nearest approach, only 574,000 miles from hia
centar; or about 130,000 miles from his Bunace. In that part
of ita orbit which is lIfIarest the 8un. it fiieB with the amazing
8wiftneea of 1,000,000 miles in an hour, and the 8un aB Been
from it, appears 27,000 timl!8 larger than it appeara to os;
consequently, it i8 then exposed to ft heat 27,000 t ~ m e B I(l'eater
&han the solar heat at the earth. This intensity of heat exceeds,
several thousand timea, that of red-hot iron, and indefld all the
degrees of heat that we are able to produce. A siJDple ma88
of v'apor, exposed to a thousandth part of such a heat, would be
at once dissip'ated in space-e pretty strong indication that,
however volatile are the elements of which cometa are composed,
they are, nevertheless, oapable of enduring an inconceivable
intensity of both beat and cold.
This is the comet which, according to the reveries of Dr.
Whiston, and othera, deluged the world in time of Noah.
Whiston waB the friend and BucceSlOr of Newton: but, anxiooe
to know more than is revealed, he paased the bounds of sober
philoaophy, and preaumed not only to fix the residence of the
I iJamneci, but allO the nature of their punisbmenL According to
his theory, a 88me, WIll tbe awful prison-hooae in which, aa it
wheeled from the remotest regioDl Of darkne18 and cold illto the
"lory vicinity of the SDn, hurryinr ita wretched tenantetp the
-,'!" ... -:
2.\
990 GEOGRAPHY OF THE IlEA. VENS.
extram.. of periahiug col. aDd deYouring fire. abe Almighty
waa to diapenle the Ie .. riuea of hie juatice. , ~
Surb theories mal. be ingenioul, but they hue no basil of
facta ,to relt upon. rhey more properly belong to the chimeN.
of Astrology, than to the acienee of ARtronomy.
When we are told by philosophera of great caution and high
reputation, that the fiery train of thl! comet, juat' alluded to,
extended from the horison to the zenith; and that of 1774 had,
at one time, six tails, each 6,!)OO,000 of miles long; and that
another, which appeared lOOn after, had one 40.000,000 of milea
long; and wben we conlider also tlte inconceivable velocity
with which they speed their Bight through the solar system. we
may ceaae to wonder if, in the darker agea, they have been re.
garded as evil omenl.
But th ... idle phantasies are not peculiar to any ar or coun
try. Evea in our own timea, the bAllutiful comet ,0 1811, the
most splendid one of modern times, was generally considered
among the superathions, as the dread harbinger of the war which
WIS declared in the following spring. It is well known that an
indefinite- apprehension ,of a more dreadful catastrophe liltely
pervaded both -continents, in anticipation of Biela's comet
of 1839.
The nueleus of the' comet of 1811, accordinll to observations
made near Boston, was 9,617 miles in diameltlr, corresponding
nearly to ,the size of the moon. The brilliancy with which it
IIhone. waa equal to one-tenth of thst of the moon. 'rbe envelop,
or aeriform covering, aurrounding the nunleus, waa 94,000
miles thick, about five hundred times 88 thick as the atmosphere
which encircles the earth; making the diameter of the comet,
including ita envelop, 50,617 miles. It had a very luminoua
tail,whOl8 greatest length waa one Aundred miUi_ tf mila.
This comet IDOftd, in ita pen'brlion, with an almost inconceivable WI-
locity-fifteen hundred times greater than that of a llaIl burBling 6um the
mouth of a cannon. According to RegiomontanWl, the comet of 1471
moved o.,er an are at 1200 in one day. Brydone obeei'Ied a comet at
Palermo in 1770, which JIll-'- through 6()0 of 8 great circle in the baa.,.
en . in 24 hours. Another comet, which appeared in 1769, pB8II8II 0'181'
41
0
in the .. rne time. The conjecture at Dr. Halley, therefore, 1I8IIIIIII
highly probable, that if a body of IJ1lCh a _, h a ~ any CIIIIIIiderabJe
density, and movins with BUob 'I8locity, were to mike oor earth, it
would instantly reduce it to chaos, mingling its elements in ruin.
The lraD8ient effect of a comet paaring near the earth, could .--Iy
amount to any great convuhion, .. ys Dr. Br8Wlller: but if the esrtb WeRI
actually to recei.,. a shock 6um one at these bodies, the COIIII8q118DC8I
would be awful. A new dimctiao would be pen to its rotary moCion, and
it would re'IOI.,. UCRlnd a new ana The.... fiBtlllkilll their beda,
... ould be hurried, by their centrifugal bee, to the new equitorial regions:
COMETS. 291
WaadII aDd cenIiDeD.., theabodM rJimen aDd miIDaIa, .,ouId be __
by the UDivenal rush of the watera to tbe new equator, aDd fmIr1 ves&iae
of hUIJIa!l indua&ry and genill8 _Idbe at once delUuyed.
The chant'.e8 apinat eucb an eYent, bowever, are 80 very
Dump-rolla, that there ia no reason to dread its occurrence. The
French government, not long since, called the attention of some
of h"r ablest mathematicians and astronomen to the solution. of
this problem; that iI, to determine, upon matlaematica/ prineiplu,
IW'w tatlY cAamu tf col_on tlae eart4 w", to. A fter a
'liature examination, they reported,-" bave found that, of
IIRl,OOO,OOO of cbances, there is only one unlavorable,-there
exists but one which can produce a collision between the two
bodies." ,
.. tben," 18, they, .. for a moment, that the comets which
may strike the earth with their nucleii, would IIIIDibilate the whole
human race; the danger of death to each individual, reaulting wm the
appearance of an lIf1imoum tDr1ld, would be exactly equal to the riak he
would run, if in aD urn th .. re wu only one lingle white ball amoug a
total number of lSI ,000,000 balla, and that m. condemnation to death
would be the ine9itabIe -.eqaence of the white ball being produced at
the fint drawing."
We haYe before stated that cometa, nnlike the planeta,
observe no one direction in their orbita, but approach to and
recede from their great center of atlraction, in every possible
direction. Nothing can be more sublime, or better calcul'l1ted to
fill the mind with profound astonishment, than to contemplate
the revoiutioR of cometa, while in that part of their orbits
which comes within tbe aphere of the telescope. Some seem to
eome up from the immeallurable deptha below the ecliptic, and,
having doubled the heavena' migbty cape, again plunge down-
ward with their fiery trains,
"00 the long travel of a thoWland yeaH."
Otbere appear to come down from the zenith of the uni'l'erae
to doable their perihelion about tbe aun, and tben reiiscend far
above all buman vision.' ,
Othen are dasbing through the solar systfom in ,all possible
directions, and apparently without any undiaturbed or un.
disturbing patb preacribed by Him wbo gnides and sustains
tbem all.
Until within a few yeare. it wal univenally believed that
the periods of tbeir reyolutiona must neceasarily be of prodigious
length; but witbin a few yeart, two comets bave bel'n discov
.ered, whoae revolutions Ire performed, comparatively. witbin
onr own neigbborhood. To distinguish them from tbe more
remote, they are denominated the comet. qf a .lwrl pn-iod. 1'be
first was discovered in the conatellation Aquarius, by two French
191 GEOGRAPHY OF THE HEA. YENS
\roDOm81'l, in tbe' year 1786. The lIame comet wall apia
observed by Mill Caroline Hers('thfll. iD the conatellatioD Cyg-
DUI, in 1795, and agaiD iD 1805. In 1818, Profelaor EncJ[e
determiDed the dimeDsions of its orbit, and ~ e period of itlt
sidereal revolutioD; for whicb reason it bu beeD called .. Er!dtJe'.
annel."
Thia comet performa ita revolution arouDd the SUD in about 3
years aDd 4 mODtha, in aD elliptical orbit which lies wholly
within the orbit of Jupiter. Ita _ diatance 'from. the aun is
919,000,000 of miles; tbe eccentricity of ita orbit ia 179,000,000
of milea; cODsequeDLly, it ia 358,000,000, of miles nearer the
aUD iD ita perihelion. than it ia iD ita aphelioD. It waa visible
throughout the United States in 1825, wheD it presented a f i D l ~
appearaDce. It wu also observed at ita Dext return iD 1828;
but ita last return to ita perihelioD, on the 6th of May, 1839,
waa iDvillible iD the United States, OD account of ita great
lOutherD decliDation.
The second" Comet ofa ahort period." 111188 observed in 1772;
and wal 888n again in 1805. It waa Dot until its ..... ppearanee
in" 1896, that unonomers were able to determine the elements
of ita orbit, and the exact period of ita revolution. Thil was
auccessfully accomplished by M. Biela, of Joaethstadt; hence it
is called Biels', annel. According to observauons made upon
it in 1805, b, the celebrated Dr. Olbera, ita diameter, including
ita envelop, la 42,280 miles. . It is a curious fact, that the path
of Biela'a comet puses very Dear to that of the earth; ao near,
tbat at the moment the ceDter of the comet is at the poiDt near-
est to the earth's path. the matter of the comet exteDda beyond
that path, aDd iDcludes a portion within it. Thus, if the earth
were at that point of ita orbit which is Dearest to the path of the
comet, at the same momflnt that the comfit should De at that
poiDt of ita orbit which is nearest to the path of the earth, the
earth would be enveloped in the nebulous atmosphere of the
comet.
With respect to the eft'ect whicb might be produced upon our
atmosphere by such a circumstance, it il impoaaible to oft'er any
thing but the m08t vague conjecture. Sir John Herschel waa
able to di8tingui8h ltars u miDute a8 tbe 16th or 17th magDitude
IArougla 1M body rf 1M comet! Henee it aeema rea80nable to
infer. that the Debuioul matter of which it i8 compoaed, mUlt be
infinitely more attenuated than ODr atmosphere; 10 that for
Ivery/article of cometary matter which we should inhale, we
Ihoul iDspire millioDs of panicl" of atmospheric air.
This i8 the comet which wal to come into colli8ion with the
earth, aDd to blot it out from the solar 8ystem. ID returning to
ita perihelioD, November 26th, 1832, it wai computed that it
would cr08l tile earth'a orbit at a distanee of only 18,500 miles.
COllETS.
It il erideat that if the earth had been iD tbat pan of her orbit
at the _ Ii",,- with the come&, our atmosphere would bave
mingled with the atmosphere of the comet, and the two bodies,
perha,., bave come in contaCt. But the comet paaaed tbe
earth'. orbit Oft the'19th of OctobardD the 8ih degree of Sagit.-
tariUI, and the earth did Dot arri,. 'at that point until the 30th
of November, which wu 81 daYI afterwardl.
I{ we mUltlply the 1UIm"r of houre in 3J day .. by 68,000
(tbe velOcity ohhe earth per hour), we maU find that tbe earth
YU more theD 11,000,000 miles bebind tbe eomet wbeD it
croaaad her orbi&. bl neareet ap'proaeb to the earth, at any
time, wy about 51,000,000 of mdes; ill nearest approacb
tbe laD, wu about 83,000,000 of miles. Ita mean dilllnce
from th,e IUa. or half the 10Dgeat lIil of ill 'orbit, il 337.000,000
of milea. III acceDtrieit, il 153,000,000 of miles; cOll88Cluently,
it is 507,000,000 of miles nearer the 10D in ill peribelion than
it is in ital aphelion. The period of ita sidereal revolutloD is
1,'60 dayl, or abOllt 6f yean.
Up to the beginning of the 17th century, DO correct notiona
had been entertained in respect to the path I of comell. Kepler'l
first conjecture waS, that they mOTed in Itraight linea; but u
that did not agree with obse"atioD, he ne.U concluded that they
were CU"el, having the lun Dear the vertex, and run-
oillg mdefiniteI)' iDto tbe regioDI of Ipace at both extremiues.
Thl'lre wal notblDg in the obaervauonl of tbe earlier aatronomere
to fix their identity, or to lead him to IUlpect that Iny one of
them bad ever been _n before; mncb I... that tbey formed a
part of tbe IOlar Iyatem, re,olving about the IUD in ellipucal
orbill that retorned into themll8lvel. '
Thil grand disoo,ery wu rese"ed for one of tbe mOlt indu ..
trioUI and lIfICiool ulronomere that ever lived-thil wu Dr.
Halley, the contemporary and friend of Newton. Wben the
oomet of 1681 made ill appearance, be I18t himself about obll8"-
ing it with great care, and fouad there wu .: wonderful resem-
blance betweeD it and three other comets that he found recorded,
the comell of "56, of 1531, and 1607. The umet of their aI?-
pearaace had been nearly at Ilual and regalar interval a ; thear
perihelion dillancea were nearly the lime; and he finallT. proved
them to be one and the lame comet. performing ill circUit aroond
the Iun in a period varying a little from 76 yeare. Tbia il
tberefore called Halle,', comet. It ia the very lime comet that
filled the eutern world with 10 mocb conatfomation in 1456, and
became an object of 80 mocb abhorrenoe to the chorch of Rome.
The three periodic cometa, Encke'l, Biela'l, and Halley' ..
baYe preaented, in their recent returna, lOme extraordinary pba-
nomena. The periodic time or Encke'a comet appeara to line
been regularly _miMWn& ainCl Ita dilcoTery. The
2.6.
194 GEOGRAPHY OF THE HEAVENS.
guilhed astronomer whose Dame it bearl,llfter a rigoroUI eX1lIDi-
Dation ofall the knowD causel can produce luch In effect,
finally reached \be cODolulion that there mUlt exist, throughout
the planetary regioDI, a rare medium, cap-able of reailting the
motion of the light and p"eoUI comets. ('his ltartling doctrine
baa been received with oonliderable favor amoDg the learned,
although it involvel Dothing leas than the fiDal deltruetion of
the entire .IOlar system. In case a reaistiDg medium exist, no
matter how email ha eff'sct OD the plasetl and oomets may be,
yet lIince the stability of the eatire system is guaranteAd only on
the hypothelilthat the revolutions of the planets are without
rellistance. it followl that, sooner or later. the same effeets sup-
pOled to be exhibited by Encke's comet, will be shown by
every revolvinlf planet and satellite. and each, in SUCoossioD,
will terminate Its cal'l'er by falling into the sun. Reeflnt obser-
vations by Sir John Herschel, OD -the physicsl constitution of
Hailey's comet during its return in 1835. have revealed lOme
truths which may. in the end, accoum for the retardatioD of
Eneke's comet, without resorting to the hypothE'sis of a resisting
medium. He conceives that the laws of gravitation will not
acconnt for certain phenomena presented by Halley's COlllet,
and that we will be compellt'd to admit the existence ora repul-
live force, developed onder certsin circumstances . among the
particles composing the tails and gaseous portions of comfits.
During its late return, Biela's comet exhibited the wonderful
phenomenon of an actual separation into two distinct portionl.
When first discovered, the comet presented its ordinary apptlllr-
ance, but in the coune of the following month, it was found
to consist of two distinct parts, each pos_sing all the charac-
teristiCll of a comet. These fragments continued to separate
from each other, while they pursued their orbhual career around
the sun. ThiB phenomenon Sir John Herachel is disposed to
.attribute to the same causeB.which are operating to diminiBh the
periodic time of Encke'B comet, and which produced luch sud-
den and wonderful changeB in the appearance of Halley'l comet,
during its retorn in 1835. ,
The next appearance 'of Biela'B comet will be looked for with
great intereRt. At thil time aBtronomers are on
the look-out for Ericke'B colDet. Our koowledge of the phYBical
cODBtitutioD of these mysterioul objects, is extremely limited.
The number of comets which have been ot.ned aince the ChristiaD
era, amounl.l to 700. Searce1y a year has pa8II8d without the obaerva-
lion of one or two. And since multitudes of them mWlt escape obeerva-
tieD, by reasoD of their tzavtmling that part ofthe heaVllllll which Is above
the horizon in the day time, their whore number is probably many thou-
ADda. Comel.l. 10 eircumatancea, can only become visible by the _
eoineidtmoe ofa.total ecHp.e of the nn-a coiDcidence which happeued,
. .. related by Seneca, 60 ytllll'll before ChM, when a IaJp comet_
actually obeened very _ IIUJl.
But M. Arago reuollli in the following 1IWIJlI!l, with respect to the
number of comets :-The number of aecertained cometa, which, at their
leut diatancee, JlUII within the orbit of Mercury, is thirty. AIIII11IIlin,
that the comets are UJIiformly distributed throughout the IOlar system.
there will be 117,649 time. u many comets included within the olbit at
Henchel, u there are within the orbit of Mercury. But u there are 80
within the orbit of Memury, there m\l8t be 3,629,'10 within the orbit of
Henchell
Of 97 comets whoae elements have been calculated by
S4 between the sun and the orbit of Mercury; 33 between the
orbits of Mercury and Venus; 21 between the orbits of VenDS and the
Euth; Hi Iletween the orbite of CeJ'IlII and Jupiter. Forty-nine of theIe
comets miwe from eaRt to west, and 48 in the opposite direction. ,
The total number of distinct comets, whoae paths during the_DIe
part of their course bad been ucertained. up to the year 1832, __
hundred and thirtyo48V8ll.
What regions thesll bodiea vi8i&, wben they paS8 beyond
limits of our viflw; upon what errands they come, when they
again revisit the central parts of our sYlltem; what is the differ-
ence between physical constitution and that of the 8un and
planets; and what important ends they are destined to accom-
plish, in the economy of the universe, are inquiries which natu-
rally arise in the mind. but which surpas8 the limited powers
of the understandini a\ present to determine.
118 GIIOGBDBY or- Tn RKA-VUL
CHAPTER VIII.
THE TJU.N8LATJON OP THE 8UN AND BOLAR 8YBTBK
THROUGH 8PACE.
Bnura clOll8d a rapid aUn'ey of &be individual objecta couti-
tuting &be aolar ayatem, we proceed to &be examination of the
wonderful discovery made by Sir William Herechel, and re-
cently confirmed b, &be Runian aatronomers, &bat 1M """
Gltefldetl by all AU pI4rtda, ..ullilu, _ t:OIIteU, .. moving IfDiJIly
eArougla apaa.
It will be remembered, &bat the aun muat be reckoned amonr
the fixAd atara; and, indeed. is one of the many millions of atara
oomposing the Galaxy, 01 Milky Way. So aoon as the .fsct
waa ascertained beyond question, tbat amoDI{ the fixed stara
many were found, which after yean of attentive ell:Bmination,
actually changed their relative poaitiou in the heavens, it waa
not unnatural to conjecture these changes to be the eft'ect of
parallax, produced by the movement of the aun and hia lyltelD
, of planeta, in lOme direction through the regiou of space.
It will be readily leen. that in cue luch a movement of the
lun exilta.1lnd should be appreciable in amount, when compared
with the diltance of the ltan. ita eft'ect would be to produce aD
apparent change among the relative placea of the ltara. in coo-
8f!Cluence of the fact that the apectator every year viewl &hern
from a dift'erent point of absolute apace.
The extenaion of &be law of gravitation to the fixed stars, by
the diaeovery of binary Iyatema, reduced it to a certainty &bat
the ltan exerted a motual inftuence over each other; and froID
thil ,eneral attraction which each exerted over every other, it
was lmroalible for the IUD to eaeare. The result of &bia ge_
ral attnction would be motion in lOme direction. To demo ...
Itrate the tru&b of thil conjecture-to determine &be direction.
angular velocitV, and actual Jpovement of &be lun and IYltem,
have been &be great queltionl for lolution during the laat few
yean of aatronomical research.
Sir W. Herschel had roughly examined thil lubject; and
from a general examination of -the proper motion of the fixed
ltan, conoluded &bat the lolar Iyatem was moving toward &be
8OnlteJlation Hercnl... For many yean, &bil theory wal re-
ceived with comparatively little favor. The IpecnlatiOD was 80
TRANSLATION OF THE SUN TB!l0UGH SPACE. 197
bold, 80 daring, and apparently so Car beyond the leope of aceu-
rate examination, tbat many minds were indisposed to receive
it. Within a few yeara, bowever,tbe liubject baa been taken
up by M. Argelander, a Russian astronomer, and the IJrand
apooulation of Heraebel bas become a matter of abaolute sClenes.
Argelander'a general mechod of determining tbe direction of
the aolar metion, may be thua explained, in ita general outlinea.
He commenced by f \ x i n ~ , with accuracy, the places of five buu-
dred atara, in all the Visible parta of the hea,ens. His own
determined placea of these stars were then compared with the
r.1acea of the same st8rs determined by preceding astroUOl\lers.
rile old position of any star,joined with Ita new position, would
give ita direction of apparent motion, and the distance between
the two places, combined with the interval between tbe old and
Bew observations, would fix the rate of movement per annum.
The five bundred selected .tars were then grouped into three
classes, according to their annual rate of motion. Tbe Iqost
swiftly-moving, comr,osing the first clase, were examined sepa-
rately in this way. rbe old and new flscea of each star bemg
joined, tbe HDe. thus determined in position, made a certain angle
with the meridian, which could easily be determined. All theBe
angles wpre computed; and by an examination of their values,
it Willi spen tbat their general direction indicated, that in CBse
the proper motions of theae atars were occasioned by tbe move-
ment of the solar system through space, the direction of that
Diotion must be, as Heracbel had aaid, towanl the constellation
Heroules.
A point in tbis constellation was now selected, as the one
ioward which the aun waa moving; and, on thia hypothesis,
the directions in which the stars already examined would ap-
pear to move, were accurately computed. Now in CBse these
computed directions ahould in every inatance 'coincide with the
aelual obaerved directiona. it would demonatrate that the point
had been well cbosen, and was the true point required; while a
want of coincidence would abowtbat another trial must be
made.
Tbua did ArJJelander proceed, witb incredible paina, to select
anel test one pomt after another, until be obtained one, whicb,
better tban all otbera, barmonized all tbe proper motions of bis
five hundred atara; and thia was tbe pomt towards which, it
DOW became certain, the sun, witb all hia attendanta, was urging
his flig 11.&. .
A aubaequent inveatigation. by M. Str6ve, baa confirmed
Argalander's resulta in the most't'emarkable manner. Having
accomplished thia object, M. Striive gave his attention to the
determmation of the amoont of angular motion of the Bolar aye-.
tern, as seen from the mean diltaDce of the RarI of the lat mil"
198 GEOGRAPHY or THE HEAVENS.
Dimde; and by a compl_ and elaborate ipv_tipao., laaUy
ucer&ained, that in each year, the lun'langular mouon amountecl
to three huodred and thirty-five thounndtha or oDe 1eC00d or
arc, or this would be the angle included between two Yiaalil
raya, drawn rrom the eye or a apectator removed to tbe mean
distance of aten of the 1st magnitude, to the two placea OCCII-
pied by the aun at the and close of tbe same year.
Having learned the value or this distance approximately, we
may DOW convert this angular motion into linear movement, aad
we reach the following wonderful proposition, via. :-TA. 1Vn.
attended . by all Ai. planet., raullite., and coma., i. .weeping
thrwgA apace. towartlr'tAt rtar .. , in tAt eonrtellation H_lt6,
at tAt rate rf tllirtll-thru millionr tlru Atmrlretl and ,Nt" u.-ncI
milta irw-lI ,ear. .
Sucli1a the latest determination, wUb rererence to the magni-
icent ayatem with which we are usociated.
LAW OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION.
IT ia aaid, tbat Sir Isaac Newton, when he W88 drawiDgto a
cloee the demonstration or the great truth, that gravity ia the
cause whioh keepa .the heavenly bodiea in their orbita, was 80
mucb agitated wlth tbe magnitude aod importanoe of the die-
coyery he W88 about to make, that be was unable to proceed.
and desired a rriend to finiah what the intensity of hia reelingB
did not allow bim to do. By grantation is meant, that
aal law or attraction, by whicb every particle or matter in _ the
aystem haa a tendency to every other paniclll.
Tbia attraction, or tendency of bodies toward each other, il
in proportion to the quantity of matter they con&ain: The earth,
being immensely.1arp in compariaon with all other lubatancea
in ita vicinity. destroys tbe effect or this attraction between
amaller bodies, by them all to itself.
The attraction or JraYitation ia reciprocal. All bodies not
only attraet other bodlea,but are themselves attracwd, and both
aecording to theit respective quantities or matter. The aun, the
largest bOcly in our a),stem, attracta the esrth and al\ the other
planeta, while they In tum attract the SUD. The earth, alao.
attracta the moon, and abe in tum aUraata the earth. A ball,
thrown upward from the earth, ia brought again to ita surface;
. the esrth'l attraction not only counterbalancing that or the ball,
but alao produolng a mouon of the ball toward itself.
Thia diapQaition, or tendency toward the earth, is manirested
in whatever ralla. whether it be a pebble from the hand, or an
apple rrom a tree, or an avalancbe rrom a moun&ain. All terres-
LAW 01' GRAVITATION.
Irlti boell., DOt escepdng die waten o( tbe ocean, gnYitate
toward the center :f the earth, and it is by the same power that
animala on all parts of the globe stand with tbeir f.t pointing
to ite center. . .
The power of terrestrial gravitation is greateR at the earth'l
IUrface, whence it decreaaea both upward and downward; but
Dotbotb ways in the aame proportion. It decrea .. s upward
III lAe ItJU"'" of lAe dillanu. from the earth'. cenler incre .... ;
lo.u.at at a diltance from the center equal to twice the .. mi.
diameler of the earth, the force would be only one
fourth of wbat it is at the surface. But below the surface, it
decreaaea in the dired ratio of the distance _ from the center; so
that at a diatance of half a lIemidiameler frpm the cenler, the
grllYitatinl( force is bot half what it i, at the aurface. L
WeigAt and grtfI?ity, in this case, are synonymoo;,erm".
We aaya piece of lead weigbs a pound, or 16 ounces; but if by
any means it could be raised 4000 miles above the surlitce of
the earth, wbich is about tbe of the surface from the
center, and equal to two .. mi-diameters of the
earth above ite cenler. it would weigh only one fourth of alound.
or foor ouncea; and if the same could be raise to an
elevatioo of 12,000 miles above the surface, or foor aemi-diame-
ten above the cenwr of the earth, it woold there weigh only one
sixteenth of a pound, or one ounce. '
'I'he lime body, at the center of the earth, being equally
attracted in every direction, woold be witbout weight; at 1000
miles from tbe center it would weigh one fourth of a pound; at
2000 miles, one balf of a J?ound; at 3000 miles, tllI'",e fourtbl
'of a pound; and at 4000 mdes, or at the aurface, one pound.
It is a unmr.J law rB aUnction, that iU power at tAe
.-,uare of tAe dUt_ m-. The con_ of this is aIao true, via.
ne power inemJIa, III tAe IfJfIlIn of tile dUt_ d_. GiviDg
to this law the fOrm rB .. pracIiilaI rule, it wiIllbmd th1l8:
ne grtIf1ity of 60diea aboIe lAe "!'fa of tAe earlA, det:nt.ua in"
- duplWde ratio (ur III tAe of llieir ira
len of tAe earl1&, from tAe itIrl/a'. ctnUr. That iI, w'ben the gravity is
increuing, multiply the weight by the lIIuare of the distance; but wllea
the graYity ill the waight by the 111_ of the cI,iatanca,
8uppGIIB a body weigba 40 pound. at 2000 mil. above the earth'.
surface, what would it weigh a' the surfiule, eatimatiDg the earth'. BeIJIi.
diameter at 4000 mill!81 From the center to the given bight, is Ii
8B1J1i.diameter: the 111_ of 1 i, or 1.Ii, is lUll, whid!, multiplied into
the wei,ht (40), gives 90 pounds, the answer.
8u.ppoae a body which weigba 266 pounds upon tbe IDrIice of the
eanb, be raiaed to the distance rB the moon (140,000 milea), what would
be ita weight 1 Thas, 4000)140,000(60 ieJni.diameterI the eqoare rB
wlIIch ia 8800. M the pmty, in ttiie -. ia decnIIina. ditride the
'800 GEOGRAPHY OF THE HEAVENS
. we1ght by dIe.- of the diIbulee, ad it will give 98OO)2116t1oJttb
of a pound, or 1 00-' .
2. To find to wbat hisht a Bi- welpt mUll be l'aiaed to lnee a
eertain portion of ita weight. ,
RULlI_Divide tAt weitllat lit 1M -:t-.lI!l tAt MJUirwl weigAt,
tmd utraet tAt MJUII"t root 0/ 1M quolimt. Ex. A Iioy weigba 100
pounds. how high mlJlt he be canied to weigh but 4 pounds! Th-.
J 00 divided by 4, .givee 26, the aquare root' of which. ill 6 IIBJDi.diameteIII,
F 20,000 mil. above the.center.
Bodies oC equai magnitude, do not always contain equal
quantities of matter; a ban oC cQrk, of equal bulk with one DC
lead, contains less.matter, because it is more porous. The sun,
though /ourtn lauMreil tlaotuand tiDies larger than the earth,
being much less dense, contains a quantity of matter only
355,000 times 88 great, and hence attracts the earth with Ii Corce
only 355,000 times greater than that with which the eartb
attracts the sun. ' .
The quautity of matter in the sun, is '780 times greater than
that of all the planets aud satellites belonging to the solar sys-
tem; consequently their whole united force of attraction is 780
times less upon the sun, than that olthe sun upon them.
. The center f gravity DC a body, is that point in which its
whole weight IS concentrated, and upon which it would rest, if
Creely suspended. IC two weights, olle of tan pounds, the other
of one pound, be connected together by a rod eleven Ceet long,
nicely poised on a center, and then be thrown into a free rotary
motion, the heariest will move in a cirele with a radius oC one
Coot, and the lightest will deecribe a circle with a radius DC tell
Ceet; the center around which they move is their common center
DC gravity. .
Thus the sun and planpta move arouod an imaginary poill:t aa
a ceoter, always preserving an equilibrium. .
If there were but one body in the universe, provided it were
DC uniform density, the ceoter of it would be the center of gravity
toward which an the sfarrounding pomona would uniformly
tend, and they would thereby balance each other. Thus tbe
center oC gravity, and the body itself, would forever remain at
f8Rt. It would neither move up nor down; there being no other
body to draw it in any direction. In this CBse, the terms up and
:lawn would have no meaning, except 88 applied to the body
'tself, to express the direction oC the surface Crom the center
. Were the esrth the only body revolving about the suo, as the
un's quantity of matter is 355,000 times 88 great 8S that of the
earth, the sun would revolve in a circle equal only to the tlaree
lufldred IJndjlfty-Jifle tlaouBandtJlpan of the earth'a diatance from
it: but 88 the planeta in their aeveral orbits vary their positiollll,
LAW 01' GRAVITATIOK. 801
&btl center of gravity ia . not \ah ... y. at the .. me clilaanca from
the IUn.
Tbe quantity of matter in the aun 80 far eueecla that of all
the planeta wlether. that were they all on ODe .ide of him. he
would Dever be mqre than hia own diameter. fro.m the common
center of gravity; the .un. i therefore. juatly conaidered aa the
center of the ayatem. .
The quantity of matter in the 8IlTth being about 80 timn aa
great aa that of the moon. their commo. center of gravity ia 80
timea nearer the former tban the latter, which ia about 3000
milea from tbe earth'l center.
The 8econdary planeta are loverned by the aame lawl aa their
primarin. and both together move around a common oenter of
,ravhy.
Every IYltem in the universe il BIIppoeed W revolve. in like
manner. around one common cetIter. I
ATTRACTIVE AND PROJECTlLJt FORCES.
Au. limple motion il naturally rectilinear; that is, all boclif!a
put in motion would cont,nup. to go forward in Itraight linea, aa
long 81 they met with no resiltance or diverting force.
On the other hand. the lun. from hie immflDse size. would. by
the power of attraction. draw all the planeta to him, if hie attrac-
tive force were not counterbalanced by the primitive impulse of
the planetary bodies to move in straight line.. .
Tbe attractive power of a body drawiag anothflr body toward
dae oenter. ia denominated centripetal foru I and tbe tendency
of a revolving body to fly from the cp.nter in a tangent line, ia
called the projectile or Centrifugal fUf'Ce. The I' oint action of
these two central force. ~ V 8 8 the pfanete a circu ar motion. and
retaine them in their orblta al they revolve, the primariel about
the lun, and the eecondariell about their primariel.
The degree of the aun'l attractive power at eacb particular
planet, whatever be itl distance, il uniformly equal to the cen-
trifugal force of the planet. The nearer any planet is to the
aun, the more atrongly is' it attracted by him; the farther any
planet is rrom the sun, the lesl is it attracted by him; therefore.
thoBe plfllete which are the nearer to the sun mUlt move the
(aater in their orbita, in order thareby to acquire centrirugal
forces equal to thl! power of the aun'a attraction; and tbose
which are the fartber from the aun muat move the slower. in
order that they may not have too great a df!gree of centrirugal
force. for the wenker attraction of the aun "t '1>0'18 diatances.
2B
82 GEOGRAPH Y' OF THE RBA VU&.
The dieoovery of tbeee great trathl, by Kepler and NewtoD,
.. tablilhed thl! UIIIVER8AL LAW or. PLAlfI:TUY MOTION; which
lDay be atated al Coli OWl.
. 1. Every planet monl in ita orbit with a velocity varying
nery inltant, in consequence of t.o forces; one tending to the
center of the IUn, and the other in the direction of a tangent to
ita orbit, arising froll!. the primitiveJmJlulae given at the time it
was launched into space. The former II eaUed it.s centripetal, the
latter, ita cmtrifugalf-. Sbould the centrifugal force ceaee,
dae planet would faIr to the lun by ita gravity; were the lun
not", attraet it, it would, lIy oft" from ita orbit in a straight'line.
B. By the time a Jllanet haa reached ita aphelion, or tbat point
of itl orbit which II Cartheat from tbe lun, his attraction hilS
overcome ita velocity, and draWl it tOward him with luch an
accelerated motion, ,that it at last overcomes the lIun's attraction,
and Ihoota past him: then gradually decreasing in velocity, it
am ves at the perihelion, when the sun's attraction again prevails.
3. However ponderous or light, large or amall, near or.renlote,
the planeta may be, their motion is always luch -that imaginary
lines joining their centera to the slln, paal over equal areas in
equal times: and this ia true not only with respect to the areaa
deacribed every hour by, the _me planet, but the agreement holda,
with rigid Ixactness, between the areaa described in the same
time, by aU the planeta and cometa belonging to the aolar
aystem.
From the foregoing princ:iplea, it folJOWII, that tile fiJrce of gravity, and
the centrifugal force,.,., mutual continually act-
ing the other. ThlJ8, the weight of bodies, on the earth'. equa-
tor, is diminU/led by the centrifugal force of her diurnal rotation, in the
proportion of one pound for every two hundJed and ninety pounds: tba&
l8, bad the earth no motion on her axis, all bodies on the equator would
weigh one two hundred and eighty"Tlinth,.part more than they now do.
On the contrary, if her diurnal motion were accelerated, the centrifugal
force would be proportionally incre8sed, and the weight of bodies at the
equator would be, in the aalDe ratio, diminished. Should the earth revolve
upon ita axis, with a velocity whicb would make the day but eighty.(our
minutes long, instead of twenty-four hours, the centrifugal force would
counterbalance that of gravity, and all bodies at the equator would then
be abaolutely destitute of weight; and if the centrifugal force were filrther
augmented, (the. earth revolving in 1_ time than eighty-four minutes).
gra";'tation would be completely overpowered, and all fluids and looIe ,
subdances near the equator would fiy oft" from the 1IIll'fBce.
'I'he weight of bodiee, either upon the earth, or on any other planet hav
Ing a motion around, ita axis, depends Jointly upon tile mass of the plaDet,
and ita diurnal velocity, A body weighing one pound upon tile equator
of the earth, would weigh, if removed to tile equator of the ann, 27.91ba.
Of Mercury, 1.03 lbe. OrVen1l8, 0.1I81ba. Of tile moon, -tr lb. Of
Mara, Ib. Of Jupiter, 2.716 Iba. Of Saturn, 1.01 lbe.
PUCISlION OJ' THE ZQUIlfOXES. 808
9HAPTER IX.
PRECESSION, NUTATION, ABERRATION, PARALLAX,
REFRACTION.
. I. attemptiDg to b the pleee olany heaftnly hody, at a giV8D
epoch. for ,the purpose of ascertaining its subsequent movements,
h is absolutely know the precise changes which
are affectiog the points or lines to which the heavenly body is
referred. and by means of which its place la determined.
The longitude and right alC8nsion are both reckoned from the
nml! point, viz . the eertIIJl rquiflOlIf, and in cue this point is not
fixed, to know with accuracy the place of a star or planet
rllfem.d to the vernal equinox, we muat learn the precise amount
of change in the place of this point of
If the lun in its apparent annual motion among the bed stars,
pused oYer tbe same identical track every year, then the points
an which hil orbit cnts the celestial equator would be ever in-
variable. Thill. howsver, ia not the case. The sun's path among
&he fixed stsrs. ill slowly but constantly changing. If a bri,ht
slar this year should happen to occupy the exact point in which
the aun's path CI'Oll88l the equator in the spring, at the end of
one year the sun would come round and would cro88 the equator
10 88 to leave that atar a Iillk to llae etUI. . .
This apparent yearly motion of the lun westward. cauaea i&
to reach the equinox or to come to the equator earlier than it
otherwise would do, and in &hil 'way brings on an equality
between the daYI and nights, BOOner than it would have come
had the sun's apparent orbit been fixed. Because the snn in
this way comes to the equinox at a time its
arrival. it has been called a prtUIIiDfi of die equinoxes, while
in reality It is a recession or receding of the equinoctial pointl
along the equator. We shall now in a few worda trace this ex-
traordinary phenomenon to ita origin, point out its effects, and
present ita exact numerical value.
The swift rotation of the earth on ita axis, causes a protuber-
ance or elevation around its equatorial regions as we have alread,.
seen. This belt of matter heaped up at thto equator. is subjected
. to the attractive enl'rgy of the sun and moon, and by their com-
bined action eXflrted on this belt of redundant matter, the solid
Mrth is made to reel 8lightly on its axis. Now thf! plane of the
earth's equator produced cull from the heannl the equinoctial,
804 GEOGRAPHY OF THE BEAVENII'.
and in eue this plane be in any way deranged or moved, it will
cease to cut the ecliptic in its fOfl!ler points. It will be eeeD
readily that whatjCYer caulle operates to displace the earth's
equator, must operate to chauge the position of tbe equinoctial
points.
Again: as the earth's axis is ever perpendicular to tbe ftllrlh's
equator, it followlI that every change lD the position of the equa-
tor, involves a corresponding change in tbe position of tbe earth '8
axis. To exbibit tbis to the eye, take a wooden wheel, pass
through its center an axis; and tben let.the wbeeland axis flm.t
on still water: [f the wbeel be one half sunk below the Burface
of the water, tbe otber balf coining up above tbe surface, then
will the axis cease to be vertical, and will become inclined to-
ward .the immersed ponion of thewbeel's rim. Repeat the ex-
periinent at any point of the rim, and it will be fOlind that every
motion of the wheel involves a corresponding motion of the axis.
The wheel repreaents the earth's equator, the axis that of tbe
earth, and the surface of the still water the plane of ~ e earth's
orbit. [n the long run, the etreet of tile combined action of tbe
Bun and moon, on the equator of. the earth, causes it to cut tbe
ecliptic in two opposite points, 'which move slowly backward
every year, and accomplisb an entire revolution in about 26,000
years. As this motion is repreaented -exactly by the earth'.
axis, it follows that in the same period the pole of the equator,
or north pole of the beavens, will revolve around the pole of the
eclietic. .
. 1 he ellact value of precession, aa recently determined by M.
Striive, is 50".23449; a quantity of the utmost importance, in
the nice investigations of sidereal aatronomy.
[n consequence of the motion of the north pole of'tbe beaven .. ,
the bright star Polaris, now nflar tbe pole, will ultimately be
left far behind, and at tbe expiration of aboat 12,000 years, th.
brilliant star Vega, in the Lyre, will become the polar star.
Nutation is a subordinate etrect of the same _general cauaes
producing precession. [t was diacovered by Bradley, and is
aue to the joint influllnce of the sun and moon on the protuberant
mass at the eartb's equator. It nriBB with the configurations
of the sun,moon, and moon'l node. and is represented by sup-
posing the extremity of the earth'l axis' to deacribe a minute
ellipse in the heavenl, in about nineteen yearl, while it is car-
ried forward in its general revolution about the pole of tbe eclip-
tic. The exact numerical value of nutation, as determined by
BIlICb, Peters, and Lllndahl, is 9".2320
.8berrtUion.-Ir the light which radiatel from a lelf-Iuminous
body, or which is reflected from an opake one, pasled instantly
from one point in space to any other, however remote, then
woalcl luminoul bodi. actually occupy the plaCBB in space,
I ABERRATION.
whicb, to &he eye. they appear to Ill. il DOt
dle. oue. Ligbt baa beeDfound to PlOfI8I8 wida a TClocitJ
amain, indeed, but It ill finite, bringing with it certain eft"ecla,
which, In &he pJellCnt ltate ofastronomy,oallDOtbe dientganled.
The discovery of the fioite velocity of light was made by Roemer,
Crom ao aueotive examination of \he eclipl" of 1M eatellitee of
Jupiter. It will be remembered that the earth'l orbit, being ...
clOl8d wi&bin the orbit of Jupiter, wben tbe earth and Jupiter
are in a straight line pusing \hrough the sun, 'alld on \he same
lide of the son, they are Dearer each other \hall wben OD oppo-
lite sides of \he IUD, by a di!l\aa4le equal to the diameter of the
eartb's orbit, or by nearly 200,000,000 of mil... It _ found
that \hose eclipses of Jupiter's eateUhes wbich occurred while
the earth and, Jupiter were near each other, came on earlier thall
\he computed time; while those occuiring at the time Jupiter
and the earth were at their greatelt distance, came on too late
for the computed time. For a long time no explanation could
be found for thie siogular phenomenon. At lengtb it was found
to depend on the relative distances of \he earth aIId Jupiter, and
was fina)ly explained by giving to the light which cornea to UI
from the eatellitea of that planet, a finite and determined vel.
city. AI \he light from the satellites is reflected light, so 8000
as the satellite enters the shadow of Jupiter, the lource of ligbt
ie cut off; aIId in case light moved instantly from one point to
another, the ecrrpee would take place tbe moment the satellite
entered the shadow of its primary. Bllt the stream of light flow-
ing on with a finite velocity, requires a certain time to become
exhausted. When Jupiter and tbe eartb are nearest, or in con-
Junction, the stream is shorter. or has a le88 distance to flow, by
Dearly 200,000.000 of mites, than wheD the earth and planet are
in opposition, or most remote from eacb other. In \his way it
is found that Iigbt requires about sixteen minutes to cross &he
diameter of the earth's orbit. The velocity tbus determined has
been confirmed, in a remarkable manner, by Bradley's discovery
of what has been called the aberration of the fixed stare. Thil
is an apparent change in the placea of the fixed stars, due to the
Cact that the velocity of light, combined with that of the earth
in its orbit, causes fixed stars apparently to a mi-
nute orbit. in the period of one year. Very extended and minute
investigations have revealed the actual velocity ofthe light of the
fixed stars: and this velocity is nearly, if not exactly equal, to
that of reSected light as dedllced from tbe obeerved ecliplea of
Jupiter's eatellites. The numerical value of aberrstion, as lut
determined by the RUBsian is 20".50.
PlI1'allaz.-This subject bas already been treated, in the cbap-
ter on the distribution and distauce of tbe fixed stare. Th.
eft"eet of parallax on the place of ally heavenly body, ie to callie
282
_ GEOGRAPHY or THE .HEA VENS.
lHo appear leu I!Ilented above the borizon than it wOlld be if
leen frolllthe earth'l center. The apparent plaeea of the lUIIt
BlOOn, and planeta, are senlibly aft'ected by parallax; and their
we places caD only be obtained from their apparent placel, by
oorrecting these for the eft'ect of parallax. '
Rtfraetitm. - The Iigbt which reachel UI from the bentonly
bodiel oirly comea to the e.,e of the observer after traveraing the
atmosphere, a gaseoUI mechum, which POlsesses tke power of caus-
ing a ray of light, while traveraing it, to bend from ita rectilinear
path. In Clonlequeaoe of this bending of tIt.e rays of light, called
refraction, a star or planet ia seen iD the direction of the straight
line drawn tangent to the .curved ray of light, at the point where
it.enters the eye; and it thUI appears higher above the horizon
than it really il. a star or planet is seen, by the eye.
wbile it i8 yet really below the horizon, in consequence of re-
fraction. The aame cauSe dift'uses the light of day, and gives
to UI the twilil[bt of morning and e.ening. The eft'ect of refrac-
tion on tbe .pfacea of the he .... enly bodies has been carefully
ltudied,and tablea have been prepared, sbowing the value of
refraction at all elentionl above the borizon, and for all changea
of the thermometer and barnmeter. . .
To obtain, then, the absolute place -of any heavenly body,
from its apparent place, as taken by aD instrument absolutely
perfect, we mUlt ita !Dltrumental, or place, for
precession, nutation, aberratton, parallax, and refraction.. If the
lDltrument be not absolutely perfect, then must ita errors be in-
l'8Itigated, and be allowell for. before a final reliable resuh caD
be obtained.
CHAPTER X.
THE TIDES.
. .
THE oceans, and an the seas, are obsened to be incessantly
agilated f!lr certain periods of time; first from the eaBt toward
the west, and then again from the west toward ~ e east. In tbie
lBotiOD, which laSIa about aix houl'll, tbe sea gradually swell a ;
80 that entering tbe moutbs of rivers, it drives back the waters
toward tbeit source. After a continual flow of aix bours. the
seaa seem to rest for about a quarter of an hOllr; tbey then be-
gin to ebb. or retire back sgain from weat to eaat for lix hours
more; and the rivers again resume their natural courses. Tben.
after a aeeming ,pauae of a quarter of an bour, the ae88 again
begin to tlow, as before, and thua alternately. This regular al-
ternate motion of tbe sea constitutes tlu lith_, of wbich tbere
are two in 80mething leBs tban twenty-five bours.
'.file ancients con.idered the ebbing and flowing of the tides .. one of
the greatest mysteries in. nature. and were utterly at a 10118 to account for
them. GaJileo and Descartea, and particularly Kepler. made BOme BIle-
eeeafiJl advances toward 88CeJ'laining the cauee; but Sir IlIIIac Newton
was the first who clearly mowed what were the chief agents in producing
these motiOllL
The cause of tbe tideB, is tbe attraction of the sun and moon,
but chietly of tbe moon, upon the waters of tbe ocesn. In vir-
tue of gravitation, the moon, by her attraction, draws, or raisE'll
the water toward her; but because the power of attraction di-
minisbes as the squares of the distance Increase, the waters on
the opposite side of the eartb are not eo much attracted as they
~ on the side nearest the moon.
That the moon, llllya I3ir John HeracheI, ahould, by her attraction, heap
up the waters of the ocean under her, ~ to moat per8Oll8 very na-
tara!; but that the llllme cauae ahould, at the _ time, heap them up
011 the opposite 1Iide, EeDII, to many, palpably abeurd. Yet nothing i.
mori! true, nor indeed more evident. when we consider thet it ill not by
her wAole attraction, but by the diBilrences of her attractiona at the oppo-
Bite III1I'fiIees and at the center, that the watem are raiaed. ,.
That the tides are dependent upon aome known and determinate la,..,
u evident from the exact time of high water being previoualy given in
e'fer! ephemeris, and in many of the COIIlIIIOD a1manllal. .
The moon comes fJVfJr1 day later to the meridian than 011 the day pre-
eeding. and her exaet lime is known by ""'aIlation; and the tides in any
'lOS GEOGRAPHY 0., 1;0 REA VENS.
I11III ..,., pi-, will be &JuDd 10 iIIIow the _ rule; happeiDg u-
actIy 10 much later every day .. the moon _ Jatar 10 the metidiaD.
From thia old coafDnnity to the moao.. 0( the JIIOOII, we _ iDduced
to look to her .. the eaU88; I11III to ini!r that &be. phennmerw _ qc:ao
.woed principa11y by the moon'. aUJaetioa. .
. THE TIDE'.
_e
FIG. I. Fla. lL
If tbe eartb were at relt, and there were DO attractive illAu-
ence from eitber the lun or moon, it ill obyioul from the princi-
ples of gra.yitation, tbat the water, in tbe ocean would be truly
,phelical (al represented by figure 1); but daily obee"atioD
proves tbat they are in a state of continual aitation.
If the earth and moon were without motloD, and tbe earth
covered all oyer witb water, the attraction of the meon would
raise it up in a beap in that part of the OCt!8n to wbich the mOOD
ia vertical, as in figure 2, and there it would, probably, alway'
cODtinue; b!1t by tbe rotation of the 'earth upon hI axil, each
part of its .urface to which the mOOD is vertical is presented to
the action of the moon: wherefore, as the quantity of water aD
the whole earth remainl the lame, when the watera are elevated
on the lide of the earth under the moon, and on tbe opposite
'ide alIa, it is evident they mUlt recede from the intermediate
pointl, and thUI the attraction of tbe moon produce laitlA tIHIter
at two opposite placel, and low water at two opposite places OD
the earth at the lame time, aa represented by figure 3.
Thill is evident from the figure. The _tera eannot riBe in 0IIII pJ-.
without falling in another; and therefonl they mu. fall .. low in the
horizon, at C and D, .. they rille in the aenith and DIldir. at A I11III B
.. in the foIlowinJ figure.
It haa already beeD Ihown, UDder the amcle gravitation, tha'
the earth and moon would fall toward each other, by the power
of their mutual attractioD, if there were DO ceDtrifugal Coree &0
THE TIDES.
809
p J e v e ~ t them; and tbat \he moon would ran as much' faater to-
ward \he earth \han \he earth would rail toward the moon, aa &he
quantitf or matter in \he earth ia greater than the quantity ot .
matter In the moon. The iame law determinea alllO the aize of
their Jespective orbite around tbE'ir eommon center oC gravity.
It follows, then, 88 we have -. that the moon does no& revohoe,
ltrictIy speaking, around the earth 88 a center, but around a point be-
twem them, .which is 80 times nearer the earth than the moon, and con-
lI!CJ.uently is situated about 3000 miIea from the earth's center. It has
also been shoWn. that all bodiee moving in cirolee aequire a centrifugel
force proportioned to their respective m_ and velociV' . From the.
&ete, some pbiloeophelll account for high water on the IIide of the earth
0pp0IIite to the moon, in the filllowing manner :
As the earth and moon move around their common center of gravity,
I/IIJt part of tM earlh which is at any time tumed from tM moon, being
about 7000 milee farther from the cenler of gravity than the 'lide next
the moon, would have a greaUr centrifugal.r- tluJ" 1M .. ntI:l
At the earth's center, the centrifugal foree Will balance the attractive force;
therefore, 88 IIIUdl water is thnYum oil by the centrifugel force on the
.we which is turned from the moon, 88 ia ...wed on the Bide nut her by
her tdVactiOIl. .
From tbe universal )aw, \hat the Coree oC gravity diminishes
.a the &quare oC \he distance increases, it reaulta \hat the attrac-
tive power oC \he moon decreasell in intensity at every step of
tbe descent Cram the zenith to the nadir; and, consequently, that
the waters on the zenitb, being more attracted by tbe moon than
the earth ia at ita center, move Caster toward the moon than the
earth'a center does: and aa the center oC \he earth movea Caater
toward \he moon than \he waters about the nadir do, the .waters
will be, as it were, left behind, and thua, with Jeapect to \he
center, they will be raiied.
I The reason why the earth aDd waters of our globe do not _ to be
6:ted equally by the moon's attraction, is, that the earthy eubltance of
the globe, being firmly united, does not yield to any dilJinnce of the
moon's attraclive force; inaomuch that it. upper and lower eurIi&ce mUl&
move equally &at toward the moon; whereas the watera, cohering top.
therbut very slightly, yieJd to the dift'erent ~ of the moon'. attraI>
tive force, at dilimmt distances from her.
The leng&h of a lunar day, that is, oC the Interval from one
meridian pasaalfB oC the moon to ano\her, being, at a mean rate,
24 hours, 48 mlnutea, and 44 aecondll, the interval between the
fux and the reflux of the sea il not, at a mean rate, precill8ly aix
houri, but twelflll minutllll and eleven 1IIeOfItla. more, ao that the
time of high water doee not happen at the game hour, but is
about 49 minutes later every day.
The earth revolvea on ita axis In about twenty.four bours; if
the mOOD, thereCore, were . tationary, the _e part of our globe
110 GEOGRAPHY OF THE HEAVENS. I
would retam beneath it, and there would be two tidea eY.,
lwellty-four bour.; but while the earth i. tumiul' ODee upon ill
axis, the mOOD haa goae forward 13 iu her orbll, which tak ..
fort),-aiae minutel more before the same meridiaa is brought
.gaan directly under the moon. And heDee every suceeediag
day the time of high water will be forty-uine minutes later thaa
the preceding. .
For example :-8uppoae at any place it be high water at 3 o'clock iu
the afternooD, upon the day of DeW 1IIOOIl; the fOllowing day it will be
high WIder about .9 minut.ea after 3; the day after. about 38 minutea
after.; and 10 OIl till the next new moon. The exad daily mean retu-
daIion of the tideI iB thoadetermined : .
The mean motion of tbe moon, in a IOIar day. i. 13".l763116311
The mean motion of tbe .l1li, ID a IOlar dllY, i. 0 .98564722
Now, lIS 111" ia 10 80 milUltea, 10 i. 11".11107491110 48' W'.
lt il.obrionl that the aUracUon of the IDD mnst produce upon
the waters or the ocean a like effect to that of. the moon, thoogh
in a leal degree; for the great mue of the lun il more than
compensated by ita immeose distance. Neyerthelels. ill effeCt
is considerable, and it caa be Ibown, that the hight of the solar
tide is to the hight of the lunar tide al i to 5. UeDee the tidea,
though conltant, are nol eqnal. They are greatelt wheD the
moon il in conjunction with, or in opposition to, the Inn, and
least'when ill qnadrature. For, in tbe former cale, the lun and
moon set togetber, and the tide will equal the snm of the solar
anil lunar tides, and in the latter they act agaiust each other,
and the tide will be the difference.
'rhe former are called apring utI., the latter, fIIGJI tida. Th.
Ipring tidea are higbeat when the lun and moon are near the
equator, and the moon at her least di.lance from the earth. The
neap tidea are lowelt when the moon, in ber first and second
quarters, is at ber greatelt diatance from the earth. The geaeral
theory of the tidea is thi.: when the moon is neaMat the earth.
ber attraction il Itrongest, and the tides are the bighelt; wben
Ihe ia farthest from the earth, her attraction is least, and the
tidea are the 10wesL
From the abon theory, it might be Inpposed that the tid ..
would be the highest when the moon was on the meridian. Bnt
it il found that iu open seas, where the waler 1Iowl freely, the
moon haa generally f)GIUd llal north or lOUt! meridian about tlaree
Nnw. wAeta it iI l l i ~ - ' " water. The reason iI, that the force by
which the moon ratsea th" tide conti_ to act, and consequently
the waters continue to riBe after Ihe hal paaaed the meridian
. For the aame reason, the highest tid .. , which are produced by
the conjunction and oppoaition of the. aun and moon, do not hap-
pen on the daya of the full and change; neither do the low .. t
tides bappen Oil the dayl of their quadratnree.-But the greatelt
THE TIDES. 3ft
tpring lida commonly happen Ii days afIer the new and full
moons; and the leut neap lida Ii day. ofter the first and third
quarten.
The 81IIi and moon, by I'I!88OD or the elliptical form or their orbitI, are
alternately Dearer to and fit.rther &om the earth, than their mean diatanC8lo
In ClODII8CI.uence or this, the efII.cacy or the IUn will ftuduate between the
e1:ireme8 J 9 and 21, taking 20 for ita mean 'f8Iue; and between 4,'J
and 69 fordlat of the moon. Taking into thiII cause of diJIiII..
ence, the bigheIt spring tide will be to the lowest neap 8.69+21 is til
or 88 8Q to 24, or 10 to 3. The relative is l1li
51 to 20, or 88 5 to 2, _ly . .,...Hu8CAel' .A8tr. P. 339.
Though the ti'des, in open .et.II, are at the higbest about. tAru
Aoun after the moon has passed the meridian, yet tbe waters in
tbeir plUlsage tbrough sboals and cbannels, and by striking
against capea and headlands, are so retarded that, to different
plaoes, the tides hlLppen at all distances of the moon from the
meridian; consequently at all houn of the luriar day.
In small collections of water, the moon acts at tbe same time
on every part; diminishing the gravity of the whole mass. On
\bis account there are no sensible tides in lakes, tbey being gen-
erally so sma)) that when the moon is vertical, it attracts every
part alike; and by rendering all the waters equally ligbt, no
part of them can be raised higher than another. The Mediterra-
nean and Baltic seas have very small eleutions, partly for this
reason, and partly because the inletS by which they communi-
cate with the ocean are 80 narrow, that they cannot, in so short
a time, either receive or discharge enough, sensibly to raise or.
sink their surfaces. .
. Of all the of dUFerence in the bijrht of tides at different
places, by far the greatest is local situation. In wide-mouthed
. rivers, opening in 'tbe direction of the stream of the tides, and
whose channels are growin gradually narrower, the water is
accumulated by tbl! contracting banks, until in some instances
It rises to the-hight 0(20, 30,and even 50 (eet. .
Air being lighter tban water, and the surface of the atmoflphere
being nearer to the moon than the surface of the sea, it cannot
be dou\ted but that the moon raises mucb hijrher tides in the
atmosphere than in the sea. According to SIl John Herschel,
tides are, 'by very delicate obse"ations, rendered not only
sensible, but me_able.
UPon the that the waters on the IRIlfiace the moon are
of the same speci1ic gravity 88 our own, we might 8IIIiIy determine the
hight to which the earth would raise a li1nar tide, by the known principle,
that the attraction orone or these bbdiea on the other'81R1lfiace i8 direc#y
88 ill! quantity of matter, and inwnely 88 itIJ diameter. By making the
calculation, we BhaIl find the attracti-ve power of the earth upon the moon
to be 11.777 m- BNIier tbIID dlat of the moon upon the earth.
IJS GEOGRAPHY OF THE IlEAVUS.
CHAP'.I,'ER XI.
THE 8EA80N8-DIPFBRENT LENGTHS OF THE DAYS AND
NIGHTS.
Tali vici.situdes of the le-.onl and'the unequal lengths of
the days and nights, ate occasioned bl the annual revolution 01
the earth around the Iun, with its axil inclined to the plane 01
its orbit. '
The temperature of lUIy part of the earth's surface depend.
mainly. if not entirely. upon its expolure to the lun's ray ..
Whenever the lun i8 obot7e the horizon of any 'place .. that, plaCE
II receiving heat; when the lun i8 below the horizon. it i8 parting
with it. by a process which ii' called ri.liation. The quantities
of heat thul received and imparted in the course of the year.
mUlt balance ear.h other at everyllace, or the equilibrium of
temperature would not be 8upporte
Whenever. then, the lun remainl more than twelve houra
above the horizon of any place. and lesl beneath, the general
temperature of that place will be abo/ltl the mean state; w heD
the reverse takes place. the temperature, for the, lame reason,
will be below the meaD 8tate. Now the coDtinuance of the lun
above the horizoD, of any place, depends entirely upon his decli-
nation. or altitude at noon. About the 20th of 'March. when the
Inn il in the vernal equinll'&, and consequently hal no declinatiC;lD,
he riS88 at lix in the morning and sets at aix in the evening;
the day and n i g h ~ are then equal. alld aa the sun continu,ea as
long above onr horiz.on as below it, hia iDllu.ence must k Dearly
the same at the aame latitu.dI8s., in buth hemiBphl'rea.
From the 20th of March to tbe 21s. oC June. the days grow
longer, and the nights ahorter; in the IJ,Orthern hemi8phere the
temperature increa8es. and we paBl froBl apring to mid-summer;
while the reverse of this takes place in the 80uthern hemisphere.
From the Illst of June to the 23d 9f Septembt'r, the days and
nights again apcroach to equality, and the excess of temperature
in the northern lemisphere above the rqean atate, growa lea8. U
also its defect in the southern; ao that, ..,hen the lIun arrivea ai
the autumnal equinox, the mean temperature ia llgBin f8atol't'd.
From the 23d of September until the 21at of December, our
nights grow longer and the daya ahorter, and the cold increases
\
THE SEABOIt'I.
818
.. before it dhninisbed; wbile we pue trom autumn 'to mid
winter. in &he nonhem bemispb8Je, aDd the iDbabitants of the
NOtbern hemispbere trom spring_ to mid-aummer. From the
lUst of December to the 5lOth of Maroh, the cold relaxes u tbe
days ~ r o w longer, and we pus from the drearin88s of willter to
the mlldneu of spring, wben the se880nl are completed, and the
mean temperature is again restored. The 18me vict88itudea trana-
pire, at the 8Ime ,time, in the louthern hemisphere, but ill a
oon&ra7 order.-Thus are produced the four S88lonl of the year.
But haYe stated not the only. nor, perbaps, the moat efficient
cause in producing the heat of lummer and the cold of winter.
If, to lhe iDbabitants of the equator, the lun were to remain 16
hours below their borizon, aDd only 8 bours above it, for every
day of the Y9r, it ia certain they would Dever experience the
rigors of our winter; lIince it can be demonatrated, that al much
heat flllll upon the same area from a W:rlictJl aun, in 8 hours, as
would fall from him at an angle of 000, in 16 houra.
Now 88 the lun's rays fall m6fIt obliqt.Hly wAeta tM day. are
dortut, and moll d&reet1!l wAeta 1M day. are /tmgat, theae two
caUSf'S, nalll8ly. the duration and intenlity of the lolar ht'Bt,
together. produce the temperature of the ditrerent lea80ns. The
reason ,why we have not the hotle8t temperature when the daYI
are longest, and the coldeat temperature when the daYI are
ehorteet. but in each case about a month afterwards, appears to
be, that a body once heated, doea not grow (lold inBtantaneouB!Y. -
but gradually, and BO of the contrary. Hence. as 'long aB more
heat comes from the lun by day than il 10lt by night, the heat
will incff'8Be, and wee wna. '
The nortli pole of the earth il denominlted the e/ewdedpole,
because it iB a1waYI about galo above a perpendicular to the
plane of the equator, and the Bouth pole ia denominated the de-
pr'UIeti pole, because it iB about the 88me diBtance below such
perpendicular.
AB the Bun cannot Bbine on more than one half the earth'l
aurface at a time, it iB plain, that when the earth iB moving
through that POrtiOR of ita orbit which liel al1oIIe"lbe aun, ~ e
elevated pole is in the dark. This requires aix month. that II,
until the earth aniyea at the equinox, when the elevated pole
emergeB into the light, and the depreaaed pole is turned away
trom the Bun for the lame period. Consequently, there are lix
monthB-day and Bix montha night, alternately, at the polM.
When the aun appears to nl to be in one part of tlui ecliptic,
dJe earth, .. 888n from the -BUll, appeara in the point cliametri-
cally oppoaite., Thue, when the aun appeara in the vernal equi-
DOX at the fim point of mea, the earth is aetaally i. the oppo-
lite equinox at Libra. The daya and nighta are daen equal all
OYer the world.
20
.h lite IUD ..".... to lDOYe Dp fia. lite ....... eqaino1 to the
18_ eolltice, da. earth 8O&8aIly .. IW.. fia. the autumaal
equinoK dow. to Ibe wiater eoladee. The daYI now length ..
in the IlOI1hera bemiapb .... _ ahOrteD iD the aouthem. The
IUD il now oyer lite north pole. where it is mid-day, and oppo-
aile the eouth pole. wbBftl It is mid-uigbL .
As the IUD d8lOllllda from lite IUDUDer eolldoe towerd lite
autumnal eqaiDoz, the earth uoeuda from Ihe ... iDler aoladoe
toward lite yernal eq8iDo:i. Tlafl IBIDmer daya iD-the Dorthem
btmlitphere haYiDg wued ahOrler and Iborter, D,W become
again or equalleugth iD both bemiapberea. .
While the lun appears to moye from the autumDai equiDOx
dOWD to the wiDler eolllioe. the earth paeeea up rrom the yernal
&qaiDOK to the I_mer eo"doe; the aouth pole com .. iDto the
ligb&, the wiDler daYI coDliDuaily aborteD iD the northem bemi-
apbere, and the Hmmer daya .. regularly iacreue iD length iD
th .. lOutheru hemia'phere. .
Wbile the aaD appears apia to .-ad from ita winler 101-
llice to the yemll equiDos:. the earth deacenda rrom the aummer
aolatice to the autumual equiDOK. The aummer days now
IIhorten in the eoutheru bemiaphere, aud the wiDler daYlleDpeD
in the .onhem bemispbere.
WheD the IUD pa .... the Yenaal equinox, it ri_ to the arcdc
or eleYlted pole, and 88&8 to the an&8rotic pole. When the aUD
arriyes at the aammer eolatice. it ia noon at the DOrth pole, and
midnight at the aouth pole. WheD the IUD p .... the autumnal
P.Cjuinox. it 88&8 to the Dorth pole. and ri_ to the south pole.
WheD the IUD arriyea at the winler IOlatioe, it il midDight at
the IlOrth pole, and DOOD at the IOUth pole; and wbeD the aUD
oomel agam to the yemal eqUiDOX, it CI0888 the day at the ROUth
polto. and lightl up the momlug at the north pole.
There would, therefore, be 1861 daya dunng which the aUD
would not set at the north pole, aDd au equal time during wbich
he wODld nIK riee at the aouth pole; and 1781 daya in which be .
would not let at the south pole, Dor ri88 at the north pole.
At the arctic circle, i30 ~ from the pole, the longest day ia
24 houta, and goes on increa&lng a8 you approacb the pole. ID
latitude 67 18' it ia 30 days; in Iat. 69 30' it ia 60 daya, &C.
'rbe aame takes place between the autarctic circle and the south
pole. with the exception, that the day iD tbe lime latitude aouth
18 a liule aborte" aince the aun ia Dot 80 long looth of the equa-
tor, as at the Dorth of it. .ID thia eatimale nO'lCCO.UDt ia takeD
.of the refraction of the atmosphere, whicb, as we sball aee
bereafter, increaaea the leqgtb of the day, by makin, the IUD
appear more elented above lbe boriloD thau it really II.
LENGTHS 0:1 DA. T8 AND NlGIIT8. 816
THE IJEASON8-UNEQI1AL LENGTH& OP DAYS AND NIGHTS.
The above cut ~ t a &be iDclination of the ~ ' . uill to ilil orbit
in every one of &be twelve IIigBB of the ecliptic, and COIIIIflCluehUy for each
month in the year. The BUD enteD &be sign Ariu, or &be vernal eqw.
nox,on the 20th of March, when the eanh'. uil inclines neither toward
the SUD, nor .from it, but IitlewUe to it; 110 &bat the BUD &ben IIhineI
equally upon the eanh fiom pole to pole, and the days and .ta lie
8Y8J)'Where equal. TbiI iii the'bepming of &be lIItnInomical year; it ill
allIO the begiJmin of day at tile north pole, which .. jul& co.miDg into
light, and tbe :l of day at the IIOU&b pole, which .. jull png into .
emu-. ,
By tile eanh'. orbital prop-, the BUD appear. to eater tbe IIIIClODd
lip, Tauru.r, on the 20th of A pri1, when the north pole, N. baa lIBIl8ibIy
advanced into the light, while the 1IOU&b pole, 8, baa been declining tlom
it; whereby the day. -.:ome longer &ban the nigbtl in the northern
hemisphere, and aborter in the IIOUthem.
On the IIld of May. &be BUD appean to enter the Bign Gemini, whea
the north pole, N, baa advanced CODIIiderably further into the light, while
the sou&b pole, 8, baa ~ y declined tlom it; &be IDJDDler da)'l
lie DOW wuing longer In the northern hemisphere, and the nighll
1Ihorter.
The 1111& of June, when tile BUD enterI the Bign C_, .. the ftnt
day of 1DJDDler, in &be lIIIIronomical year, and the longeIt day in the
northern hemiBpbere. The north pole now baa ita greatellt inclination
to the BUD, tbe light of wbiDh, as .. ehown by the boundary of light and
darkn-, in the &cue, extend8 to.the utmoIt verge of the bdie Circle I
the whole of whicll .. included in the enlightened hemisphere of the
8Iltb. and enjoy., at thiI -. COIIIItaDt day duriDa the _plete NVOo
818 G:r.oGILl.PHY OF TilE BUVOI
hdioD of the euth 011 _ uit. The wheIe of the DOrthem Frigid Zcme
ill now in tile circle of perpetual illaminalion.
On the I3d of July, the BUll entenl the IIign Uo I and 88 the line of
the eanh', uia alway. continues &0 itaelt; the boundaJy of light
and damae. begina &0 approach nearer &0 the pol., and the length of
the day in the northern hemiaphere, which had at _ maximum,
begins gradually to decreaae. On the 23d of August, the sun ente\1l the
aign V'trgo, increasing the mentioned in Uo.
On the 29d of September, the sun enteJs Ubra, the first of the au-
tumnal aignII, when the eanh'. axie, having the _me inclinationas it had
ill the oppoaite sign, .his, ill turned neither from the BUD, nor toward it,
but obliquely to it, 110 that the BUll again now shines equally upon the
whole of the earth'. BUrlBce from pole to pole. The days and nIghts are
__ of equal length tha world.
On the 23d of October, the BUll entel1l the sign &orpio I the days visi-
hly deereaae in Iengtb in the, DOrthem beiniapbere, and increase in the
1IOUthem.
. On thend of November, the BUD entel1l the sign the 1881
of the autumnal signs, at which time the boundary of light and
is at a considerable distance from the north pole, while the south pole baa
proportionally advueed into the light; the length of the day continues
to increase in the southern hemisphere, and to deeieaae in the northern.
On the 21st of December, which is the period of the winter solstice,
the BUD enteta the aign Capricorn. At this time, the north pole of the
earth'. uis is turned from the BUn into perpetua\ darkne.; while the
IIOUtb poIe, in _ tum, is brought into the -light of the BUD, whereby the
whole Antardic region comes into the circle of perpetua\ ilIuminatioa.
It is now that the 1Kiuthern bemiapheJe enjoy. all thoae advantages with
which the northern hemiapbere 11'88 filvared 011 the 21st of June; while
the northern bemiapbae, in _ tum, Ullderaoea the dreariDe. of winter,
with IIbort da,.. mil lema niPt& '
,
AUlt.OU JlGREAtlS.
811
CHAPTER XII.
AURORA BOREALIS
Tv. lublime aDd beautiful phenomena prMented by the /JUrIJt"III
6orealie, or norIAem ligltt., II they are caUed, haYe been in all
agel a 4IOuree of admiration and wonder alike to the peasant and
the philosOpher. In the regionl of the north, thel1lre regarded
by the ignorant with IUperatitiOUI dread, as harblRgera of eyil;
while all sgree in placing them among tbe unexplained wondera
of natura,
These lights, or meteoric coruscations, are more brilliant in
the arctic region .. sppearing mOltly in the winter Sf'lIlIOn and in
froaty weather. They commonly appellr at twilight near the
horizon, and sometimes continoe in that stllte for BeYllral hours
without any perceptible motion; aft.f!r which they send forth
Itreaml of Itronger light, shooting with great velocity I1p to the
paith, emulatiDlf' not unfrequently, the invividn88l,
and the rainbow IDcoloring; and .again silently nsing in a com-
pact majestic arch of lteady white light, apparently durable and
Immovable, and yet 10 8ftneacent, that while the beholder lookl
upon it, it is goDe. .
At other times, tbey cover the whole hemisphere witb tbeir
flickering and Canutic coruscations. On these occasionl their
motions are amazingly quiek, and they astonilh the spectator
with rapid changes of form. They break out in placee whera
Done were ... n before, skimming briskly along the heavenl;
then they are IOddenly extinguished, leaYing behind a uniform
dosky track, which again il brilliantly illuminated in .the sllme
manner, and al IOddenly len a dull blank. Some nigh. they
aSlume the appeaflllC8 of YIlt columnl; on one lide
tlnta of the det'lpe8t yellow, and on the other, mehlngaway till
they become undistinguilhable from the lurrounding sky. They
han generally a Itrong tremuioul motion from end to end,
which continu .. till the whole yanish...
. Maupt>rtuU relatea that, in. Lapland, .. the Iky .u lometimes
tinged with ao deep a red. that the conltellation Orion looked as
though it were dipped in blood, and that the people faneie4 theT,
IIW srmies engaged, fiery chariots, and a thouaand prodigif!8.'
ihMlin relatea that, .. in Siberie, on the eoniDea of the ie, ...,
202
8J8 GEOGRAPHY OP THE HEAVENS.
tile spectral forms appear like ruBhing armies; and that the hi ...
ing crackling noiaea of thole .,rial fire-works so terrify the d0r.
and the hUnten, that they fan prostrate on the ground, and will
not move while the raging host i, passing."
Kergvekfl describes" the night; between and the Ferro
lalands, .. brilli1Lnt'as the day," the heavens being on fire with
ftames of red and white light, ohanging to columns and archl's,
and at length oonfounded in a of pyramids,
radii, shes'fes, arrows. and globes of fire.
Bat the e'fidence of Copt. Parry is of more value tban that 0'
the earlier tra'felera, as he examined the phenomena under the
most circumstances, during a period of twenty-sllven
consecutive months, and because his oblenations are IInin:O.u-
enced by imagination. He speaks of the shifting figures, the
spirea and pyramids, the majestio arches, and the sparkling bands
and stan which appeared within the arctic circle, as surp .. sing
his powen of deacril.'tion. They are indeed sufficient to enUat
the supentitioas feehngs of any people not fortified by religion
and philosophy. '
The eolorl of the polar lights are of various tints. The ray.
or bctJme are steel gray, yellowish gray, pea green, celandine
green, gold yellow, violet blue, purple, sometimes rose red.
crimson red, blood red, gresnishred, orange red, and lake re4,
The areMt are sometimeenearly black, passing into violet blue,
gray, gold ,ellow, or white, bounded 1Iy an edge of yellow.
The lflller 0 these lights 'fariee in kind as well .. Intensity.
Sometimes it is pearly, sometimes imperfer.t1y vitreous, lIome-
times metallic. Its degree of intensity varies from a very faint
radiance to a light nearly equaling that of the moon.
Many theories have been proposed' to acoOUlit for this "Won-
derful phenomenOD, but there seems to be none which ia entirel,.
.. tisfaotory. One of the first conjectures on record, attributes It
to inflammable npon a_nding from esrth into the polar
atmosphere, and there ignited by electricity. Dr. Halley objects
to this hypothesis, that the cause was inadequate to. produce the
eft'eot. He was of opinion that the poles of the earth were in
some.wayconneoted with the aurora; that the earth was hollow,
having within it a magnetio sphere, and that the magnetic eftln-
'fia, in passing from the nortb to the lOuth, might become visible
in the northern hemisphere. .
That the aurora boreslis is, to some tIlttel)&, a m .... tical phe-
nomenon, is thought, e'f8n by othera, to pretty clesrly esta-
blished by the fonowing considerations :
1. It has been olisened, that when the aurora appean near
the northern ,horison in the form of an aroh, the middle of it ia
DOt in the direction of the we north, but in that of the magnetic
...ale at the pi .. of obaematioll; and that when the arch riaee
AUBOIA BOREALIS.
819
toward the _hh, it constantly Crotlle8 the haa"_ at rip& lUI-
glee, not to the true 1I.agnetie meridian. .
2. When the beams of the aurol'll shoot up ~ al to PUI the
.nith, which il lometimea the case, the point of their conYerg-
enCt! is in the direcaon of the prolongation of the dippmr needle
at the place of obselVlluon.
3. It h .. allO been obse"ed. that during the appeal'llnce of aa
active and brilliant aurora, the magnetic nf'edle ofteu becomee
resdels, varies lometimes several degl888, and does not resume
its former poaiticn "ntil after several houra.
From theae facta it has heen generally inferred, that the aurora
ia in some w:ay connected with the magnetism of the earth i and
that the simultaneous appearance of the meteor, and the disturb
ance of the needle, are either related as cause and effect, or U
the eommon rauU oC lOme more general and unknown cause.
Dr. Young, in his lectures, ia very certain that the phenomenon
in question is intimately connseled with electro-magnetism, and
ascribes the ligla of the aurora to the illuminated agency of
electricity upon the magnetioal substance.
It may be remarked, in suppOrt of the eJectro.magnetic theory, that in
IDIIgIl8tism, the asency of electricity is now clearly eatabliahed; and it
am hardly be doubted that the phenomena, both of eleetric:ity and mag-
netism, are produced by one and the _ cause; inumuch .. m a g n ~
ia1 may be induced by electricity, aud the electric spark baa been drawn
from the magnet.
Sir John Henchel allo attributes the appearance of the auro;'
to the agency of electricity. Thia wonderful agent, aays be,
which we see in intense activity in lightning, and in a feebler
and more diffused form traveraing the IIpper regionl of the at-
mosphere in the northern lights, is preaent, probably, in immenae
abundance in every form of matter which aurround. UR, but b ..
comee sell8ible only wben 4iaturbed by excitements of peculiar
kind ..
_ GJ:OGaAPBY or TId IbJ. TENS.
CHAPTER XIII.
ASTRONOMICAL INSTRUlIfENT8.
T.. rapid introduction of teleecopes into eebool. and acade-
mia, u meaBl of inatruction, demanda lOme notice of lbe coo-
atruction and modes of uaing theae inatrumenla. The creat adno-
tage of poa_ing auch meana of a wakening interest and exciting
to atudy, will be readily appreciated when we remember that th.
acmal aigbt of an ohJect lhrollgh a teleecope for even a aingle
mOIDenl, producea an impretlllion, tbrougb the eye. on the mind.
that no labored deeeription can ever accompli.h.
Tbere are two principal cla_ of teleacopea. the Rifradi"II
and &jketing. In the fim c1ua, the light from the object
nnder examination falla on a lens of glu., and by refraction ia
brouvht to a fOCDl, forming an image of the object which ia thea
through a powerful magnifying glaaa caJled the ere
piece. In the reftectinll teleacope the Iill'ht falla on a mamllia
.peculum or highly pohahed mirror of auch form u to rtjlut the
light to a fOCIII. where the imagt' formed il examined with a
magnifying gI.... The te!eacope8 which have ever been
conatructed, are of the rejkdlngklnd, and among theae may be
mentioned the Great Reftector of Sir William Herechel, the
diamp.ter of whose Ipecnlum waa four feet, and ila focal length
forty ffleL ' A mnch larger one hu reoeady been conatructed by
Lord Roale, an Iriah nobleman of great liberality. Ikill and
eeienee. The lpeculam of hil MOBlter Re8ector, u it hu befon
termed. ia no I ... than lix feet in diameter! and ila focal length
il 54 feel. Thia magnificent inltrument hu aocompUabed tbe
resolution of a great number of nebule into alars. which bad
reaiateci the power of a\lprecedinlJ inatrumeela. Th. larreat
reftecting teleacope accurately mounted in tbe world, is that in
the observatory of Mr. Laaaelle, near Liverpool. Ila .peculu ..
it about 1M inoh" in diam.ter.
For many y .. rs relecting tel_opes bave heen little uaed for
any other purpose than mere gasing, in eonaeqnence of tb .. ir
nnwieldly proportiona, rendering it next to impolaible to mount
them with lufticant accuracy and ateadinMa, for the nicer mea ..
ures and obaervationl of utranOlDY. Theae difticulti .. 188m to
ASTRONOMICAL INSTR.UMENT.,. 821
have been IU0C88sfulIy overcome )ly Mr. Lu .. Ue, and with dae
., accurate figure which Lord Roue hal beenable to gin to his
large specula, re&ctorl may apin come into competition with
refractorl u instrumeota for critical obll8rY8tion.
The largest and mOllt perfect refracting teleacopes, have been
manufactured at the optical institute of Utzschneider and.
Frauenhofer, of Munich, Bavaria. Two instruments have been
daere constructed. with object gla911ell of about fifteen inchel.
diameter. One of these is at the Imperial Ruasian observatory
at . Pulkova, nllar St. Peteraburgh; the other is now mounted in
the observatory at Cambridge. Ne,w England. The refractor
of da\ Cincinnati ob.ervatory has an object glaas of 12 inches
diameter, aod a focal length of 17 feet.
These instruments are mounted with all the perfection
of art. Then enormous weight is ,so perfectly counterpoised
and balanced in every direction, as to be moved by the slightest
touch. of the observer. They are provided with delicate ma-
chinery, which may be attached to the telescope, and will give
to it a motion such as shall exactly follow the apparent diurnal
motion of any object under examination. But for this most
ingenious and beautiful. contrivance, with high magnifying
powers, it would be next to impossible to follow the swift ap-
parent motion of the heavenly bodies.
The whether ref'racting or reflecting, iI
mounted lD such way al to revolve on twe principal aXeS. The
one called the polar tJIri&, is precisely 'parallel to the earth's axis;
the other, called the deelifitJli01l =-, IS perpendicular to the fitst
in all ita positions. By revolving the telelCOpe around the polar
axis, WII fo\1ow the diurnal motion of the ,heavenly bodies; by
moving the telescope around the declination uis. it is carried
north or south, .describing the arc of a declination circle. The
two motions combined, the observer to direct the telescope
to any point in the heavens.
The HOf!.r Circle, firmly attached to the lower extremity of the
polar axis, is divided into hours and minutes of time, and mea-
aurea with accuracy any motion of the telescope around the Jlolar
axis. The Declination Circl., fixed to the declination aXl11, ia
divided into and minutes of arc, and by Vemiers, into
seconds. rendenng it possible to read with accuracy any motion
of the telescope arouDd the declination alda.
The Micromlter is an instrument 80 contrived 'lUI to mauure,
with great accuracy, the relative diatanCeB and poaitions which
fall within the field of the teleacope. There are many construc-
tiODS for. this purpose, among them Frauenhofer'a wire micro-
meter holds a high rank. Two delic.te lpider,' we6a are so
adjusted in'the focua of the eye-piece of the. telesco'pe, that they
are aeen distinctly, and appear, when by a &mall
322 GEOGRAPHY OJ' TIlE IlEAVUS.
lamp, .. delicate rolden wir'81 draw,. aeroaa the field of view.
The machinery bearing theM wires il 10 contrind .. to enable
tb. oblerYer te mon them parallel to tbl!lJlMlntl, aad alllO to
re.ol.e them around the axil fJf the telllCope. Eacb of thetle
motionl il meuured by di.ided _lea, in the moet preeiM man-
.er; and loeh ia the power of the mierometera attached to the
large refractora now in uae, that the I8mi-diameter of a apider'.
web mlr be m_ured with great or an inch ma), be
di.ided Into 80,000 equal parte. '
With the micrometer, the distanee aDd angle of poIinon of
the doubl. stara, the diameten of the planeta, of the SUll and
moon, are accurately measured; and a .ariet)' of delieate obl8r-
.. tions made, which could ,.ot he aceomplished iu an)' other
.
The mounun, of large instrumenta is very expenlive. wbell
attended witb all tbe accurate detail necesaary to reDder them
ul8ful aa meana of accurate obaer .. tion. The amateur astroJlo-
mllr, wbo wllhea bis telesllOp, mounted merel)' for fiDdiDI aad
gazin\r' ma)' accomplieh it at a trifting eXpt'Dle. (Fer a de-
acriptlon of a cheap and conVlnient mounting, eaned the Paral-
lacttc Ladder; aee Mitchel'e Sidereal Meallnger, Vol. III.)
The n-aMt IN1ru1llCftl, il a teleacope firmly attached to aD
axil perpendicular to that of the teleaeope, and p .. eing throup
ita center. When thie axia ill 10 placed on permanent lopporte
al to be exat't1y level, nd preeiael, eaat and weat, the telel80pe
will, in revolving around ita axil, deacribe a great circle paelin,
north and louth, or will remain in all poeilioDl in the plane 0
the meridian. The horizontal axis ie composed of two hollow
conel of braee or btber material, firmly a"aebed to the tube of
the telelcope, on either aide. In the fOCal of the eye-piece,
leYeral spiders'.webe are placed at equal diataneetl from each
other, and preeiaely .erdeal in poeilion. Theae .are crolsed at
right anglea by one horizontal spider'e line. The number of
vertical wi,.", al they are ealled, is generally ae.ell. TJ,Ie
tranlit inlllmmen' il ulld to determine the right a_nlion of the
heannly bodiel, and the prineiple of ita al'plication il e:ltremely
lIimple, while ita actnal uae ill attend"d With great ditlieulty, and
requirel extraordinary care and Ikill.
It will be remembered, that the right aleenlion il
on the equator, from the vernal equinox rennd through 24 houre
or 360 dl'greE'I. The inltant when the vernal .. qoinox il on tbe
meridianj il the moment marked () boura by a lidereal or
at that moment the sidereal day begina. If an object il found to
Cf08l the meridian, pallsing the field of the transit Instmment and
ita central wire, at one hour aenn minutel eight aDd three-tentbs
aeeonda. sidereal time, then will thil be'itl right a_n8ioD in time.
To obtain the inltanr of croaainr the middle wire, or tbe m88D
ASTRONOMICA.L INSTRUMENT&. 823
of tbe wh'88, is the critical matter in oblMlrvin, with the transit.
The obaen'er 10 places his teleaeope, in declination, that tbe
Itar to be oblen'ed will enter tbe field of yiew near the horizon-
tal wire. About the time of ita appearance, be takes the second
from tbe clock, and, counting the beati, notea at what beat, and
fracllon of beat, the ltar pasael each of the leven yertieal
wires. By adding together these times, and dividinJ by seven,
he obtainl the wtant at wbich the star crOised an imaginary
wire called tbe __ tf ',lie wira. This. corrected, for the
nrious enon to which tbe clock and transit in8trument are liable,
will give the apparent right .. cen8ioA of the object observed.
The of the tran8it, are the following :-18&', error
of WDel, an8iAg trom tbe fact that the horizontal axi8 i8 not pre-
ciaelyleYel, aDd, iA caae the eaat end ia hiJ,hfl8t, the teleBCope
will look too much west, ud the reverse, If the west. end be
high. 241., Error of GZi",utA, occasioned by the horizontal al.ia
not behlg located precilM'ly east aAd west. If the east end of
the axis be a little north of 88st, then the teleacope, looking
north of the seAhh, will point west of the meridian; looking
aouth of the seAith, it will point east of the meridian. 3d., error
of collimation, ariaing from a failure to make the axis of the
teleacope preciaely perpendicular to tbe horizontal axis on which
it reYoryes. This error may cause the instrument to look either
too mooh east or west, a8 the axi8 incline. in the or the
other direction.
The TrarMit Circle i8 an in8trument like a transit teleacope.
beariAg on its horizontal !,xi8 a ,circle, by means of
wbich the pOlition of the instrum .. nt, in declination, may be read
with aoourat'y. Such an instrument enables the ob.erver to
determine both the right aacension and declination of the object
under examination, at the same observation.
The8e are ealled filed, or meridian instruments, because, un-
like the equatorial, which may be directed to any point in the
heavens, they move only in the, plane of the meridian.
1'here are many other ae'ronomical instruments, but our limite
will not permit, in this place. a more extended noti('8. The
only object haa been, to give to the etudent some idea of the
con8truction of the inatrumente uaually found in an astronomiclll
obseryatory. In mounling these teleBCopes for BCientifie Ulft,
the greatest pains mUBt be taken to secure a firm foundation;
such is the delicacy of theae instruments, that nothing abort of
the moat IOlid and ieolated foundation, will render their resulte
reliable. At the Cincinnati ObserYatory,la"e piers of grouted
masonry are founded on the rock, and carReu up to a hight
I,litllble to receive the etone colnmna on which the teleacopes
are lixed. These pien are entirely ilOlated from the building
aDd are BeCured from Inl external action.
814 GEOGRAPHY 01' TO RUVOI.
CHAPTER XIV.
QUESTIONS ON THE lIIAPSi TABLES, ETC.
IT has beeD thought uanecelaary, al it il quite impracticable,
to Sl'8l8nt a full eet of question8 on each or the constellationl,
an othet topics treated in this volume. This would hue in-
creased the sin of the "folume to nearly twice itl preaent dimen-
lion., without increasiug ita nlue. EveTT judicious teacher
will puraue hil own plan of communicating Instruction, and will
never confine himself or hie pupils to a set of stereotyped
queationa. .
We present, therefore, as a mere specimen of the kind of en-
mination which we dMm important. a series of Questions on the
Constellation Cygnus, Map No. 20.
Is the Swan a northern or louthern conltellation' In what
declination is ita southern limit' How far uorth does it extend'
Between what hours of R. A. is it included' How is it bounded
on the south, esst, north, west' How is it situated, with refe-
rence to. Ly,.,1 How may the conlltellation be recognized in
the heavens' What stars constitute the longer piee-e of the
Cross 1 What stars the shoNr piece'. What is the name and
magnitude of CYrni 1 How many stars of the third magni-
tude are contained in the Swan, and their letter namesl Where
Bra p., E. and. situated 1 Where is f6 l'ituated 1 Whl're are I,
8, and 1& found 1 What are some of the principal double stars ,
What aJ'4! the magnitudel and colors of the components of f6 eyg-
ni' What remarkable fact in the hiltory of the components of
I CYllni 1 What their distance, and probable period of re"folu-
tion 1 Gin lome aCOollDt of the diacovery of the parallax of 61
Cygni. What is the distance of this set from our system'
What their period of revolution' What the lum of the masses
fJf these stars, compared with the 8un'l UlasS 1 What is t h ~
distsnce and magnitude of the componenta of 61 Cygni' Why
was it selected, by Beaeel, for his reeearchea for parallax'
How does its .witt proper motioD accord with Midler's theory
of a central sun 1
What remarkable nebule are found in the constellation' What
aurious phenomena han been remarkecl in the planetary Debule
QUESTIONS ON THE MAPS, ETC. . 325
Dear I Cygni 1 What may be said with regard to the magnitude
and distance or these objects' A.re they situated in the region
or the fixed stars' How shouhl the chaJ1 or map be held, to
make its stars to in the beavens ,
TABLES.
PLA.CES OF THE PLANETS 111'1' JANUARY, lIMO.
FROM these places, and the elements of planets given in
this work, the approximats lositions or the planets may be
readily computed, so 88 to fin them at any time. . .,
Nallllil.
Mercury,
'Venus,
MIIN,
Vesta,
Juno,
Pall88,
Cerea,
Jupitsr,
Saturn,
Uranul, '
2D
TABLE L
Apparent R. A.
18h. 29m. 23s.
21 33 53
17 03 24
o 12 00
. Ii 16 30
16 33 18
16 39 30
9 37 07
13 26 33
1 08 40
Apparent Dee.
S. 24 46' 01"
S. 16 22 28
S.23 05 40'
S.62(00
S. 0 19 00
N. 3 10 00
S. 19 18 00
N.15 10 03
S. 5 57 12
N. 6 37 56
326 GKOGRAPHY OF THE HEAVENS.
TABLE II.
TABLE III.
\
1'0 change
-xlnds
right ascensiOffL
nutes, and
time.
DtIg. H. M. DeL
MI. M.S. I\I"L
Sec. . Th, Sec.
1
2
3
4
5
6
36
7
37
8
38
9 39
10 40
11
44 41
12
o 48 42
13
o 52 43
14 o 56 44
15 1 0 45
----
16 4 46
17 1 8 47
18 1 12 48
19 1 16 49
20 1 20 50
21 1 24 51
22 1 28 52
23 1 32 53
24 1 36 54
25 1 40 55
-- -
26 1 44 56
27 1 48 57
28 1 62 58
29 r 56 59
3 44
3 48
3 52
3 56
fE,!l To change hoUlB,
conde, of IIidereal
minutes, and
tor, or right flfLff'lfffllllli,
IH
22
23
24
25
32021 20 26
6 30
330,22 0 27
645
34022 401 28 7 0
7 15
66
57
58
59
30 2 0 60 4 0
350 23 201
1
29
36024 01 30 7 30, 60
14 0
14 15
14 30
1445
15
0
TITUDE,' .PLACES
TABLE IV.
Longitude
with their
hTrHTED Tr27
in
Hash-
The are reelwned Jirz:r;!z, Green,wick
ne Capital8 (&ala of GovernmmJ) of the Statu and Territ0rit8 art
duignated by Balic LetterB.
,Tapital),.... N. Y. 42
., lZ """a,.. .... .. .. D. c. as
An .... pol ... , .............. ( ..... Md. :JY 0
Auburn, ..................... N. Y. 66
Auguata, ...................... Ga. 3;j \!8
A ...... ta (Stat. House), ........ Me. t4184-1
Baltimore (Battle Monument). Md. :19 11 13
Court .. Me. 44 "7
g.zz7",'le (Old CouL . Mas.. 41 .j j
N. Y. 42,7
............. "S. c. ;'2
i?SCE!0:?7Th iit&te HOUIeL" .)1818. 42
BrialOl (Hotel),.; : .......... R.I. 413\1
Brooklyn (Navy yard), .. , ..... N. Y. 40 41
Brunswick (College), ......... 43 sa
Bulfalo, .............. ........ N. Y. 4:l 53
15
... ::
L1z7z:,,,.,wn (Navy Tr".j). . Mas.. 2"
CincInnati, .................... Ohio. as
Col ... mbia, ........ ............ s. c. 33 111
Col"mbw, .................... Ohio. :19 41
CotWml (State House), ......... N. H. 43 1229
Dedbam (Court House),,, ...... Mas . 42 16
Dmoit, ...................... .. Mich. 42 24
: l:
kA",,?,;"" 0.......... .N H 43 ,<"
307"1.", {Court Houae:, .Md .. 18
Eastport, ...................... Me. 44 64
EcienlOn, ..................... N. C. 36 0
Exeter, ............. , ......... N. H. 42 58
.................... Ky. 38 14
Fredericksburg, ............... Va. 38 34
Tr",,,,,z,wn, .. . .. .. .8. C. :J3 if,
"l},,,,,,,,,,,,, ......... .Mas . 42
778
Il84
414
661
66
68
936
693
110
336
318 GBOGJLAPHY OF THE HEAVENS.
Latitude LonBitade, W.., DiaLfrom
Nonb. indegreet!. in time. Wub'n.
07Ii
...................... N. Y. U 14 '/3 46 4 liII. lM6
........ .. Ala. :K 38 86 &7 II 4'7 48 7tII
Iftil' ................... Iucl. 39 5& 86 Ii II " !If) 173
J .................... ............ M'pi. 31 23 10 8 II 0 311 10311
J"-. ..................... M'nri. 38 36 81 8 8311 1180
iCennebnnk .................. Me. 43 l1li 70. 4 U 8 118
Kinpton ...................... U. C. "8 76 40 II 8 40
KnoxTille ..................... Tenn. 35 " 83 54 II :Ill 36 118
Lanouter .................... Pa. 40. 38 '78' !If) 83 Ii 1I!12 101
..................... Xy. 38 8 Ii4 111 IIIJ7 III lI34
LiuJ. -. .................... Ark 3& 40 111111 8 848 1088
Loekpon, ................... N. Y. 43 11 78 48 Ii 15 4 403
LoBiavWe, ................... Ky. 38 a 86 30 II 4Il 0 lI!IO
Lo ... ell (St. Ann .. Ch.roh) ..... M .... 41 38 48 71 18 48 4 45 15 4-'11
Lynehbugh ................. Va. :n 38 711l1li Ii 17 18 118
Lynn
l
....................... M .... U 28 70 1I7, 4 43 48 "1
Marb eh.ad, ................. M .... U ao 70 ho 443 lIS ._
Middl.to:wn. .................. Conn. 41 3& 71 311 4 lID 38 au
.................. Ga, 33 7 83 10 II as lIO 841'
Mobil., ....................... AI.. ao 40 tiS II II iii " 1033
MotaIpdior, .................... VL " 17 7138 4 lID. 6M
MonomoY'Point Light, ....... M .... 41 39 08 70 1 31 440 8.1 IlOO
Mont .... aI, ..................... L. C. 45 31 '/3 36 4 1I4 10 l1li1
Nantuckel(Town Hall), ...... M .... 4110311 70 741 44030.8 IlOO
N .... .,;u" ...................... Tenn. 38 II 30 86 411 3 II 47 18.1 714
N.tahea. (O .. t1e), .. ...... .. lII'\)i. 313& III 1M 41 II II 1140
Ne .... rk, ...................... N. J. 40 48 74 10 00 40 1110
Ne ... Bedford (Marinen' Oh.), M... 41 38 7 70 46 0 4 43 44
Ne ... bern, .................... N, O. 3D W 77 II II 8 10 3IJ7
Ne ... burgh, ................... N. Y. 41 3l 74 1 4 /18 4 M
Ne ... buryport (td Prea. Ch.), .. M .... U 48 10 70 III 0 443 lIS 480
Ne ... caatle, ................ .. Del. 311 40 76 aa II 8 103
N .... H_ (CoUep), ......... COnn. 41 1708 7167 .. 461 6U 301
Ne ... London, ................ COnn. 41 !12 71 II 48 36 354
Ne ... Orleana (Oity), .......... La. 10 67 48 10 841 8 0117.3 11103
N""",,", ...................... R.I. 41111 71 III 14 .. 46 . 11 403
N .... Yorlr (City Hall), ........ N. Y. 40 G 40 74 I 8 58 U ..
Norfolk (Fanner'a Benk) ... .. '. Va. 36 &0 76 18.7 Ii 1\ 15.1 1117
Northampton (ManaionHollae),M ... , 41'185& 7l) 40 4 lID 40 378
Norwicb ...................... COlln. 41 33 71 7 4 48 118 II1II
Penaacola, .................... FI.. 10 118 87 II 6 48 48 1060
Peterllbllrgh, .................. Va. 37 13 114 77 10 1i.1O 144
Pbiladelplii. (lndepend. HaIl) Pa. 31166 III 711 10" II 0 43. I.
Pittaburgb
i
.................... Pa. 40 311 30 8 Ii 10 31 l1li
Pittalield ( aL Cong. Churcb), M .... G 118 118 73 17 ao 4 &3 10 H
PI.llabllrgh ................... N. Y. 44 G 7'd 118 4 &3 44 638
Plymolltb (Court HOule), ...... M .... 41 1I7 III 70 4110 4'411 450 431
Portland (Town HOUle), ....... Me. 43 31118 702030 41 II 64.
Ponamollib (Court HOUle), ... N. H. 43 4 114 70 411 4 43 0 4l1t
POlllhktepaie, ................ N. Y. 41 41 '/3511 4 lIS 40 301
Princeton, .................... N.J. 40 II 74 all , 5810 17Y
"""'""- (Old CoI.), .......... R. I. 41 4lI18 71 II 68 4 46 43.7 3M
Qllel?ec (Cutl.), .......... , ... L. 0. 411 47 17 70 /18 31 4 43 40.1 7flt
.... ... N. O. 3& 47 78 48 6 15 " 1811
RichoftoftIl (Capitol),.... ..... Va. 39 17 77 18 til 6 II 411.11 IS
Rocheller fR'r Houle), ........ N. Y. 43 8 17 77 III II 11 t4 381
Sable (Cape) .................. Fla. 14 60 81 JII II til 0
Sackell'a Harbor, ............ N. Y. G 68 76 til II 3 48 407
Seeo, ............. .... ...... M.. 43 31 70 lIS 4 41 44 ..
St. Allpatine, ................ Fie. 118 48 30 ,81 3CI II 18 10 1M1
SL Low., ..................... )I'd. 311. .. ao II 08 14 _
LATI,UUU, :UTe., OF
Salem (E. I M,,',,"
Savannah, " "" " " "" G"
Taunton (Court Hou.e), Mu .
Toronto (york), . . U. C.
:::: ::::::::
W""SHINGTON (Capitol), ... D. C.
W ubington, .. M'pi.
Wheeling, . . .. Va.
Wilmington, ... .. Del.
Wilmington, .... N. C.
Worcester {All' 21"11), M",,"
York. M""
Vork, " " .. P,'
22
IN UNIT:u:u ELLLTES. 32:U
Latitude Longitude, West, Di.L from
indegreeltin time ..
" 0 I jt; 11'1. I. mIle .
19 70 64 ifT L3 36 446
81 3 f,; 0" ;2 662
73 56 U ;,5 EO 391
72 36 i; 24 357
m
79 I!O 17 20 500
74 39 68 36 166
7340 46440 383
87 42 ,6 60 48 858
3 78 31 is i", 6.9 124
,,49 76 13 383
89 2 '" """ 8 781
I:
77148i8U
91 20 6 II 20 146
SO 49 22 48 264
75 28 6 I f$2 108
78 10 5 J 2 40 416
71 49 " ;6 . 394
70 40 i; 40 600
76 40 ;" 40 87
"
HUNTINGTON AND SAVAGE,
........ , .... 'I'BIIII'I'. BIIW 1rOaK,
PUllLI8B TIUI .oLLOWIM
VALUABLE SCHOOL BOOKS.
To which they ftry respectfully IOlicit the attention of Connty and Town
fluperintendenta, TJ'WIteetJ, SchOol Committees, Teachen, and othen inter
.... in the _ of education.
. AN ELEMENTARY ASTRONOMY,
I'or Academies and 8chooll. IDultrated by numerous orllfinal colored
dlapamL Adapted to _ witIa or witIIout the author'e LUge Mapa.
By H. MATTISON.
Pifth Bdition, with Questions and a Glouary.
'nUs Is ODe of the moet comprehensive and splendidlJ: iIIultrated worb
011 .btronoDly hu ever been publilhed in the United Statel. Ita plan Is
8IninelltlJ: orlJinai and Dhiloaophical. It is conlined to the of the _.
ence, or the"",,," that lIave been reached during tile lapse of api, without
delineating Ita MytholOSical history. or tracing llie proC8S188 by which these
facta haft been alCertained, either by the uee of ili$umenta, or by mathl-
matical CII1culatiOJlll. It embodies all the late discoverie., and is equally
adapted to p!1vate learnen, the library, and the achoolroom, u it is com-
plete in itaelf; independelit of the larp charta. AI a book of reference it is
Invaluable. To this may be added ita perfect adaptation to use ...,Is the larp
Maps, (of which tbe IUUltnltions in the book are exact oopies in lDiDiature,l
10 tbat tbe learner baving the Maps. bu on a larp IC8le the l&IIle
by which to illustrate the 188lOn at the reeitatio tbat bave been preYloUlly
studied by tbe pupil in tbe textbook. To .ay nothing of the recommend ..
tions that follow. the Ale of lea ..... """ copie. of this work, in a little over a
",ar, is a au1llcient proof of ita popularity and intrinlic yalue.
ASTRONOMICAL MAPS,
Adapted to uae with the .. EL.arllll,. ... Y A.,..olloary," and to iII_
crate the JlechanislD of tbe Heavens. For the use of Public Lecturen,
PriYate Learnen, Academies, and ScboolB.
By H. MATTISON.
Thia aeriel conaiata of Sixteen Mapa, or Celestial Charta. eoiCh IS by 44
lJl('.bes, repreaenting the various of the Heavenly Bodie&-tba
Sun, Moon, Planeta, Cometa, and Fixed 8tars-&nd the laws
whieb gover. them in their molions, the philosOphy of Tides, EcJipaee, and
Tranlita, and indeed all tbe most interesting and wonderful pbenomena 01
the M.echanism of the Heavens. Tbe sixteen Mapa cover an area of neerly
100 square feet. They are priDted upon a black ground, anaweriDg to the
aatural appearance of the heavens iii the night, and are beautifully colored
and 1D0unted upon elata and rollers. They are oeyond comparison the molt
Iplendid and complete aeries of scieDtiIic cbarta eyer published in this coun-
try. They are not only invaluable for Seminaries, AClidemies, and tbe higher
inltitution. of learning, but at the l&IIle time are 8,dmirably adapted to p0p-
ular uae in Common Schooll. 0... """"""" .,. of this have already
been aold and fIOne into uae fa diJrerent parta of the oonntry; and the una-
nimity and oordiality witb whicb they are commended by all wbo bave used
Ol'u&mined them, 1& truIt gratifying to tbe pub1ilhen. (See following pap.)
Ln, per eel, ia c_, with cloth bacb, ......................... 820 00
II II ,II OD Itroll&' paper, withoat cloth baob, 15 00
Book. per copy........................................................ 50
o:r Bach Set oC Mapa Is nicely packed in a Wooden Caee, and _ be
.at to order with perfeCt aafety to any pan of the United States or CIIDIIda
HuaIiftpm 4- &'D466'.
n. ."..,.,. of of Bc1tooU. 7'rufeU. __
T ......... iIIIIiId,. tA.J.u..;.,
RECOMMENDATIONS
Ha'riDg eDJDined, and IItIveral of .. 1IIItId, the A..
,.8OJIOIIY IUIil M ...... by R MaUiaon, _ are prepared
to _y, that in our opinion, they are better adapted to the
of elementary iDmuctiOll in Aaroaomy, thaD aDy other work or ap-
puatus now before the public. We woold therefore cordially Ie-
-.unend their introduction into all achoo. where thiB BUbIime 8CieDoe
_taught.
EDWARD COOPER Sec.,. o( Teachers' ABlciatioll, _ N. Y.
ALBERT D. WRlGR'!J Principal NormallDst., BrooklyD, N. Y
IAS. L. McELLIGOTT, Prin. Col. 8cboolL N. Y. city.
JAS. R. BOYD, Prin. Je1l"el'8Oll co. Inat., watertown, N. Y.
R. K. 8ANFORDL,Teacber Natural Science, lIiddleburJ AcademJ.
WyoDUng, N. Y.
N. BRITTAN, Principal o(Union School, Lyoll8, N. Y.
R. F. HICKS!.. County Supt.!. LiYinpton co., N. Y.
ALONZO BE..,.BE, County BUpt., Ontario CO., N. Y.
HENRY GILLAM, (ormer teacher of MadI. Cayoga Academy, N. Y
B. R. McALPINE, Supt. o( Public Schools, Roi:be8ter, N. Y.
ELLERY S. TREAT, Prin. Pub. Schoo! No. I, Rocbe8ter, N. Y.
WM. BARNES, .. .. .. 5, ..
A. F. HALL ...... 7 ..
REUBEN JOHNSON, .. .. e:' ..
DANIEL HALLOCK, .. .. II, ..
A.. S. GREGORY .. .. .. 14 ..
H. G. WINSLOW, Prin. Union School, Mount Morris, N. Y
P. BARKER, Prin. Public School No. 10, Brockpo"," N. Y.
G. L. Prin. Publio Schdol No. a, Watertown, N. Y.
G. R. JACKS01'l, Teacher, Oswego. N. Y.
I. PATTERSON, Prin. Public School No." N. Y. city.
JULIA B. CLARKE, Teacher of Public Schoo! No. I, Osweso, N. Y.
p;..,. faa,. lIrrmo:r., Director of tIN Ciftt:itmcdi Ob.rNtory.
ID a DeM'to the publi8helll, Prof. M. -18=
II Your lleriee of are hung up in the public _ption-room 01
the observatory. I am much pleased with your plaD of epeaking to
.ile eye; and am confident that th_ will IIOOJl &ncI their way
iDIO every well.oconducted achool."
Prom Pko C.wwnr., of BrOlDn lJ"i __ ty, .ndN. BmROP, EaQ.,
Bapmratetadtmt of PulIlie Be." in Prmlknc., R. L
!'10m a brief examination of Mr. .. E1emeatlllJ AItron-
omy," and the accompBDying Maps, we have formed a favorable
opinion of their utility to pupil, iB that branch of ltudy, and have
recommellded their iBtroouctioD into the High School of the city of
Provideace.
M_All, 1847.
'"'" :bY. lbOlUAD S. Rnr, OIllllfllWUmer of Pili/lie BeAooz. for
tlle Btate of NeVI H_,.lir
I have examined with great pleaaure, Mr. Mattilloll" ElemenilllJ
Astronomy, and Astronomical Mapa, and I think them admirably
adapted to IImI8l the attention of the young, and to impart thorough
and practical knowledge in the nblime .udy of Astronomy.
I admire the arrangement and cl_fication of the Aatroaomy. It
explaillll and iU\IIItl"ateI one thing at a time, in a manner 10 clew and
interelltinf, that it CaDDot fail of entertaining and improving the student.
In view of the excellellciea of the Elementary Aafronomy, and
Mapa, I molt cheerfully commend them to an intelligent pnblic,
hoping that they will meet with all that n_ which their meritalO
richly d8lOrYe.
M 18, 1847.
I
'"'" B.uwBL H. Cox, D. D., of Brooklyn, N. Yo
Th_ Mapa, mathematical and optical, illulltrate the lIoblellt parll
of that incomparable lCience j they are accompBDied by an explana-
tory volame, adapted to them, lucidly arranged, all Conning, I think,
an apparatDl for the learner and the ICholar, of rare excellellce and
enduring uaefuln-. Reaalta and proceBII8I are there combined, re-
duced to IIYltem, and digested collll8Cutively in happy order j compe-
tent to inIItruct the merchant, the mechanic, the farmer, the inquiai-
tive youth, the rntlemen of leimre, and aD others who upire after
lub\ime knowledge, and are willing IOm!ltimea to look at the heavell&
Ladiea who value true knowledge, and who hue \earned how to .
think-and there are lOme of this dOlCriptiou-wi!1 prize anch iJIIItrn-
mental helpa to the acquiaition of lOund and rich information in AI-
tronomy. AA a work of reference, a ,lIeNU".. of knowledge, a
profitable am_nt, or an ornamental pDl8Dit, it woald greatly
honor .. well .. happily form their mentaJ.character, and nbordiJlate
the very gelllll of heaven to their proper decoration .. intellectual and
immortal hoiuga I need not add it ill very valuable for lIChoo'" IIWd
d8lOrYea the patronage of our countrymen, .. a native productiOD. I
IiDcerely _ret" well .. aaticipate ita __
May 6,1847.
THE
GEOGRAPHY OF THE HEAVENS,
AND CUBS-BOOl[ OF A.8TROJrOJlY.
1 'IOL 18mo.
AccampaIecl by a CeleItial AUu, Imperial4t.o., Da.ai, c61ored.
b admirable work to follow tile .. An'aolfOIlY" &JIll ....
M....... The two works together pre_ a more thorouJdl
embodimeDl of tile lCleoce than any otllen of tile _ eompua, ill tfie
oouatry.
OP Tall
1. P!&n exhibitiDI the relative Magnitudes, DistaD,,", aDd POBition of the
di1l"erent Bodie. whiel;! compose the Solar S)"IItem.
I. The Visible Heavens in January, February, aDd March.
I. The Visible Heavens in October, November, and December
... The Visible Heavena in Jull'! August, and September.
II. The Visible Heavena in April., May, and June.
II. The Visible Heavens in the South Polar Regiona, for each IDODth III
the year.
'T. Tbe Visible Heavens in the North PQlar B.ea10u, for each month III
the year.
8. Planisphere of the Whole Heavens, on Mercator', Projection. '
By B. A. BURRITT, A. II.
With an Introduction by Tao .... DICK, LL. D., Author of tile "Cluietuul
Philosopher," "ritten expreasly for this work.
A variety of intereating facts and observations embraclllg the latest im-
provements in the acience, were derived directly from the French and EIIJ-
lish Observatories, e:qwe"z, for this Class-Book, and are not contained m
an! otber. It is now coming generally into use m our Seminaries,
and Is recolljlDended to sehools in general by memben of the Board of EJ:-
amination of Yalp College, &I a work more needed, and which, it is be-
lieved, will be more useful than any other introduced into our .. ln8Iitutiona
of Learning, lor a number of years."
This book, as its title imports, i. designed to be to the &tarry heavens
what geography is to the earth. Such a Class-Book baa been neoded.
Hitherto, the science of the stare has been but very IIlpelifiClally ItUdied In
our schools, for want of proper helps. They have oon\inaed to gaze upon
the visible heavens without comprehending what they I&W. They have
cut a vacant eye up'<!n the splendid pages Of that nat volume whICh the
night unfolds, &I chIldren amuse themselves with a boot which they are
unable to read. They have caught, here and there, as it were, a capital.
letter, or a picture, but theI have failed to distinguish tho.e smaller chlll"llC-
ten, on which tbe sen"" of tbe whole depend.. Both teachen and pnpils
have found that Clasa-Books and Maps are as mdispenaable to this depu.n-
ment of knowledge, &I to that of Geography; and that an artificial globe is
just as poer a aubstttute in one case as in tbe other. Inatead of Uuiglobe.
and a few bal\a strung upon wires, Mr. Burritt's book IOIId Atlas introduCBI
the pupil at once to the Grand Orrery of the Heavens, and mates him
aoquainted with the names md positions of the bodies which compose j&.
He learns to locate and to oltulih liia astronomical knowledge as be d.- hiI
geographical; and experience hIlS proved that a child of tell years will _
DIlt all the constellations that are visible In tbe heavens, and name the
pr!nciP!ll &tan in each, lIS readily a8 he will learn tile \Jf)unclarieI of ...
Itate8 from a map, and name tbe cities tbey contllin. ,
Huntington 4' Sa"age', Pu6licat'OM. 17
A NATIONAL GEOGRAPHV FOR SCHOOLS,
mUltraled by 110 EngraYinp and 80 Stylograpbic Mapa; with a colored
, GLO MAP, OR A lIaw PUR.
One vol. quarto.
New and Improved edition.
By S. G. GOODRICH, Author of Peter Parley's Talee.
Tbis worlt Ie dee\ped u a l<Aaol-book-a manual for ,_ ..... ; and nothlDg
m the 11 o)rk Ie allowed to interfere with this design. At the same time, from
the arranllement adopted, it wUl be found to contain a lTOat quantity of
matter wbich will render it a convenient twnUy book for reference. Its
utility, in this reapect, will be enhanced by the IDdex Dt the close of the
volume.
su.,IicifJ, par.,...,.,u" and ....,......... have heen carefUlly studied in the
arrangement of the whole work. Thus the typography, esperJaUy that
whlCti contains the leadintl ideu of each 18I8On, 18 clear and conspicuous;
the lettering of the mapa 18 peculiarly full and distinct; the wbole view of '
each country Ie brougtit toll'ether, 80 as not to embarrus the reader by a
reference to' separate pagea
t
or separate tables; distinct mope of tbe prin <
Clpal countriea are Biven, ana care hu been taken not to All them with un
importent names, which may bewilder the student, and render all bis &eo
Qwsitionl obaoure and Imperfect. Too many of the popular school-boou
on thiI lubject are made to compass I ... obj ,.; to combine a universal
lJ8081'&Pby and a ICbool seography in one. Botb objects are not, tberefore,
well at_ed
i
for while there 18 not enough for the former, there is too
much for the alter: the coD88Quence is inconyenience and embarrassment
to the teacber-increased study and labor to 1be pupil, wbile he is im-
'pedectly instructed, if not actually injured In bis habits of study. Tbe
mllpa uid text of this work contain quite u mucb of detail u the pUIlU can
remember. The design -hu been to embrace jUlt 80 much, that, If well
studied, the pupil will carry in bia mind clear IUld distinct Im.s of the
forma of countries, courses of rivera, location of towDI, citiea, &c., 80 that
every with its leading features. can be and will be permanently
mapPed on bis mind.
ill respect to map!! a new and useful deYi.ce hu been adopted, wbich _
entitle a 0,. Mop. ThiS, of necellity is separate from the pages referring
to itt but its great utility and convenience, in the way it is to tie used, can-
not lail to stnlte every praotical teacher. It bu a handle, and with a .....w
.J,M If" ill Au /tad, the pupil is taught the various nainel Biven to the
diYilloDl of land and water, the shapes of oceans and continents, and the
relative positions of countries and places upon the fuce of the earth.
It is in short. .."illll. /".. .. artificial If". with the advantage of bema.
.. uiiy handled, and constantly before thB eye, during the early atagee of
the study.
A. a means of rendering the progress of the pupil at once atlreeable-and
dective, the author hu endeavored to invest the subject with eyery de-
11'" of interest of wbich it iR capable. He has sought to keep the attention
i1tve by 'rivid descriptions; Dnd. in order to convey accurate Impressions of
'risible objeclll, he hu introduced a larger numlier of illultrative engra'rinp
than have eve:Eap ared in a similar treatise. EYery one know. that mere
words are in Ie of conveying correct and 'distinct ideu of animals;
and that a simp e out of a lion, for instance, will be more useful in giving
an imprelllion of bis form and than a whole volume of verbal de-
IOripUOn. The same may be saiil of the countenancea and costumes of
TIl:ious nations; of the peculiar modes of building, travelli., worshipping.
ar.c. The el1gravinp, therefore, are not introduced as mere .mbellishJnents
= to the pupil, but as aD elIIcienl aII4 _CialIOIUCe of oar
PETER PARLEY'S NEW GEOGRAPHY FOR
BEGINNER8.
IDIIIInIed with 18 beaIdiI1IJly colored II., .... 110 BllpariDp, .... ~
bOaDd Ia.wr COTen. ~
B _...u.. to ..,.. 01 die ttIIcltr 0I1tJ1e, or of tile ~
.... pnedcal.-bod m wbich Peter P v ~ p--. to aile e ...
jflIU 01 wbicb be writeL NCIC1rItJwtaMl.,. other worb 0 the _YO
__ "'1Id, tbWlitde work, _ fnll ad _rUe ilia .. y. ~ 10
__ iU _, Ia all ~ where improYemeDla Ia PJ:imuy ed.-cioD are
... forward. B bU been ~ 1a.BqJud.'" II ftt.eD8h'e1=
tJaroqIIout tbat COQIItry ad CUIad,: it bu ~ - tnDIIated. lato
ad iii mucb UIed Ia 1'DDce; It bu been JIIIhIlIbeclIa Gnak, ad -
to -,OlIO yoatb of tbat JWloD. B bu aIIO __ traD8Ia&ed by the _____
Ia Penla, IIId lDtrodaced into &heir 1CIIoo", ad .... been __ -'" r.
printed Ia 8idDeJ, New South Wale8. TIWI foreIp _ II ~ of &be
ftJae ad.popuIarily of the work; yet it II to be ~ Iba& _ baYe DO
ooPJrilbt Jaw to Ifft IIltbon IIId pubIiIIIen the baeIl of IIIIIIl -.
Huntington t &WJge'. Pv.6lictmoM. 18
IU8Iorr 01 Bo&lDical Science. UlCl &lie IiDd CoII1IUtI
onraobeCllIIId IlDOrgaDised matter In Nature.
1. diaUDnilhed aDd experienced teacber in natural ICIence ..,. 01 dill
.. ar from o&ber worb on &bia subject, Bblillr. my Ie-
will not be invidious, wlien I aay. Sblt I &binIt it far better adaptjd to
. of Inat:ructioJi m the ICIence than IIIlJ I have __
I am ucb deUabted wi&b the euy UId natural metbod '-" wbleb it
ducee the schow to a knowledge 01 the ftrat prinCiples of tbe science. UId
&be strict philOllOSlhical arranpment It emplOJ8 in impartinA: ID8truCtIan.
TIle whole work Iiu &be impre .. of one practiCally acqiiainteil wi&b the art
of leIIcIriDIr. UId adds aDoUier to tile inaJ!f. Ureail.y emtiDJr. tIIIt Ia-
ItlUctora 01 are l8Derally better quaW1ed to pJepare el.1I18JItarI
works tban those who have never bad any experience Ia the Of
luchins"
......... J.1I'l'JIO&,
DB8IGNBD FOB. P1WU.B.Y AND COIIMON 8CHOOLS,
BOTANY FOR BEGINNERS.
All III'l'&ODUOTIOII TO .... LlllcoLll'I lOToUI1'.
BI' MU. LINCOLN PULP8.
I voL 18mo. pp. 150.
TblI book 18 lateacled cbteA,. 6:lr the _ 01 priJnery ecbools and the
younpr pupils in bJ.sber schools and seminaries. 80 mucb bu, of late, ,
been iIrrid bJ those who take an interest in &be IUbject 01 education, In
fa.or o(InWOduc!Da the Natural Sciences Into Common Schools. &bat it ia
to be hoped that tbe time Is DOt far distant w ben plante UId minMaII will be
u familiar objecte of lltUdy Ia our diatrict u &be 8IlIIlIinx-bool<
now il. PerhaPi lOme parent or teacher may be ready to inquire, wnether
It is reaommended thet IriIcb Itudiee aball taIui &be piac8 01 re8iinr. epellins.
or wrltiDg i by DO _; but every teacher boWl that there are many
liatle8I IUI4 VllCBDt -.nts when even &be moat active 01 bls pupils leelll
tired of tIIeir monotono1lll punuita, habit UId reapec\ 6:lr &beir teaCber may
lead &bem to lit ItIll UId ilo no mischief; but it]a not di1IIcuJ.t to !l8J'C8ive.
by &be beavy eye IIIId inanimate countenance. that the intellect ilumbera.
These are Ole momente when the ezr:rlenced teacber feels &be nHd of
80me new stimulant. Instead then 0 saying. "Jobn. or Lucy. have
been BiUiJIK idle &bia half bour. wby 408't JI)U mind )'QU1" boOk 1 be wbn
unde1'8tand8 the 111IIIIIIII mind is awue that tbls is the very way Itill more to
disgust bls pupil. aDd be will auuredly be read}' with some new method of
aw8keniDg attention. SUJIPOI!I. then, inltead of a rebuke for idlane., the
teacher auld lIIDdly addre. bls pupil u follow8: .. You have been ., lema
engqed upon a ceram I8t 01 atudiea, that I peroeive they have beoome
lOme; I tIiiDk ollatroclucing a new study lato &be school; to-monow 1...."
p --. .. fIeI-.Jr; you mal &bere6:Jre brInjJ with you toomonow all tile
Wild lilies} or violet'li. or any kind of common W:iId flower that you can find
In &be flelaa." Tbe dec&, aDr one at all aoc1llltomed to the care of children
will readily understand. But it may be aaid
J
"&bere are many teacbers who
_ not c&pable 01 BivIDB a lecture upoil DOteny." To tblj it may be an-
that every teacluir wllo is ID any de.,.. fit to be sueb can 1II1II the
.. 6:lr Besume .... " even never beard a lecture upon tile
IUbjeet 01 botuiy I it willteacb blIIi &be 18ading priDciples, an4 be can a
them to blIi pupila; tbls will be IIJHIII Bo'""
ThouaBDda are iIIfD8 tbls little wort, and iIlve the IIh'OIIIlII* MItimonJ ID
"favor
. TIle n_ 0I1IiII Beeeber Ia tile Hartford Female 8emInary aayI t-
"It cIear,limple.aDd interuttar ezblbition 01 tile priIIcIpln Of .. _
10 HumiflgWn 4- Savage" Publicatwr&8 .
tertalDlDr 1CleDoe, adapted to tile codlprebeoslon of cbUdren, for wboD .., ..
deaiped; and fully capable of prepariag tbem for a more enaDded trea __
It is partimIlarly reco1iuDeD4ed Ole iDatructorl. of our common 1ICbool., ..
an iJitereatiDi emJ)ioymem for tbe leiaure boul'll of their 8Obol&l'll; II! ...
motben, u an ualst8nt to them In the great work of atoriDg their
IDIDda with the kDowledp of tile worb Creator."
PHELP8' NATURAL PHIL080PHY,
lOa TIIJI Villi OP ICBOOUl, AOADIIIIla, A1CD P&I1'ATII ITV_
. iull8trated with numeroua EnsraviDp from original deIdpI.
By MRS. LINCOLN PHELPS.
New EditioD. I vol limo.
PH.ELP8' PHIL080PHY FOR BEGINNERS.
I vol.18mo.
A teacher of mucb experience, and PrIncipal of one of our lint
1&)"11 of theae worltlr-
" Tbe aub.lect is treated in a ID8llner blgbly acientific I the ensraviqa de-
ligned for nfuatrating tbe ten are bappil)' cbOl8n and executed:; aDd a de-
gree of fre8bne .. per'Vadea the wbole work wbleb cannot but impart life aDd
animation to the atudent of itl pagel. But more than all, we rijoice to _
.. bealthy moral feeling dIftIIaiDI ita fragrance over tile whole."
PHELP8' CHEMISTRY.
New Edition. 1 voL limo.
PHELP8' CHEMI8TRY FOR BEGINNERS.
1 voL lSmo.
ProrellOr Cuwel1, or Brown University, bariD& eumiDed 80me of "-
molt important cbaptel'll of th_ worka, 118.)"11 :-" Tbe priDcip\ee or the
leienee BpJl8lLf to be atated witb brevity and c1eam_, aDd are bippily illn.
tr-' by Iamiliar UIIl well .. elected exampiea."
'OlUVBBIIlTr BDmOB
OP
DR. WEB8TER'S DICTIONARY:
Abridged from tile quarto American Dictionary, with WalIter'1 K.ey to the
Pronunciation of Greek, Latin, and Scripture ProJl4lIo-Names, etc. With
a Memoir aDd But or tile Author. 1 voL royal duOdecimo. 560 papa.
WEBSTER'8 HIGH-8CHOOL DICTIONARY.
limo. 160 pageL
The deaigD or thil volume 11 to f'unll.b a vocabulary of the more common
words, wbiCh conatltote the body of our language, Wltb numel'OU8 tecbDical'
terms In tile 8ciencea aDd Arts, and many woro. and pbruea from other
languagee, wblcb are often met with in Englieb boob, With a brief deftDi..
tion of eac'!.Lto wblcb 18 added an accented vocabulary of CLASSICAL,
SCRIPTUJUi, aDd MODERN GEOGRAPHIC NAMES. The
phy and PronWlciation are made to clOl8ly with. tboae editiODl
of the work of 'tile author r_ntly reriaed under tile editonbip or Profeilor
GOOD.ICB,of.YaIe College; ,
Huntington 4- Savage'. Public4ti0n8. 21
WIBSTBl'8 PlIlI!IlY SCHOOl DICTIONAIY.
With Accented Vocabularies of CI_cal, Scripture
l
and Modem Gqn.
pbical Proper Names. Square 1411110. New ecbtion, reviBed and eo-
Iarpd, correapoJIdiJIg in oitbography to the large worlt of Dr. Webater.
Tbia work embraces about ten thoUllllDd more w0rd8 tIum Walker's 8chooI
, Dic&ioDary, and 18 8IpCIC.iaJly recommended to the attention of teachen.
BDITION, In several *lJ'leI of blDIIiDI-clotb, siI&
, and silt emhoUed.
Tbia Iaat 18 a yocabuIary of the __ importlnt wordll of our lUlgu ....
ho&h 00IIUD0Il and llCientillc, with a CODClIe. pRmitive deftniUon of each
word, followed by the derivatiODl of the same word,-thus preleDtinJ the
two fea&uru In one, of a deftnill8 Dictionary, and one of the 8JDonym .
The ,Tutimonial II IUhIcribed by a Iwse numbilr of the __
di8Iinpjahed men of our country :
.. Tlie sub8criben highly appreolue Dr. Webster's purpoae and attempt to ,
improve the Ell8lish Ilmguaae, by reDderiDa Its orthography more simple,
and uniform, and by removiq diJllculties arising from its anomaJi ....
Ie 11 wry deliral>le that one atandard dicllonary should be used by the nu-
merous DdllioDl of people who are to inhabit the vaat extent of territory IJe.
!,on&inJ to the United State.: as the uae ofauch a atandard may prevent &be
formation of dialects In .tatea remote from each other, and impreu upon
the ..... ,....." and ,'abiIit,. It II deairable, aIIo, that the acquili-
tion of the language mould be rendered easy, not only to our own citilellll,
but to foreignen wiah to pin __ to the rich atoreI of acience whicb
it contains. We reJoice that the A.....-ic:aa DicIiGury bids fair to become
ncb a atandard; and we alnceraly bope that the autlior'l eiementary booka
for pr!mary acboola and academiel, will commend themaelve. to the general
_ of our feUowci&ilens."
THE PRACTI8AL FRENCH TEACHER.
By NORIU.N PINNBY, A., It.
The leading peeuliartty In tbia work Ie, that It uercl_ the atudent
througbout In the constant practice of apeatiDr. The preparation of every
II a preparation for speaking the lanfUaae, and every I_n 18 an
actual convenatioD In it. Theae conyenationa, too. are progreuive and
."atematic hi' commenciq wltb tbe limple.t elements of the language. and
ednncilllJ an easy proce ... to the more dilllcuit. The wbole bas been
prepared wi a view to overcome the dilllcuitiea whicb an Allierican lIleets
ID acqulriq a knowledge of that eo necenary part of a linlIbed education.
KEY TO PINNEY'S PRACTICAL FRENCH TEACHER.
TBB I'Dl8T BOO][ Dr FBmfOK; or, A I'rIIcticaJ Introduction to the
Readiq, Writing, and 8pea1dq of the Frencb Laquage. By No ....
I'lIn y, A.III.
PICTORIAL HISTORY OF THE U. 1!7 S. G. GooDBlOB'
PICTORIAL HISTORY OF FRANCE. by S. b. GOODBIOH.
PICTORIAL HISTORY OF by S. G. GooDBlCB.
HISTORY OF ROME. by I). G. GooDJUCB.
PICTORIAL HISTORY OF GREECE, by S. G. GooDBlCB.
The above aeriel of biltorfea, formerly published by lIIesan. 80rin a. Ball.
m Philadelphia, 18 very introduced into both priyue and publio
ENGINEER'8 '" MECHANIC;8 COMPANIONI
IIeDmration of Super8cee aDd 8oIlde; tablet! of Sq __
CiIbeI; Square aDd Cube RoOts; Cit'cua\fereIIc aDd Areas of Circlaa;
the Meclwdcal Powen; of Steam aDd Steam EJisine8 ;
Ullited 8tate8 Weights aDd Meuuree, 6:0.
BY 1. M. SCRIBNER, A. J(.
1 YO!. 181M., 140 pep-. Morocco, lilt. with tucb.
ThIa work Ia 1UghlJ' recommended aeveral ciYll eqiDeen
_ maohiDIaIa; IIIld, u JIaDual fOr m8chaDia. ia a work 01
Ire&t value. Be8ides the purallOpice already enumerated, it _taIDa
vu& aDIOUII& of valuable mauer, in relation 10 Cen&re& of Gran&y; Gravi&a-
tion of BocIi"!] PeDduluma; Specifio WIQllt.
_ Cruah of lIlateriala; Water"'WheeJa , H ce; HydrauJil!!j S&atiCa ;
Cen&rea of PercUlllon aDd Gyration; F ' ; Hea&; '1'1iblea of weialda ot
JIe&alI; Pipes, 8cudIiDp; 6:c. 6:c. '
THE ENGINEER,., CONTRACTOR's, AND SURVEYOR'S
POCKET TABLE-BOOK.
BY 1. M. SCRIBNER, A. M.
1M ,..., MIno. Tuck hindbIs, with gUt edp.
The aiJoTe work comJlrlaea LorIarithma of NlUIIben, Loprithm1c sin8a
_ Tangents, Natural SiDes aDd N"aturai TaDgents ; &he Travene Table,_
. a fUll ana extensive Nt of t&blea, exhibiting at one view the number 01 Cu
bic Yards conta,ined in lIIlyemblUlkment or cuttiDg,lIIld for lilly bue or elope
of IIidea uaual in praclice. Beaidea these eaential tables, the work comprlaea
10 more of Mensuration, Tables, Wi!' ts of Iron, Strength of M_
rialI, Formulu, etc., for.. out RailroIIda, C ..... and
eurv .. ; mllch 01 wbleb baa never before otrered to the public. aDd aD
indlapensabTe to the engineer. Thia book will pro" a great aaviDg of &!me.
aDd will enable the new beginner to fUmiah reiults .. iecurate1y (aDd wiIJI
much greater rapidity) u tile moat experienced in the profeaaion, without tla
aid. The tables of logarithms, eto., _ve been caref\illy corrected aDd co ...
parII!l with cWrerent eilitiona of the l&1li8 tables; aDd all the tables thr0ugh-
out the book have been reed carefully by proofs four times ; hence the IDOIt
implicit con6denee may be placed in theii correctneu.
KAME'8 ELEMENT80F ORITICI8M.
I voJ. Svo.
The OD1yedftton which received the latelt rerilion of the Aather,
PRE8TON'8 BOOK-KEEPING,
DOVBL .urn ImeL RTRY.
PRE8TON'8 INTERE8T TABLE8,
per cenL-Larp aDd AlIridpd. 7 per cenL-Larp and Ahridpd.